Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Abstract
This
article
continues
to
develop
the
charged-photon
model
of
the
electron.
In
particular,
the
relativistic
de
Broglie
wavelength
of
a
moving
electron
is
derived
from
the
model.
De
Broglies
own
derivation
is
also
summarized
and
compared
with
the
present
derivation.
The
quantum
wave
function
of
a
free
electron
is
derived
from
the
plane
wave
function
of
a
circulating
charged
photon.
The
article
suggests
that
quantum
mechanics
may
be
reinterpreted
based
on
considering
the
quantum
wave
functions
of
an
atom
as
being
descriptions
of
charged
photons
in
the
atom.
Introduction
The
charged-photon
model
of
the
electron
is
described
in
Gauthier
(2014).
The
model
was
introduced
because
a
proposed
circulating
charged
photon
that
models
a
relativistic
moving
electron,
has
several
features
of
this
electron,
related
to
the
electrons
energy,
momentum
and
spin.
This
is
based
on
the
relativistic
energy-
momentum
equation
E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4
for
an
electron.
The
charged
photon
model
for
the
electron
does
not
include
a
specific
model
for
the
charged
photon
that
models
the
electron.
The
model
assumes
that
the
charged
photon
obeys
the
relationship
c = !"
for
its
wavelength,
frequency
and
light
speed,
has
the
usual
energy
and
momentum
relations
E = h!
and
p = h / !
based
on
the
photons
frequency
!
and
wavelength
! ,
and
has
a
helical
trajectory
and
a
longitudinal
velocity
corresponding
to
the
velocity
of
the
electron.
The
photons
helical
radius
for
a
resting
electron
is
the
amplitude
R = ! / 2mc
from
the
solution
to
the
Dirac
equation
for
the
electron.
The
charged
photon
model
also
includes
a
double-looping
of
the
helically-moving
photon
around
its
helical
axis
corresponding
to
the
zitterbewegung
frequency
of
the
electron,
also
found
from
the
Dirac
equation.
The
charged
photon
model
predicts
the
de
Broglie
wavelength
of
the
electron
The
charged
photon
model
of
the
electron
as
first
proposed
in
Gauthier
(2014)
did
not
contain
a
derivation
for
the
de
Broglie
wavelength
of
a
moving
electron
!deBroglie = h / " mv ,
because
I
did
not
then
have
such
a
derivation.
Later
I
explored
the
idea
that
the
wave
number
k
of
the
circulating
charged
photon
might
!
be
a
key
to
such
a
derivation,
since
it
is
associated
with
the
photons
wave
vector
k
that
has
a
component
in
the
longitudinal
direction
of
motion
of
the
circulating
charged
photon.
This
is
the
direction
of
motion
of
the
electron
that
is
being
modeled
by
the
circulating
charged
photon.
The
idea
worked
and
in
a
few
short
steps
I
derived
the
de
Broglie
wavelength
for
a
relativistic
moving
electron
from
the
charged
photon
model
of
the
electron.
This
derivation
of
the
de
Broglie
wavelength
goes
as
follows.
Please
refer
to
Gauthier
(2014)
for
more
information
about
the
model
that
will
be
helpful
in
following
this
derivation.
In
the
circulating
charged
photon
model
of
the
electron,
the
photon
and
the
electron
have
energy
E = ! mc 2 .
This
equals
E = h!
for
the
charged
photon.
By
equating
these
two
energy
terms,
the
frequency
of
the
charged
photon
is
then
found
to
be
! = " mc 2 / h .
There
is
a
charged
photon
wavelength
!
corresponding
to
this
charged
photon
frequency
! .
This
wavelength
is
! = c / " = c / (# mc 2 / h) = h / # mc .
The
charged
photon
has
a
wavenumber
!
ktotal = 2! / " ,
which
corresponds
to
a
wave
vector
ktotal pointing
along
the
charged
photons
helical
trajectory.
For
the
circulating
charged
photon,
ktotal = 2! / " = 2! / (h / # mc) = 2!# mc / h .
Like
the
charged
photons
total
circulating
!
!
