INTRODUCTION

Ammonia is a colorless alkaline gas, it is lighter than air and has a distinct
pungent odour.

Ammonia was first prepared in the 16th century by distilling animal substances
such as hoofs and horns in the form of a solution. It was first isolated by Pristly
in 1774, and collected over mercury. In 1785, it was shown by Berthollet to be a
compound containing Nitrogen and Hydrogen.

Traces of ammonia and ammonium compounds can be found in the atmosphere

and in natural water and also in the soil in the form of ammonium compounds.

PROPERTIES AND USES OF AMMONIA

Physical Properties
Molecular weight

17

Boiling point 0C

-33 to 35 0C

Freezing point 0C

-77.7

Critical temperature 0C

133

Critical pressure bar

112.8

Specific heat kJ/(kg K)

0 0C

2.0972

100 0C

2.2262

200 0C

2.1056

Standard

heat

of -46 222

formation, kJ/kmol
Solubility in water (wt%)
0 0C

42.8

20 0C

33.1

40 0C

23.4

60 0C

14.1

Specific

gravity

of

anhydrous ammonia
-40 0C

0.69

0 0C

0.639

40 0C

0.580

Chemical Properties
1) Ammonia is a weak base and when dissolved in water ionizes to form
Ammonium ions NH4+and hydroxyl ions OHNH3+H2O

NH OH
4

2) Ammonia forms ammonium salts and water with acids

(NH ) SO
+ HCl NH Cl

NH3 + H2SO4
NH3

4 2

3) Ammonia solution precipitates most metal hydroxides from solutions of their

salts. In some cases like copper the hydroxide is soluble in excess owing to
formation of complex ion.

Cu(OH) +(NH ) SO
Cu(OH) Cu +2OH
Cu +4NH [Cu(NH ) }

CuSO4 + 2NH4OH

2+

2+

4 2

3 4

2+

4)Ammonia does not burn readily in air, nor is it a supporter of combustion, but
warm ammonia burns in Oxygen to form nitrogen and water.
4NH3 + 3O2

2N

+6H2O

In the presence of platinum guaze and other cataltsts, oxides of nitrogen and
ammonium nitrate are formed.
5) Ammonia is a relatively stable compound. When strongly heated or sparked it
decomposes into its constituent elements.
2NH3

+3H2

6) Ammonia behaves as mild reducing agent. It reduces many heated metallic

oxides like CuO PbO etc
3CuO + 2NH3

3Cu + N

+3H2O

7)Ammonia reacts with halogens to give ammonium halides.

8NH3 + 3Cl2

+ 6NH4Cl

with excess halogens it forms dangerously explosive nitrogen trihalides.

8) Ammonia reacts with certain metals when heated. Sodium forms Sodamide
and hydrogen.
2Na + 2NH3

2NaNH

+ H2

USES OF AMMONIA
Ammonia is the single most widely used compound in the fertilizer industry. It
is the starting material for the production of a various number of nitrogenous
fertilizers like ammonium phosphates, ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate
etc.
It is used directly or indirectly as the source for the production of
hexamethylenedeamine for the manufacture of nylon 6,6. In the manufacture of
rayon, ammonia is used in the preparation of ammoiacal copper hydroxide
soulutio for dissolving the copper linters. Oxidation of propylene with ammonia
gives acrylonitrile, used for the manufacture of acrylic fibres, resins, and
elastomers.
Hexamethylenetetramine, produced from ammonia and formaldehyde, is used
in the manufacture of phenolic thermosetting resins. Toluene 2,4 disocyanate
(TDI), employed in the production of polyurethane foam, indirectly consumes
ammonia because nitric acid is a raw material in the TDI manufacturing process.
Urea produced from ammonia is used in the manufacture of urea-formaldehyde
synthetic resins. Melamine is produced by polymerization of dicyandiamine and
high pressure high temperature pyrolysis of urea, in the presence of ammonia
Lesser known uses of Ammonia are
1. As a refrigerant in both compression and absorption systems
2. In the pulp and paper industry for the pulping of wood
3. As a corrosion inhibitor in petroleum refineries.
4. In rubber production for the stabilization of natural and synthetic latex to
prevent coagulaion.
5. In the food and beverage industry as a source of nitrogen required for the
growth of yeast and micro-organism
6. As a curing agent in tanning industries.
In the manufacture of pharmaceuticals such as sulfanilamide, suflathiazole etc.

