Power Cycles

Most power-producing devices operate

continuously, and therefore utilize cycles.
For example, our lives operate on a daily cycle:
eating, working, resting, repeat.
Being engineers, if we wanted to quantify a
person's work output per energy input, we
would approximate (idealize) each step in the
cycle.
We may approximate the rate of work output
as the total daily work done per time, and the
rate of energy input as all our meals per time.
Now we can begin to model an average
person's efficiency, recognizing that the actual
performance will differ. The ideal cycle serves
as a benchmark from which we can compare
the performance of any real device.
The purpose is to keep our model as simple as
possible, but not too simple so as to lose the
utility of the model.

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Ideal Power Cycles

Common assumptions in ideal power cycles

are (1) no friction, (2) quasi-equilibrium
compression/expansion, (3) no heat loss
between each step in the cycle. (Heat loss
during some steps will obviously occur).
The efficiency of power-producing devices is
=

Recall from Chapter 6 that the most efficient

cycle is the Carnot Cycle
=

W net
desired
=
required Q in

T H T L
T
=1 L
TH
TH

The efficiency is greatest when heat addition

occurs at high temperatures, and heat
rejection occurs at low temperatures.
Although the Carnot cycle is the most efficient,
it is not used in general because of
engineering difficulties in building the engine.
For example, heat addition & rejection occur
isothermally with negligible temperature
differences which is hard to accomplish.
Qcond =k A

02/13/14

dT
dx

Q conv =hA T sT f
ME313

Property Diagrams

It is helpful in the analysis of power cycles to

use T-s and P-v property diagrams, because
the net work for a cycle is represented by the
area within the process curves for both.
W = v dP

Q= T dS

The straight lines for constant value processes

(isothermal, isentropic) are helpful reminders
when analyzing cycles.
The overall efficiency is improved whenever
the area can be increased for a given qin.
A real Carnot engine would look like this

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Some Cycle Analysis Tips

When analyzing a cycle, draw both the P-v and

T-s diagram appropriate for that cycle.
Label the 4 (or more) points between step.
Note what intensive variables you know at
each point. Recall only 2 intensive variables
are required to completely specify the state
(that is why 2-dimensional property diagrams
are useful).
Find what thermodynamic relations are
appropriate for each process step, either 1st or
2nd law relations. For example

Constant volume heat addition

of an ideal gas:
Isentropic compression/expansion of
an ideal gas with constant Cp and Cv:

q=u 2u1 =C v T 2T 1

T2
v
= 1
T1
v2

k 1

For many gas power cycles, the gas behaves

ideally and some thermodynamic properties
like (u, h) are independent of pressure.
However, entropy is still pressure-dependent,
even for an ideal gas.

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Air Standard Assumption

Reciprocating engines are very common in our

everyday life: cars, chain saws, diesel trucks.
The air/fuel mixture going in and the exhaust
leaving at each revolution (or two) complicates
the analysis, so a common air-standard
assumption is used
This assumes (1) working fluid is air, (2)
processes are internally reversible, (3)
combustion is approximated by heat addition,
(4) exhaust is approximated by heat rejection.
One last assumption that can be made is that
heat capacities are constant (no temperature
dependence), and the cold air standard uses
values at 25C.
Using all these assumption greatly simplifies
the analysis, but will only provide approximate
values. It is useful for back-of-the-envelope
type calculations, but modern engine design is
more complicated because these assumptions
cannot be made.

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The Otto cycle is named after Nikolaus Otto

who built a 4-cycle engine in 1876.
The Otto cycle is an idealization of the internal
combustion or spark-ignition engine.

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also see animation at thermofluids.net > Animations > Chapter 7 > SI engine

Otto Cycle

Reciprocating Engines

There is some common terminology used

when describing reciprocating engines.
Top dead center (TDC) and bottom dead
center (BDC).

Stroke is the distance between TDC and BDC.

Bore is the diameter of the cylinder.

Clearance volume is the volume at TDC.