!
momentum
ptotal = hktotal ,
ktotal
makes
an
angle
!
with
the
longitudinal
direction
of
the
circulating
charged
photon,
where
cos(! ) = v / c ,
and
v
is
the
velocity
of
the
electron
along
the
helical
axis,
as
well
as
the
longitudinal
velocity
of
the
circulating
charged
photon
that
is
modeling
the
moving
electron.
The
charged
photons
wave
!
vector
ktotal
has
a
longitudinal
component
k = ktotal cos(! ) = (2"# mc / h)(v / c) = 2"# mv / h .
The
wavenumber
component
k
has
a
longitudinal
wavelength
!longitudinal = 2" / k = 2" / (2"# mv / h) = h / # mv = !deBroglie .
!
Summarizing
this
result,
the
longitudinal
component
of
the
wave
vector
ktotal
of
the
helically
circulating
charged
photon
that
is
a
model
for
the
moving
electron,
yields
the
relativistic
de
Broglie
wavelength
of
the
moving
electron
!deBroglie = h / " mv .
The
de
Broglie
wavelength
was
not
explicitly
designed
into
the
charged
photon
model
of
the
electron,
which
as
previously
mentioned
is
based
on
the
relativistic
energy-momentum
formula
E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 for
the
electron
and
the
light-speed
helical
path
of
the
charged
photon
described
in
Gauthier
(2014).
So
it
is
fair
to
say
that
the
electrons
de
Broglie
wavelength
is
predicted
by
the
charged
photon
model.
Of
course
this
was
a
welcome
result,
and
increased
my
confidence
that
modeling
the
electron
as
a
charged
photon
was
on
the
right
track.
Derivation
of
the
quantum
wave
function
for
a
free
electron
There
is
another,
more
formal
way
to
show
how
the
charged
photon
model
of
the
electron
generates
the
de
Broglie
wavelength
as
well
as
its
phase
velocity
v phase = c 2 / v
along
the
direction
that
the
electron
is
moving,
and
to
show
why
the
Figure
1.
De
Broglie
wavelength
generated
from
charged
photon
model
of
electron
(computer
graphic
thanks
to
Chip
Akins)
Comparison
of
the
charged-photon
derivation
to
de
Broglies
derivation
How
does
the
derivation
of
the
electrons
de
Broglie
wavelength
from
the
charged
photon
model
of
the
electron
differ
from
de
Broglies
own
derivation?
In
his
derivation
(de
Broglie,
1924)
the
resting
electrons
energy
is
associated
with
an
internal
frequency
given
by
h! o = mc 2 .
A
larger
frequency
!
given
by
h! = " mc 2
is
associated
with
the
increased
energy
and
velocity
of
a
moving
electron.
So
far
the
two
approaches
are
the
same.
But
de
Broglie
didnt
associate
the
larger
frequency !
of
his
moving
electron
with
a
circulating
photon
having
a
photon
wavelength
! = c / " .
This
is
the
crucial
difference.
Rather,
as
described
in
Cropper
(1970),
de
Broglie
started
by
trying
to
reconcile
the
apparent
contradiction
between
the
moving
electrons
increasing
internal
frequency
! = " mc 2 / h
due
to
its
increasing
energy
and
velocity,
with
a
relativistic
time-dilation
argument
that
predicts
a
decreasing
clock-like
internal
frequency
!1 = mc 2 / " h
of
the
moving
electron
with
its
increasing
velocity.
He
assigned
the
increasing
internal
electron
frequency
!
of
the
moving
electron
to
a
traveling
phase
wave
accompanying
the
electron
through
space
and
in
time,
such
that
this
phase
wave
is
always
in
phase
with
the
decreased
internal
frequency
!1
of
the
moving
electrons
internal
process
due
to
relativistic
time
dilation.
The
phase
!
of
the
traveling
phase
wave
is
given
by
! = " (t # x / u)
where
u
is
the
phase
velocity
of
the
traveling
phase
wave.
The
phase
! '
of
the
internal
time-dilated
frequency
!1
of
the
electron
is
given
by
! ' = 2"#1t .
Equating
these
two
phases
!
and
! '
gives
! =!'