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
The synthesis gas for manufacture of Ammonia is produced by steam reforming
or partial oxidation of Hydrocarbon feed. In most industries steam reforming is
the norm. A flow sheet describing the various operartions in a typical single
train ammonia plant is shown. The various processes used commercially in
industries for production of Ammonia are
1. Braun Purifier process
2. Foster Wheeler AM2 process
3. ICI process

Braun Purifier process

In the secondary reformer 1.5 times the stoichiometric quantity of air is used.
This increases the heat load and reduces the radiant duty of the primary
reformer to less than two thirds its usual duty. Excess nitrogen is removed by a
cryogenic purification unit after methanation occurs. Large air compressors used
are driven by gas turbines. Owing to the high purity of synthesis gases, lower
recylce gas flow, lower refrigeration duty and lower purge duty will suffice.

Foster Wheeler AM2 precess

In the secondary reformer excess air is used as in the previous case. Instead of
treating the whole feed in primary reformer, some bypass is fed to the secondary
reformer. Partial reaction in primary reformer will allow for a lower steam to
carbon ratio. Excess air used is much higher than in the case of Braun purifier
process. A cryogenic unit removes nitrogen form the exit gases leaving the
methanator. CO2 is removed using physical solvents. Absorption system
provides refrigeration for ammonia recovery.

ICI process
Hydrocarbon feed is subjected to steam reforming in two stages to form oxides
of Carbon, methane and hydrogen. In the secondary reformer air is mixed with
the gases to get a N2 : H2 ratio of 1:3. Carbon monoxide is removed by shift
conversion. Carbon dioxide is removed by absorption into MEA or Potassium
Carbonate solution. Traces of CO and CO2 are removed by conversion into
methane. Synthesis gas is used to produce ammonia.
Advantages of this process are
1. Intensive heat recovery
2. Generation of steam which can be imported.
3. Less dependancy on electricity
4. Capital cost is least.
Process Description
The hydrocarbon used is Naphtha. Naphtha used contains sulfur which is a
catalytic poison in the ammonia synthesis process. It must be removed before the
feed can be used for producing hydrogen.
Desulfurizer
The sulfur in the naphtha feed stock is converted to hydrogen sulfide in the
presence of Cobalt Molybdenu catalyst at a temperature of about 673 K
H2 + S

H S
2

The sulfur content is reduced to less than 5ppm

Reforming
The reformation process is carried out in two stages.
Primary Reformer
In the first stage desulfurized naphtha is mixed with steam in a tubular
reforming furnace. The reformation reactions occur at a temperature of about 673
K. Steam to carbon ration must be maintained between 3.5 and 4.5 to ensure that
Carbon deposition does not occur.

CnHm + nH2O

nCO + (n+m/2) H

CO + H
CH + H O

CO + H2O
CO + 3H2

The overall reaction is highly exothermic and the outlet temperature is about
1093 K. The primary reforming process is characterized by a low pressure.
Secondary Reformer
The gases from the primary reformer are mixed with air and steam at the outlet
temperature of the primary reformer. The remaining hydrocarbon like methane
are further subjected to reformation and the overall yeild of hydrogen is
increased. Air is mixed to form a mixture of H2 and N2 for the synthesis process.
CH4 + H2O

CO +3 H

Other side reactions occuring are

H O
CO +H O CO +H
CO + O CO
H2 + O2
2

Initially the carbon monoxide burns in air to produce carbon dioxide and the
temperature increases to about 1200 0C. Then adiabatic reaction of methane with
steam occurs and the outlet temperature decreases to about 1000 0C at the outlet.
Carbon monoxide Conversion
Concentration of CO is reduced to about 0.1 0.3 % by volume in two stage
converter.
CO + H2O

CO

+ H2

HTSC
CO concentration is reduced to about 3% by volume by means of water gas shift
reaction at a temperature of about 593 to 693 K. The reaction being exothermic
the exit gases are at a higher temperature. They are cooled before being sent to
the secondary reformer.

LTSC
The reaction occurs at a temperature of about 523 K. Concentration of CO in the
exit gas is reduced to about 0.3 % by volume.
CO2 Absorption
Monoethanolamine solution is used as the absorbing medium. The absorption
operates at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of about 100 0C. The tower is
usually a packed tower. Counter current absorption is practised. The spent MEA
solution is regenerated in a regenerating column by steam stripping.
Methanation
Even trace quantities of Carbon monoxide and Carbon dioxide will act as catalyst
poisons in the synthesis loop. Hence they must be removed by conversion into
methane. Methane though not an inert gas is nevertheless inert in the ammonia
synthesis process. The reaction in the methanator occurs at a temperature of
about 573 to 673 K. The exit gases containg steam are condensed and cooled
befroe being stored for the synthesis loop.