Displacement volume is the volume between

TDC and BDC (=stroke x bore).
Compression ratio is the ratio of the maximum
to minimum volume
Mean effective pressure is a fictitious pressure
that would produce an equivalent amount of
work when operating over the displace volume.

w net
MEP=
v maxv min

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Otto Thermal Efficiency

The thermal efficiency turns out to be a fairly

simple function of the compression ratio.
th =

w net
q
=1 out
q in
q in

Using air standard assumption (i.e. ideal gas),

the heat addition & rejection steps are simply
functions of temperature
q in =u 3 u 2 =c v T 3 T 2
q out =u 4 u 1=c v T 4 T 1

Putting these 1st Law relations into the

definition of efficiency
th =1

T 4 T 1
T 1 T 4 / T 11
=1
T 3 T 2
T 2 T 3 /T 2 1

The rearrangement in the last term allows us

to use a 2nd Law relation for isentropic process
k 1

T 1 v2
=
T 2 v1

v
= 3
v4

k1

T4
T3

The middle terms are equal because the

compression ratio is constant.
th =1

02/13/14

T 1 T 4 /T 1 1
1

=1 k 1
T 2 T 3 / T 2 1
r

compression
ratio

From above (or seen on left),

these ratios are equal (volume
ratios are equal), making the 2nd
term equal to 1.
ME313

Compression Ratio & Efficiency

Obviously the efficiency increases with

increasing compression ratio.
There are other factors that limit how high the
compression ratio can be. Auto-ignition
(knocking) occurs as high compression ratio
when temperatures are equally high.
Lead was added to prevent knocking until its
environmental hazard became apparent.
Higher octane levels also prevent knocking at
higher compression ratio.
The efficiency also decreases with decreasing
k-values, and larger k-values are associated
with larger molecules.

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Example 9-2
Consider a Otto cycle with r=8, and initial
conditions of 100 kPa, 17C, and qin=800 kJ/kg.
Use a variable heat capacity.
3

We know two
intensive values
here.

2
4

v
s
Starting from point 1, we can move around the
cycle using the initial information and
thermodynamic relationships.
Isentropic compression from 12

T2
v
= 1
T1
v2

k 1

Constant heat capacity

v 1r
v1
=
=r=8
v 2r
v2

Variable heat capacity

Recall from
chapter 7

vr

T
T
=
P r exp s / R

Using the variable heat capacity approach

v 1r =676.1 from Table A-17 at 290 K
Therefore v 2r =676.18=84.5 which corresponds with T =652 K

The constant heat capacity relation gives T = 666K

The volume is a 2nd intensive variable (at point 2)
v 1 RT 1 0.287290
3
3
v 2= =
=
=0.104 m /kg v 1=0.832 m /kg
8 8 P1
8100
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10

Example 9-2 (cont)

Now consider step 2-3, the heat addition step due
to combustion of the fuel mixture. This is a
constant volume process, so no boundary work
and the 1st Law for the closed system reduces to
q in =u 3 u 2= c v T 3 T 2

The last equality assumes constant heat capacity.

Using the variable approach, find u2 on table A-17.
u2 =475.11 kJ/kg by interpolation

Therefore, at state 3
u3 =q in u 2 =800475.11=1275.11 kJ/kg

Since u directly corresponds to T for an ideal gas,

use Table A-17 again to get a 2nd intensive variable
T 3 =1575 K

We can get all the properties now. The highest

pressure is, using the ideal gas law
RT 3 RT 3 0.2871575
P3 =
=
=
=4346 kPa
v3
v2
0.104

Continuing to move around the cycle (step 3-4),

the 2nd Law isentropic relation is used once again

v 4r
=8 v 4r =86.108=48.86 T 4 =796 K
v 3r

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11

Example 9-2 (cont)

The net work produced in this cycle is
w net =q in q out =q in u1 u 4

The u values are found on Table A-17 using T

w net =q in qout =800588.74206.91=418.2 kJ/kg

The thermal efficiency is

w net 418.2
th =
=
=0.52=52 %
q in
800

Recall that the cold air standard gives the thermal

efficiency as simply a function of the compression
ratio.
1
1
th =1

k1

=1

0.4

=0.565=56.5 %

It was the variable specific heat that precluded us

from using this more simple relationship to
calculate the efficiency.