2"# (t $ x / u) = 2"#1t
(2" )(% mc 2 / h)(t $ x / u) = 2" (mc 2 / % h)t
% (t $ x / u) = t / %
t $ x / u = t /% 2
t $ x / u = t(1$ v 2 / c 2 )
t $ x / u = t $ tv 2 / c 2
$x / u = $tv 2 / c 2
u = (x / t)(c 2 / v 2 )
=v(c 2 / v 2 )
=c 2 / v
where
v
is
the
constant
velocity
of
the
electron
which
is
moving
linearly
through
space,
and
can
be
considered
to
have
started
at
x = 0
and
at
time t = 0
.
The
above
particle,
having
internal
frequency
!
as
it
moves
along
with
its
phase
velocity
u ,
would
therefore
have
an
associated
wavelength
!
given
by
the
standard
wave
formula:
speed
=
wavelength
!
frequency.
So
u = !"
! = u /"
= (c 2 / v) / (# mc 2 / h)
= h / # mv = !deBroglie
The
phase
velocity
u
for
a
phase
wave
of
angular
frequency
! = 2"#
and
wave
number
k = 2! / "deBroglie
is
u = ! / k = c 2 / v
and
is
always
greater
than
c
(since
the
electrons
speed
v
is
always
less
than
c).
But
de
Broglie
then
showed
that
the
physically
meaningful
velocity
for
an
electron,
considered
in
analogy
with
a
pulse
of
light
as
being
composed
of
a
group
of
waves
with
different
frequencies
and
wave
numbers,
is
the
group
velocity
of
these
waves.
The
group
velocity
is
the
velocity
of
the
local
wave
reinforcement
regions
formed
due
to
the
superposition
of
many
waves
of
different
frequencies
and
wave
numbers.
This
group
velocity
w
is
calculated
for
a
set
of
moving
waves
as
w = d! / dk .
This
calculation
using
the
electron
formulas
for
!
and
k
as
functions
of
electron
velocity
v
gives
the
result
w = v ,
i.e.
the
group
velocity
of
the
electron
if
it
is
composed
of
a
number
of
waves
of
different
phase
velocities
is
the
velocity
of
the
electron
itself.
De
Broglie
was
aware
that
his
particle-wave
theory
of
the
electron
did
not
provide
detailed
answers
to
the
question,
what
exactly
are
these
particle
waves?
Quoting
de
Broglie,
The
definitions
of
the
phase
wave
and
the
periodic
process
were
purposely
left
somewhat
vagueso
that
the
present
theory
may
be
considered
a
formal
scheme
whose
physical
content
is
not
yet
fully
determined,
rather
than
a
full-fledged
definite
doctrine.
De
Broglies
matter-wave
hypothesis
was
taken
up
by
Schrdinger
(1925)
partly
on
the
recommendation
of
Einstein,
and
formed
the
basis
of
the
Schrdinger
equation
of
quantum
mechanics,
despite
the
lack
of
physical
evidence
for
matter-waves
of
an
electron
at
that
time.
The
experimental
evidence
came
a
few
years
later
with
the
work
of
Davisson
and
Germer
(1928)
and
Thomson
(1928)
where
the
diffraction
patterns
of
electrons
projected
onto
a
nickel
crystal
and
on
a
thin
foil
closely
followed
the
predictions
of
de
Broglies
wavelength
equation.
The
meaning
of
the
matter-waves
that
form
the
solutions
to
the
Schrdinger
equation,
beyond
their
ability
to
correctly
predict
probabilities,
is
still
controversial
to
this
day.
De
Broglie
never
identified
the
electron
with
a
circulating
charged
photon,
nor
as
having
any
internal
energy
structure
or
wavelength
associated
with
its
proposed
internal
frequency
that
is
proportional
to
the
electrons
energy.
He
only
spoke
of
the
electrons
internal
process
or
internal
phenomenon.
Now
that
the
electron
has
been
modeled
as
a
circulating
charged
photon
and
the
de
Broglie
wavelength
for
the
electron
has
been
derived
from
this
circulating
charged
photons
wave
vector
in
a
very
straightforward
way,
it
can
be
proposed
that
de
Broglies
internal
phenomenon
of
the
electron
is
a
circulating
charged
photon,
and
that
his
matter-waves
or
phase
waves
are
produced
by
the
light
waves
of
the
helically
circulating
charged
photon
along
its
helical
axis,
which
is
the
trajectory
of
the
electron
that
is
modeled
by
the
circulating
charged
photon.