CH + H O
CH + H O

CO + 3H2O
CO2 + 4H2

Ammonia Synthesis
Synthesis gas is comprtessed to about 50 MPa and heated t about 673 K before
passing through the catalyst beds.
The reaction being a reversible one high pressure favours the forward phase. As
the concentration of ammonia in the exit gas is low, recycling of gas is necessary.
The converter used is a vertical type of converter.
Catalyst activity inreases with increase in temperature, hence ideal temperature
profile is one in which rate of ammonia production is a maximum at all parts of
the bed. In the upper part of the converter the concentration of ammonia being
low the temperature is high ensuring high reaciton rates. In the lower parts
temperature must be low due to increasing influence of equilibriem
concentration.

MAJOR EQUIPMENT DESIGN

PACKED BED ABSORBER
Equilibrium data for CO2 and Monoethanolamine solution
Y

CO2/mol mol

mol

CO2

MEA sol

inerts

0.0038

0.026

0.0047

0.034

0.0057

0.044

0.0067

0.056

0.0076

0.067

0.0086

0.078

0.0095

0.087

0.0105

0.099

0.0115

0.109

0.0124

0.120

0.0133

0.133

0.0145

0.153

0.0160

0.180

0.0170

0.202

/mol

Gas flow rate at bottom Gb = 10559.1 kmol/hr

= 41.68 kg/s
Gas flow rate at the top Gt = 8726.9 kmol/hr
= 20.85 kg/s
Yt

=0.005

Yb

=0.216

Gin

= 8683.5 kmol/hr

PROPERTIES
Gas density g = 0.487 kg/m3
Liquid density l = 934.4 kg/m3
Gas viscosity g= 0.0175 cP
Liquid viscosity l = 0.299 cP
Gas diffusivity Dg = 1.65X10-5 m2/s
Liquid diffusivity Dl = 1.96X10-5 m2/s
Gas heat capacity Cpg = 2.094 kJ/kg K
Liquid heat capacity Cpl = 4.145 kJ/kg K
From Graph
(Lin/Gin)min

= 11.99

(Lin/Gin)

= 1.111.99 = 13.189

Lin

= 13.189x 8683.5
= 99652.5 kmol/hr

Top Section
Lt

Ls (1+Xt)

99652.5 kmol/hr

Bottom Section
Lb

99652.5(1+Xb)

101117.4 kmol/hr

14.5 wt% MEA souliton has molecular wt.= 20.08 kg/kmol

Lt

198026.6 kg/hr = 555.00 kg/s

Lb

92452.82 kg/hr = 577.85 kg/s

Calculation of coloumn diameter

Choosing 90 mm pall rings (metal)
Void fraction = 0.97
Packing factor Fp = 53
Surface area a = 92 m2/m

L g

G l

= 0.61

At the bottom
L g

G l

= 0.56

At the top
Hence choosing the larger value of 0.61
From Graph
G 2f Fp l0.2

g l g

= 0.038

Where
Gf = gas superficial velocity
Fp = packing factor = 53 m-1
= correction factor for density = 1.029
l = viscosity of liquid in cp = 0.299
g = density of gas = 0.487 kg/m3
l = density of liquid = 934.4 kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity
On substituting we obtain
Gf

=2.085 kg/m2 s

Operating G =

0.85Gf

1.772kg/m2s

Ac

Gb/G

Ac

20.85/1.772

9.948 m2

Di

3.20 m

Design dia =5m

Pressure drop
P = C 2 10 C3U tl gU tg2
P = pressure drop expressed in terms of water
C2, C3 are constants for specific type of packing
Utg, Utl = superficial velocities of gas and liquid expressed in ft/s
g = gas density in lb/ft3
Utg = Gavg/gAc = 4.226 m/s = 14.108 ft/s
Utl = Lavg/lAc = 0.0596 m/s =0.197 ft/s

Hence P = 27.43 in of H2O/ft of packing

= 2285.4 mm of H2O /m of packin

Degree of wetting from Nuris & Jackson criterion (Weeping Check)

LW =

Lmin
l aAc

Where
Lmin = minimum flow rate of liquid = 555.00 kg/s
l = density of liquid = 934.4 kg/m3
a = surface area of packing per unit volume = 92 m2/m3
wetting rate is greater than 0.85 ft3/ft hr hence no weeping will occur

