Off campus Executive Development Programme for iGATE Executives on principles of Economic Geological, Mining, Mineral Process

Technology and allied aspects, held from 17-21, December, 2013 at Pune by Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad.
Lecture by Prof A S Venkatesh; Dated: 17th December, 2013; From 04.00 to 05.30 PM

Confidential
For private circulation amongst course faculty only

Introduction to Ore Mineralogy and Mineralogical

Characterization: Implications for beneficiation of ores
Department of Applied Geology, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad.
asvenkatesh@hotmail.com
Introduction:
The outlook for the mining industry is both prosperous, as demand for both base and precious
metals is expected to remain high, and challenging, due to declining ore grades. Mineralogy
and ore texture characterization are increasingly useful attributes which affect the ability of
mining industries to extract base, low grade iron and precious elements from ores
economically.

A thorough understanding of ore mineralogy and texture will play an

important role, from mine development, upstream ore characterization, metallurgical testing
and flow sheet design, to mineral processing and environmental implications. Textural
properties of ores typically feature microscopic, sometimes nanoscopic (invisible), attributes
especially the locked particles of Cu, Pb, Zn, Au, Ag etc; hence ore characterization holds
imporatn aspect in metallurgical testing and mineral processing plants. A correctly planned
and implemented testwork and ore characterization program results in a well defined ore
body and mine plan, and hence a well designed concentrator.
Role of Geological operations in mining industry and mineral processing plants:
Role of geologist in mineral industry is outlined as below:
A) Exploration and Mine Development
Geological field mapping
Drill core logging
Mineralogical characterization and amenability of ores for beneficiation
Exploration project management
Technical writing
Report preparation
Petrographic and mineralogical characterization of ores and altered host rocks are essential
complements to geological mapping, drill log, and assay data. They address a variety of

Off campus Executive Development Programme for iGATE Executives on principles of Economic Geological, Mining, Mineral Process
Technology and allied aspects, held from 17-21, December, 2013 at Pune by Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad.
Lecture by Prof A S Venkatesh; Dated: 17th December, 2013; From 04.00 to 05.30 PM

factors key to the success of exploration and mining projects, or to a mineral processing
flowsheet as given below.
ication of lithological units and alteration for use in geological mapping programs.

ication of ore minerals and abundances, and potential by-product phases.

Ore microscopy
Ore microscopy is an essential tool for ore characterization. It has been widely used in its
various modalities (transmitted and reflected light, Scanning Electron Microscopy, Electron
Probe Micro Analyzer etc.) for mineral identification and quantification, in identification of
mineral texture and liberation analysis. In certain conditions, ore microscopy is the single
approach to access this kind of information. In the mining industry, it is extensively used to
provide parameters to the geometallurgy procedures for exploration, production planning, and
processing plant design and optimization purposes. Transmitted and reflected light
microscopy, respectively for transparent and opaque minerals, is probably the most
traditional techniques of mineralogical identification (Figures 1 & 2). Research and
development of microscopy in Applied Mineralogy field were focused on SEM besides using
normal optical microscopy. They can identify minerals using back scatter enhanced image
and energy dispersive signals, and perform quantification routines through integrated image
analysis software. Their capabilities may include particle-by-particle analysis, mineral phase
classification and quantification, and mineral liberation analysis. Therefore, they became
dominant for ore characterization, both in academy and industry, due to their enormous
analytical capacity and relative simplicity of use.

Off campus Executive Development Programme for iGATE Executives on principles of Economic Geological, Mining, Mineral Process
Technology and allied aspects, held from 17-21, December, 2013 at Pune by Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad.
Lecture by Prof A S Venkatesh; Dated: 17th December, 2013; From 04.00 to 05.30 PM

Fig.
1
Microscope
capture

a)
Reflected
with
image Fig. 1 b) Images of an iron ore sample viewed on (a)
reflected light microscope and (b) SEM.

Figure 2 a & b. Images of a copper ore sample acquired on (a) reflected light microscope and (b) SEM.

Identification of ore minerals in the field and in the laboratory

A. Mineral Properties in Hand Specimens
This recognition is based on seven easily examined properties plus a few unique properties
such as magnetism or radioactivity that is strong clues to a mineral's identity. The important
properties are:
1. Crystal form and habit (shape).
2. Luster and transparency
3. Color and streak.
4. Cleavage, fracture, and parting.
5. Tenacity

Off campus Executive Development Programme for iGATE Executives on principles of Economic Geological, Mining, Mineral Process
Technology and allied aspects, held from 17-21, December, 2013 at Pune by Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad.
Lecture by Prof A S Venkatesh; Dated: 17th December, 2013; From 04.00 to 05.30 PM

6. Density/Specific gravity
7. Hardness
B. Identification of ore minerals through ore microscope (Reflected light microscope)
i.

Under Plain Polarized Light:

a. Colour; b, Reflectivity; c. Bi-reflection pleochroism

ii.