Comparing
the
de
Broglie
hypothesis
and
the
charged
photon
hypothesis
for
an
electron
Since
there
are
now
two
hypotheses
that
predict
the
de
Broglie
wavelength
for
an
electron,
it
may
fairly
be
asked,
Which
hypothesis
is
better?,
or
even
Is
a
second
hypothesis
for
predicting
the
de
Broglie
wavelength
even
necessary
since
the
de
Broglie
wavelength
of
moving
particles
is
a
well-established
fact?
The
principle
of
Occams
razor:
If
two
hypotheses
predict
the
same
result,
the
hypothesis
that
makes
the
fewer
assumptions
should
be
accepted
is
relevant
here,
if
used
with
care.
In
this
case
the
two
hypotheses
make
some
different
assumptions.
De
Broglies
hypothesis
assumes
that
an
electron
is
localized
in
space
due
to
the
superposition
of
many
phase
waves
of
different
speeds
and
wavelengths
(in
comparison
with
a
pulse
of
light
composed
of
light
waves
of
different
wavelengths)
that
together
give
the
electron
its
measured
velocity v
as
the
group
velocity
of
the
localized
superimposed
phase
waves,
while
nothing
is
said
about
the
electrons
internal
state
itself
beyond
its
being
a
vibrational
phenomenon.
By
assuming
a
harmony
of
phases
between
two
measures
of
the
phase
changes
of
a
moving
quantum
mechanical
wave
functions
in
general,
and
specifically
for
wave
functions
that
are
solutions
to
the
Schrdinger
equation
for
bound
or
unbound
electrons.
The
basic
relationships
that
are
built
into
the
Schrdinger
equation
for
non-relativistic
electrons
are
the
electrons
energy
E = !!
and
the
electrons
momentum
p = !k = h / !deBroglie .
The
charged
photon
model
for
the
electron
contains
both
of
these
expressions,
similarly
defined.
In
the
charged-photon
approach
to
quantum
mechanics,
wherever
the
term
electron
occurs
when
using
the
Schrdinger
equation,
the
term
charged
photon
can
be
substituted,
since
the
charged-photon
model
of
the
electron
has
all
the
features
of
the
electron
that
are
needed
to
solve
the
Schrdinger
equation.
For
example,
the
Schrdinger
equation
for
the
hydrogen
atom
has
many
wave-function
solutions,
with
each
wave
function
corresponding
to
an
energy
level
En,l,m,s
for
a
charged
photon
having
quantum
numbers
n ,
l ,
m
and
s .
Each
of
these
wave
functions
describes
a
negatively-charged
photon
that
is
bound
to
the
atom
by
attraction
to
the
positively
charged
atomic
nucleus.
Each
charged
photon
is
described
by
its
wave
function,
which
is
defined
quantitatively
within
particular
regions
of
the
hydrogen
atom.
The
charged-photon
approach
to
the
electron
in
quantum
mechanics
is
not
only
for
the
hydrogen
atom
but
for
all
atoms,
molecules
and
chemical
structures.
For
multiple-charged-photon
atoms,
the
composite
wave
functions
are
more
abstract
and
of
higher
dimensionality,
but
still
are
used
to
find
the
probabilities
for
different
physical
measurements
of
these
charged
photons.
Each
electron
in
any
atom
is
a
charged
photon
whose
wave
function
at
any
time
occupies
a
particular
region
of
the
atom
or
chemical
structure,
defined
by
the
quantum
numbers
of
that
particular
charged.
The
charged-photons
wave
functions
evolve
in
time
as
described
by
the
time-dependent
Schrdinger
equation,
or
are
steady
state
wave
functions
of
the
charged
photon
in
the
time-independent
Schrdinger
equation.
The
charged-photon
wave
functions
are
used
with
the
standard
quantum
mechanical
method
of
calculating ! "!
for
the
appropriate
wave
functions
and
treating
this
as
a
probability
density
function
for
predicting
the
statistical
description
of
experimental
results.
Consider
how
an
atom
emits
an
uncharged
photon
quantum
mechanically.
In
an
atom,
a
charged
photon
having
a
higher
energy
configuration
with
energy
E1
reconfigures
itself
into
a
lower
energy
configuration
with
energy
E2 ,
and
in
this
process
emits
an
uncharged
photon
of
energy
E = h! = E1 " E2 .