Evaluation of tower height

Z = H OG N OG
Gm
Hl
Lm
For ring type of packings
H OG = H g + m

Hg =

0.017D 1.24 Z 0.33 Sc g0.5

(Lf1 f 2 f 3 )0.5

= parameter for a given packing = 75

D = column diameter if diameter is less than 0.6m else 0.6m
Scg = Schmidt no for gas phase =2.1778
L = liquid rate = 55.58 kg/m2s
f1 = (l/w) = 0.8243
f2 = (l/w) =1.0885
f3 = (w/l) = 1.0611
substituting we get
Hg = 0.25Z0.33
Liquid phase transfer unit
0.15

C
Z
Hl =
Scl0.5

3.28
3.05
= correlation parameter for a given packing = 0.11
C = correlation parameter for high gas flow rates = 0.5
Scg = Schmidt no for liquid phase = 163.6
Z = tower height
On substitution
Hl = 0.181Z0.15
m = slope of the equilibrium curve =11.25
Lm = 100449.7 kmol/hr
Gm = 9643.0 kmol/hr

Overall number of transfer units in the gas phase

N OG =

1 1 + Yb
dY

Y Y Y * 2 ln 1 + Yt
t

Yb

Y*

1/(Y-Y*)

0.005

200

0.015

0.005

100

0.025

0.010

66.67

0.035

0.015

50

0.045

0.020

40

0.055

0.025

33.33

0.065

0.032

30.30

0.075

0.039

27.78

0.085

0.047

26.32

0.095

0.057

26.32

0.105

0.065

25

0.115

0.075

25

0.125

0.083

23.81

0.135

0.095

25

0.145

0.100

22.22

0.155

0.107

20.83

0.165

0.116

20.41

0.175

0.128

21.17

0.185

0.138

21.17

0.195

0.151

22.73

0.205

0.164

24.49

0.210

0.171

25.64

0.215

0.180

28.57

0.215

dY
= 7.284 + 0.259 = 7.543
Y Y*
0.005

Computing by using Simpsons 1/3 rule for numerical integration

Hence
Z = N OG H OG = 1.862Z 0.33 + 1.452Z 0.15
computing the value of Z by trial and error we have

Z =

5.0 m

The total pressure drop is P = 11.427 m of H2O

MINOR EQUIPMENT
Shell and tube heat exhanger
The gases coming out of the NH3 converter is at a very high temperature of
778K These gases are used to heat the inlet gases to the converter. The gases then
are cooled to a temperature of 313 K before it enters the condenser where
Ammonia is condensed. Because the heat load is very high five HE are used in
parallel.
Amount of heat to be removed Q

4989.1 kW

Mass flow rate of gas mh

23.8 kg/s

Inlet temperature T1

405 K

Outlet temperature T2

313 K

It is assumed that cooling water inlet temperature is 293 K and exit temperature
is 308 K.
Amount of cooling water mc = Q/Cp T = 79.4 kg/s
Inlet temperature t1

= 293 K

Outlet temperature t2

= 308 K

LMTD =

(T1 T2 ) (t 2 t1 )
T T2

ln 1
t1 t 2

= 50.38 K
R=

T1 T2
= 6.46
t 2 t1

S=

t 2 t1
= 0.12
T1 t1

For these values the LMTD correction factor FT = 1

(LMTD)c = 50.38 K

Properties
Gas stream at 359 K

Water at 300.5 K

(kg/m3)

20.03

996.4

(Pa s)

4.876 x 10-5

9 x 10-4

k (W/m K)

0.125

0.359

Cp (kJ/kg K)

1.991

4.187

Routing of Fluids
The gases are taken on shell side. Cooling water is taken on the tube side.

AREA OF HEAT TRANSFER

Assuming Ud =

350 W/m2K

Area of heat transfer is given by

Q
= 242.83m 2
U d (LMTD )C
For the exchanger 1 inch 16 BWG tubes are chosen
A=

do = 25.4 mm
di = 22.1 mm
area of tube per unit length = 0.2168 ft2/ft
Assumption is made that the tubes are of length 16 ft
Hence the area per tube a = 4.1888 ft2 = 0.3333 m2
No of tubes
A
= 730
a
From the tube count table we have for 1 inch o.d tubes on 1.25 inch square pitch
Nt =

Nt =738

Np = 4

Ds = 1067 mm

Hence corrected area for heat transfer A =Nt x a = 245.97 m2

Thus corrected coefficient of heat transfer Uac = 341 W/m2 K

Velocity
Tube side
Tube cross sectional area for flow of fluid in one tube pass
aT =

2 Nt
di
= 0.0708m 2
4
Np

where
di is the tube inside diameter =22.1 mm
Nt is the number of tubes =738
Np is the number of tube passes =4

Tube side velocity

vT =

mC
= 1.125 m
s
aT T

where
mc is the mass flow rate of cold water
t is the density of tube side fluid
The velocity of a liquid should lie between 1 and 2 m/s which is satisfied.