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12

Diesel Cycle

The diesel cycle is the idealization for

compression ignition cycles.
The engine was invented by Rudolf Diesel, a
contemporary of Otto's.
Only air is compressed, often to such a high a
degree that is above the auto-ignition temp.
Knocking does not occur without any fuel.
Fuel is then sprayed into the cylinder which is
slowly burned during the first part of the power
stroke.
Only step 2-3 is different between Otto
(v = constant) and diesel (P = constant)

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13

Diesel Thermal Efficiency

The thermal efficiency is slightly different than

that for the Otto cycle. We start the same
w net
q out
th =
=1
q in
q in

The 1st Law for the heat addition step must

account for the boundary work done.
q in W b,out =u 3 u 2

For cold air standard conditions (P2=const.=P3)

q in=P2 v 3 v 2 u3u2 =h3 h2=c p T 3 T 2

Putting this into the efficiency definition

q out
c v T 4 T 1
T 1 T 4 /T 1 1
th=1
=1
=1
q in
c p T 3 T 2
k T 2 T 3 /T 2 1

An additional definition often used when

discussing diesel efficiency is the cutoff ratio
v3
rc=
v2

Using the same isentropic relations from earlier

T 1 v2
=
T 2 v1

k 1

Compression
ratio

r k1

T 4 v3
=
T 3 v4

k1

Assumes constant
heat capacity

More algebraic manipulation leads to

th =1

02/13/14

1
r

k1

r kc 1
k r c 1

ME313

[ ]
v3
v4

k1

v2
v1

k1

T 3 /T 21

and

Pv2 Pv 3
=
T2
T3

14

Diesel Thermal Efficiency

It can be shown that because k>1, the term in

square brackets is always greater than 1.
This means that the Otto cycle has a greater
efficiency than Diesel for the same value of r.
Because Diesel engines can operate at higher
compression, they are typically more efficient.
Cut-off ratios are small relative to compression
ratios, around 2.
The analysis of a Diesel cycle is performed
similar to the Otto cycle. The cut-off ratio may
be specified instead of qin, for example.

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15

Dual Cycle
The Otto and Diesel cycles are extreme
examples of compression ignition. A dual cycle
represents the transition between the two.

In dual cycle, there is both a constant pressure

and constant volume step, the extents of which
are defined by pressure and cut-off ratios.

The dual cycle is analogous to how a

polytropic process is the transition between
isentropic and isothermal.

4
3

s
q out =c v T 5 T 1

q in =c v T 3 T 2 c p T 4 T 3

Heat in

Heat out

=1

q out
c v T 5T 1
=1
q in
c v T 3 T 2c p T 4 T 3

Define rp=P3/P2, and a more algebraic manipulation

=1
02/13/14

1
r k 1

r p r kc 1
k r p r c1r p 1
ME313

16

EES Dual Cycle Example

Problem 9.64E An ideal dual cycle has a compression ratio of 15 and a cutoff ratio of 1.4. The
pressure ratio during constant volume heat addition process is 1.1. The state of the air at the
beginning of the compression is P1 =14.2 psia and T1 =75F. Calculate the cycles net
specific work, specific heat addition, and thermal efficiency. Use constant specific heats
at room temperature.
"given"
v[1]/v[2]=15;
P[1]=14.2;
T[1]=75;
"1-2"
s[2]=s[1];
s[1]=entropy(air,T=T[1],P=P[1]);
v[1]=volume(air,T=T[1],P=P[1]);
"solve"
"remaining state 2 variables"
T[2]=temperature(air,v=v[2],s=s[2]);
P[2]=pressure(air,T=T[2],v=v[2]);
"solve"
"2 -3"
P[3]/P[2]=1.1; "given"
v[3]=v[2]; "constant volume"
"solve"
"get remaining state 3 variable"
s[3]=entropy(air,P=P[3],v=v[3]);
T[3]=temperature(air,P=P[3],v=v[3]);
"solve"
"3 - 4"
v[4]/v[3]=1.4; "given"
P[4]=P[3]; "constant pressure"
"solve"
"get remaining state 4 variables"
s[4]=entropy(air,P=P[4],v=v[4]);
T[4]=temperature(air,P=P[4],v=v[4]);
"solve"
"4 - 5"
s[5]=s[4]; "constant entropy"
v[5]=v[1]; "constant volume"
"solve"
"get remaining state 5 variables"
P[5]=pressure(air,s=s[5],v=v[5]);
T[5]=temperature(air,s=s[5],v=v[5]);
"solve"
02/13/14