When
an
atom
absorbs
an
uncharged
photon,
this
process
happens
in
reverse.
This
process
is
described
by
quantum
mechanics
for
the
atom,
but
now
the
atom
is
conceptualized
as
containing
charged
photons
rather
than
electrons.
All
of
the
photon
emission
and
absorption
interactions
are
between
two
varieties
of
photon
--
charged
and
uncharged.
The
charged-photon
quantum
mechanics
approach
applies
not
only
to
the
non-relativistic
Schrdinger
equation
but
to
the
relativistic
Dirac
equation
as
well.
Whenever
the
term
electron
is
mentioned
in
association
with
the
Dirac
equation,
the
words
charged
photon
may
be
substituted.
The
charged-photon
model
for
a
free
electron
is
a
spatial
model
of
the
electron
based
on
the
Dirac
equations
solutions
for
an
electron,
and
so
the
model
satisfies
quantitatively
or
qualitatively
many
of
the
features
of
the
Dirac
equations
electron,
such
as:
a) unobservable
speed-of-light
electron
velocity,
b) observable
sub-luminal
electron
velocities,
c) a
very
small
vibrational
amplitude
! / 2mc
at
small
electron
velocities
d) zitterbewegung
(jittery
motion)
frequency
related
to
the
Dirac
electrons
mathematical
rotational
periodicity
of
4! ,
e) a
spin
associated
with
the
electrons
vibrational
amplitude,
including
spin
up
and
spin
down,
f) a
magnetic
moment
associated
with
the
electrons
charge,
speed
and
vibrational
amplitude,
g) describing
the
positron
as
a
positively-charged
circulating
photon
The
charged-photon
modeling
the
electron
does
not
currently
provide
an
explanation
of
what
is
happening
during
the
collapse
of
a
wave
function
during
an
experiment
to
measure
a
particular
observable
property
of
an
electron
like
its
position
or
momentum.
The
charged-photon
model
only
predicts
that
the
same
explanation
would
apply
to
the
collapse
of
a
charged
photons
wave
function
as
to
the
collapse
of
an
uncharged
photons
wave
function.
The
proposed
charged-photon
interpretation
of
quantum
mechanics
is
not
necessarily
opposed
to
any
other
interpretation
of
quantum
mechanics,
such
as
the
Copenhagen
interpretation,
the
pilot-wave
interpretation,
the
many-worlds
interpretation,
the
sum-of-histories
interpretation
or
the
decoherence
interpretation.
The
relationship
of
the
charged-
photon
interpretation
to
these
and
other
interpretations
needs
closer
examination.
The
emphasis
of
the
charged-photon
model,
and
the
direction
to
which
this
approach
is
pointing,
is
that
matter
may
be
more
fundamentally
describable
as
systems
of
circulating
photons
or
other
light-speed
particles
such
as
gluons
that
circulate
in
such
a
way
as
to
form
localized
energy
concentrations
with
corresponding
frequencies.
These
localized
energy
concentrations
have
inertial
mass
based
on
E = ! mc 2 = h" ,
and
are
called
matter.
The
fundamental
quantum
natures
of
photons
and
electric
charge
are
not
explained
in
the
charged-photon
model.
This
will
require
a
deeper
understanding
of
the
quantum
nature
of
the
photon
and
electric
charge
than
is
currently
available.
In
the
meantime,
in
the
quantum
mechanics
of
electrons,
the
expression
matter-waves
can
be
reasonably
replaced
by
charged-photon
waves
of
various
frequencies
and
configurations
described
by
quantum
wave
functions.
The
charged-photon
approach
may
lead
to
a
somewhat
more
fundamental
and
unified
description
of
the
quantum
world
than
is
provided
by
the
current
standard
model
of
physics
and
the
dominant
interpretation
of
quantum
mechanics,
the
Background
information
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter_wave#de_Broglie_relations
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveparticle_duality
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schrdinger_equation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_equation
Copyright
2015
by
Richard
Gauthier
Santa
Rosa,
California
richgauthier@gmail.com
https://santarosa.academia.edu/RichardGauthier
Last
updated
January
1,
2015