Under Crossed Nicols:

a. Anisotropism/Isotropism; b. Polarization Colours; c. Internal Reflections

Mineralogical Characterization and amenability of ores for beneficiation:

Characteristics of some important ore types are given below:
Copper Ores: Copper ores sample exhibit complex mineralogy mainly composed of several
minerals, (quartz, three different silicates, apatite, magnetite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite,
covelline, bornite, sphalerite, chalcocite, native copper etc). Commonly copper ores are low
grades (1% Cu) in wide variety of deposits. As a result, plant operators are increasingly
challenged to understand which minerals actually contribute to grade, as each mineral is
likely to behave differently to comminution, flotation or leaching. Elemental deportment also
entails the comprehensive understanding of minerals that do not contribute to grade, as well
as penalty elements that can cause environmental concerns with tailings storage (e.g. As),
affect the efficiency of processing (e.g. hydrophobic gangue minerals such as talc), or affect
the value of the final concentrate (e.g. bismuth in a copper sulphide concentrate, or chrome in
a Platinum Group Mineal concentrate).
Iron Ores: The mineralogical assemblage of the iron ore sample was simple. It was mainly
composed by hematite, magnetite, goethite and quartz. The ore grades vary from ~62- 45%
in many cases and the iron ores depending on the deleterious elements present within them
are classified in to low grade and high grade ores with variable contents of Si, Al and P
among some elements which have to be treated before making the ore available to steel
making and allied industries.
Complex Pb-Zn-Cu ores: The ores commonly occur together with a variety of gangue
constituents and are usually exhibit locked texture. Hence sometimes creates problems in the
beneficiation, so a proper characterization would yield better results in the processing and
beneficiation of these types of ores.
Gold/Silver Ores: Gold usually occur in association with sulfide minerals as a free milling
constituent and also occur within lattices of sulfide minerals as a refractory constituent which

Off campus Executive Development Programme for iGATE Executives on principles of Economic Geological, Mining, Mineral Process
Technology and allied aspects, held from 17-21, December, 2013 at Pune by Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad.
Lecture by Prof A S Venkatesh; Dated: 17th December, 2013; From 04.00 to 05.30 PM

is to be characterized thoroughly before beneficiating the ore. A normal route of a gold flow
sheet showing the importance of beneficiation is depicted in Figure 3. Silver is usually an
associating component of gold as well as with Pb-Zn ores and behaves refractory in the
process operations.

Concluding Remarks:
Geologists play vital role in prospecting/exploring deposit, estimating the economic
feasibility, controls of ore deposition which in turn help plan mine development,
mineralogical characterization with a view to amenability of beneficiation of ores to
environmental planning covering the entire mine cycle operations. Mineralogical
characterization is an important tool in both upstream and downstream mining and processing
operations as ore minerals are highly non uniform in nature and are loaded with important ore
constituents along with several deleterious constituents which have to be removed during
processing.
Key References:
1. Banik, R., Suresh, N., Venkatesh, A S and Mandre, N R (1994). Selective flocculation
of low grade sulphides of Rangpo-Sikkim using cellulose xanthite. Abs. International
symp. on Mineral Beneficiation-Recent trends and beyond 2000 AD, Oct 3-4 held at
IBM, Nagpur.
2. Conference volume/Book edited by Varma A K, Venkatesh A S, Dhar Y R and
Saxena V K (2006), Frontier Areas in Geological and Technological aspects of
Fossil Fuel and Mineral Resources published by M/S Allied Publishers, New Delhi,
p. 344.
3. Craig, J.R and Vaughan, D.J., 1981. Ore Microscopy and Ore petrography. John Wiley
&sons.

Off campus Executive Development Programme for iGATE Executives on principles of Economic Geological, Mining, Mineral Process
Technology and allied aspects, held from 17-21, December, 2013 at Pune by Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad.
Lecture by Prof A S Venkatesh; Dated: 17th December, 2013; From 04.00 to 05.30 PM

4. Hagni, R.D. 1978. Ore Microscopy Applied to Beneficiation. Min. Engg. 30, 1137-1147.
5. Rai, K L., Venkatesh, A S and Jain, V K (1988). Ore microscopy and mineral
paragenetic sequence of copper ores in Malanjkhand deposit, Balaghat District, M.P.
Abs. In the Nat. Sem. On the Development of ore petrology and its impact on
resource evaluation and mineral economics held at Andhra University,
Visakhapatnam.
6. Roy, S., Das A. and Venkatesh. A. S., (2008) A comparative mineralogical and
geochemical characterisation of iron ores from two Indian Precambrian deposits and
Krivoy rog deposit, Ukraine: implications for the upgrading of lean grade ore.
Applied Earth Science : IMM Transactions section B, 117, 3, 125-147(23).
7. Roy Subrata, Das Avimanyu and Venkatesh A. S. (2007). Characterization of Iron
Ore from Jilling area of eastern India with a view to beneficiation. Iron Ore 2007,
Australia,Trans Aus IMM, pp.179-186.
8. Saha, I and Venkatesh, A. S. (2002) Invisible Gold within sulfides from Archean
Hutti- Muski schist belt, Southern India. J. Asian Earth Sci., v.20, pp 449-457
(Featured as Elseviers most downloaded papers for the journal with very high
citations).
9. Suresh, N, Tripathi, D and Venkatesh, A.S. (2001) Characterisation and beneficiation
of Boula-Nusali chromites. International conf. On challenges on coal and mineral
beneficiation held at ISM. Dec.7-8- 2001, pp.23-28. Tata McGraw-Hill Publ.
Company Ltd.
10. Upadhyay, R.K., Roy S., Venkatesh A. S., Rao M.V.S. and Banerjee, P. K. (2009).
Relevance of geological aspects and ore mineralogy for selecting beneficiation
methods for processing of eastern Indian iron ores. Journal of Mineral Processing and
Extractive Metallurgy (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. C), vol. 118, no. 1, pp. 49-59.

The material has been compiled from the authors works and from various sources and due
acknowledgements to all the concerned.