W 12=C V (T 2 T 1 )

Q 23 =C V (T 3 T 2 )
Q 34 W 34 =C V (T 4 T 3 )

combined
with this

W 34 =P 3 (v 4 v 3 )

or this

Q 34 =C P (T 4 T 3 )

W 45=C V (T 5T 4 )
All W's and Q's are positive as
written in the equations above
"to create plots with connected lines"
T[6]=T[1];s[6]=s[1];P[6]=P[1];v[6]=v[1];
"1st Laws - use average k"
W_12=intEnergy(air,T=T[2])-intEnergy(air,T=T[1]);
Q_23=intEnergy(air,T=T[3])-intEnergy(air,T=T[2]);
Q_34=enthalpy(air,T=T[4])-enthalpy(air,T=T[3]);
W_34=P[3]*(v[4]-v[3])*convert(psi*ft^3,Btu);
-W_45=intEnergy(air,T=T[5])-intEnergy(air,T=T[4]);
"efficiency"
eff=W_net/Q_net;
W_net=W_34+W_45-W_12;
Q_net=Q_23+Q_34;

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17

Sterling and Ericsson Cycles

Although the ideal Otto and Diesel cycles are

internally reversible, they are externally
irreversible because the non-isothermal heat
transfer steps require finite temperature
differences. (exergy is destroyed)
The ideal Sterling and Ericsson cycles are
externally reversible by creating isothermal
heat transfer steps using a regenerator.
Carnot

02/13/14

Stirling

ME313

Ericsson

18

Regenerator
A Sterling regenerator may be a porous plug
with high thermal mass (mcp) that temporarily
stores energy that is transferred between the
cold and hot steps.

An Ericsson regenerator (P=const) is a counter

flow heat exchanger with little pressure drop.

A perfect heat exchanger has negligible dT

between the fluids as any stage, approaching
flow direction
complete reversibility.

TH

regenerator

Ericsson engine

volume increases
(expansion) during
heat addition to keep
T=constant

Tl
Sterling engine

02/13/14

volume decreases
(compression) during
heat removal to keep
T=constant

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19

Sterling & Ericsson Efficiency

The isothermal heat transfer steps mean the

efficiency of both can approach the Carnot.
=1

q out
TL
=1
q in
TH

Real Ericsson engines must deal with a finite

pressure drop and temperature difference in
the heat exchanger.
Real Sterling engines must deal with nonisothermal regenerators.
Although not widely used, these external
combustion engines have several attributes,
notably that the energy source can come from
a variety of sources (solar, waste heat).

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20

Stirling Example
A Stirling cycle operates between 600 and 10 psia. The volume ratio
is 10 and minimum temperature is 100F. How much work is
produced. Use air standard assumptions.
Given:

v3 v 2
= =10
v 4 v1

P1 =600 psia
P3 =10 psia

qin

T 3 =T 4 =100 F=560 R
The work produced is determined by
the 1st Law
q in q out=w net

P
4

qout

wout

win

2
3

v
The heat addition and rejection steps
1
2
are neither constant pressure nor
constant volume and cannot be
determined by simple Cv & Cp relations.
Recall the isothermal work relation from
T
Chapter 4 for an ideal gas
q
v2
q in =w 1-2 =R T 1 ln
P dV
4
3
v1
We can get qout now
s
v4
1
q out =w 3-4 =R T 3 ln =0.06855560 R ln =88.4 Btu/lbm
v3
10
We still need T1. Two ideal gas relations get us there (3 4 1)
v3
P 4 =P3 =10 psia 10=100 psia
Constant temperature
v4
P1
600 psia
T 1 =T 4 =560 R
=3360 R
Constant volume
P4
100 psia
q in =0.068553360 ln10=530 Btu/lbm
Finally
02/13/14

w net =53088=442 Btu/lbm

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21

Brayton Cycle

The Brayton cycle is the steady flow counter

part to reciprocating cycles. It can be internally
reversible, but is externally irreversible
because of non-isothermal heat transfer steps.
An open-system burner system brings in fresh
air, compresses it, further heats it in a
combustor, turns the turbine, and spits out.
To calculate the efficiency, we'll model the
cycle as a closed system with a heat
exchanger to remove qout.
Closed system Brayton cycles are sometime
used in hostile environments like nuclear
power plants where the working fluid is
somewhat dangerous.

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22

Brayton Efficiency

The efficiency is calculated similar to before.

=1

q out
c (T T 1 )
T (T /T 1)
=1 p 4
=1 1 4 1
q in
c p (T 3T 2 )
T 2 (T 3 /T 2 1)

A compact form is arrived at by using the

pressure ratio
P2 P 3
r p

P1

k1 /k

P4

The isentropic compressor and turbine

relations are used also.
T 2 P2
=
T 1 P1

k 1 /k

T 3 P3
=
T 4 P4

Assumes constant
heat capacity

Therefore, if k = constant, the temperature

ratios are also equal.
The Brayton efficiency reduces
=1

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r(pk1)/ k

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23

Increasing Efficiency

Higher pressure ratios yield higher efficiency,

and the trade-off is the expense of a very-high
pressure compressor.
Note also that high pressure ratio means a
corresponding higher temperature ratio. T

Typical pressure ratios are rp ~ 10-15.

k1/k

P
= 2
T 1 P1
2

A higher temperature at the combustor outlet

also increase efficiency, and is limited by
material properties of the turbine blades.
There is an ideal pressure ratio that maximizes
the work for a given temperature ratio.
T max
r p=
T min

k /[ 2(k1)]

( )

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24

Example

Find the work produced on a per-mass basis of air, and find the
thermal efficiency of the cycle.
3

qin

2
1

qout

v
P1 = 100 kPa
P2 = 2 MPa

s
T1 = 27C = 300 K
T3 = 727C = 1000 K

The Brayton cycle is a simple HE

w
q
HE
= net =1 out
q in
q in
We can determine q directly assuming air acts as an ideal gas.
q=m C p T
The isentropic compression & expansion steps have
k1 /k

T 2 =T 1

P2
P1

k1 /k

2000 kPa
=300 K
100 kPa

P4
100 kPa
T 4 =T 3
=1000 K
P3
2000 kPa
The heat addition & rejection steps have

0.4 /1.4

=706 K

0.4/ 1.4

=425 K

q in =1.005 kJ/kgK1000706 K=295.5 kJ/kg

q out =1.005 kJ/kgK 425300 K=125.6 kJ/kg

alternatively

=1

r kp 1/ k
The work produced, and the thermal efficiency are
1
w net =q in qout =295.5125.6=170 kJ/kg
=1 0.4/1.4 =0.575
125.6
20
=1
=0.575=57.5 %
295.5
300
02/13/14
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carnot =1
=0.7 25
1000

Brayton Isentropic Efficiency

The ideal Brayton cycle has isentropic

compression & expansion steps. Inefficiencies
in these steps will reduce the net work.

Compression (1-2) increases entropy.

Heat addition (2-3) has a pressure drop.

Turbine expansion (3-4) increases entropy.

Heat rejection (4-1) has a pressure drop.

Compare apples to apples (same P1 & P2).

For ideal gases, h CpT, so T-S diagram is
similar to h-S from Ch. 7 isentropic efficiency.

Less turbine
work out

isobar

More
compressor
work

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26

Example (cont)
Repeat the previous example with 90% efficient compressor.
3

The isentropic temperature is still

2000 kPa
T 2s =300 K
100 kPa

=706 K T
2s

From the isentropic efficiency of a

compressor
=

qin

0.4 /1.4

2a

qout

h2s h1 C p T 2sT 1
=
=0.9 T 2a =751 K
h2a h1 C p T 2a T 1

Because lines 2-3 and 4-1 are isobars, the rest of the cycle is the
same. Remember, the pressure drop remains the same when
comparing the isentropic to actual process.
The new heat addition step is
q in =1.005 kJ/kgK1000751K=250 kJ/kg
q out =1.005 kJ/kgK 425300 K=125.6 kJ/kg
The work produced, and the thermal efficiency are
w net =q inqout =250125.6=124.4 kJ/kg
125.6
=1
=0.498=50 %
250
We cannot use this relation to determine the efficiency because it
was developed using isentropic relations for compression &
1
expansion.
=1 k 1/ k
rp
Obviously it would (incorrectly) give the same result because the
compression ratio is the same.
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27

Intercooling and Reheating

Recall that intercooling during compression

reduces the work requirement between P1 & P2.
2

Saved
work

qout

There is an economic trade-off for the number

of intercooling steps.
The optimum intermediate pressure between
intercooling steps is
i
P= P1 P 2 P i = n P ni
P
1
2
Also, more work can also be extracted by using
a re-heater, which sends the exhaust from a
high-pressure turbine back to the combustion
chamber.

combustor
T

qout
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28

Two-stage Intercooling & Reheat

Additionally, the regenerator is a way of

recycling some of the energy.
A high number of steps/stages approaches the
Ericsson cycle, whose efficiency is the Carnot.

regenerator

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29

Example
Consider the two-stage intercooling and reheat engine using an
ideal gas (e.g. air). What is the minimum number of variables that
must be specified to solve for the maximum net work?
8
6
Assume: isentropic compression and expansion.
Ideal pressure ratios.
5
9
Negligible pressure drop in pipes.
7
Perfect regenerator.
T
The minimum and maximum operating
4
2
pressures are definitely required.
10
3
1 P H =P 4
2 P L =P 1
1
s
The minimum and maximum temperatures
seem like obvious specifications as well.
3 T H =T 6

4 T L =T 1

P 4

The first law relates some temperatures with

the net work output. Qin =Q out W net
Qin =mC P T 6 T 4 mC P T 8T 7

6
7

2
3

Q out =m C P T 9T 1 mC P T 2 T 3

10
1

The isentropic compression and expansion relations are

T4
P
= 4
T3
P3

k 1/ k

T2
P
= 2
T1
P1

k 1/ k

T7
P
= 7
T6
P6

k 1/ k

T9
P
= 9
T8
P8

k 1/ k

8
9

The ideal regenerator means inlet/outlet to the heat exchanger are

equal
T 5 =T 9 =T 7 and T 4 =T 10 =T 2
Work is minimized (maximized) in the compressor (turbine)
P 2= P 1P 4 and P7 = P 6P 9
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30

Brayton Cycle Using EES

Let's solve example 9-8 using EES
Be sure to set the unit system properly

specifyconditions
P[1]=100
P[4]=800
T[1]=300
T[6]=1300
cp=1.005air
k=1.4air

FirstLaw
Qin=Qout+Wnet
Qin=cp*(T6T4)+cp(T8T7)
Qout=cp*(T9T1)+cp(T2T3)

isentropicrelations
T4/T3=(P4/P3)^((k1)/k)
T2/T1=(P2/P1)^((k1)/k)
T7/T6=(P7/P6)^((k1)/k)
T9/T8=(P9/P8)^((k1)/k)

Idealintermediatepres.
P[2]=(P[1]*P[4])^0.5
P[7]=(P[6]*P[9])^0.5
P[4]=P[5]
P[5]=P[6]
P[9]=P[10]
P[10]=P[1]

idealregenerator
T1=T3
T4=T2
T2=T10
T6=T8
T7=T9

The solution is
Qin=1236
Qout=773.5
Wnet=463

The book examples uses variable specific heat

and therefore givesQin=1334
Wnet=477
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Brayton Cycle Using EES

Now modify the EES program to account for variable specific heat
capacities. There are two different areas that need to be
modified.
The heat addition and rejection steps must use enthalpy
The isentropic relations need to be modified.
EES does not have a relative volume function, but we can simply
specify that the entropy values are equal.
FirstLaw
Qin=enthalpy(air,T=T6)enthalpy(air,T=T4)+
enthalpy(air,T=T8)enthalpy(air,T=T7)
Qout=enthalpy(air,T=T9)enthalpy(air,T=T1)+
enthalpy(air,T=T2)enthalpy(air,T=T3)
IsentropicRelations
entropy(air,T=T3,P=P3)=entropy(air,T=T4,P=P4)
entropy(air,T=T1,P=P1)=entropy(air,T=T2,P=P2)
entropy(air,T=T7,P=P7)=entropy(air,T=T6,P=P6)
entropy(air,T=T9,P=P9)=entropy(air,T=T8,P=P8)

Now we get the same answer as the example in

the textbook
Qin=1334
Wnet=477

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