Shell Side
Shell side cross sectional area for fluid flow
aS =

(P0 d o )l s Ds
Po

= 0.1423m 2

Where
Po = pitch = 31.75 mm
do = outside diameter = 25.4 mm
Ds = shell inside diameter = 1067 mm
ls = baffle spacing assumed to be 0.5 Ds = 534mm

Shell side velocity is given by

vs =

ms
= 10.325 m
s
as s

Where
ms = shell side mass flow rate
s = shell side fluid density
The velocity of flow for gases must lie between 10 and 40 m/s which is satisfied

Film Transfer Coefficient

Tube side
Reynolds number
Re =

vd i
= 27524.8

Where
is the viscosity of fluid
is the density of fluid
dI is the inside diameter of tube
Prandtl number
Pr =

C p
k

= 10.75

Where
Cp is the specific heat capacity
k is the thermal conductivity
Nusselts equation is given as
Nu = 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.4
ht d i
= 167
k
ht = 2646.1W 2
m s

Where
ht is the tube side heat transfer coefficient
Shell side
Reynolds number

v s d o
= 53759

Prandtl number
Re =

Pr =

C p

= 0.94
k
By Deitus Bolter equation Nusselts number
Nu = 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.3
hs d o
= 137.6
k
hs = 681.64 W 2
m s
Where
hs is the shell side heat transfer coefficient
Overall heat transfer coefficient
ln (d o d i )
1
1
1
1
d 1
+ d i
= +
+ i +
U ht htd d o hs hsd
k
Where
hd represents the dirt coefficient. It is assumed to be 2839 W/m2 K for both shell
and tube side
On substitution we obtain
U = 366.4 W/m2 s
The design value is larger than the assumed value. Hence design is safe.

Pressure Drop
Tube side
Re = 27524.8
f = 0.079 Re 0.25 = 0.00613
4 fLvt2
PL =
2 gd i
where

g = 3384.38 N m 2

f is the friction factor

l is length of pipe
vt is the tube side velocity
g is the acceleration due to gravity
di is the tube inside diameter
v 2
Pc = 2.5 t
2

= 1576.25 N m 2

Pt = N p (PL + Pc ) = 19.842kPa
Where
Np is the no of tube passes =4
The pressure drop for liquids must lie between 14 and 70 kPa. Hence the design
is safe from view of pressure drop on the tube side.

Shell Side
Pressure drop in the cross flow section
0.14

l
fk is the ideal tube bank friction factor =0.104
f W 2N
Pbk = b k 2 c
S m

W is the mass flow rate = 23.8 kg/s

Nc =

D s [1 2(l c Ds )]
= 16.8
Pp

Nc is no of tube rows crossed in one cross flow section

lc is the baffle cut =0.25 Ds
Pp is pitch parallel to flow = 31.75 mm
Ds is the shell inside diameter =1067 mm
is the fluid density = 20.3 kg/m3
Sm is cross flow near centerline for one cross flow section = 0.1423 m2
Pbk = 0.4555 kPa
Pressure drop for an ideal window section
Pwk = b

W 2 (2 + 0.6 N cw )
SmSw

b =2 x 10-3
Sw is for flow through window =0.1598 m2
Pwk = 0.3657 kPa
N
P = [(N b 1)Pbk + N b Pwk ]+ 2Pbk 1 + cw
Nc

L
Nb = 1 = 8
ls
P = 7.845 kPa
The pressure drop for gases should be between 2 and 20 kPa. Hence the design is
safe on shell side also

MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ABSORBER

Material for shell is Carbon Steel

THICKNESS OF SHELL
Thickness of shell = ts
ts =

pD
+c
2 fJ + p

Where,
Di = Inner Diameter of vessel = 3.2m
Working Pressure = 1 atm = 1.054kgf/cm2
p = Design Pressure = 1.1 x 1.054 = 1.137 kgf/cm2
f =Permissible Stress = 950 kgf/cm2
J= Joint Efficiency = 0.85
c= Corrosion allowance =2mm
ts = 6mm
thickness of shell is 6mm

HEAD DESIGN: FLANGED & SHALLOW

Material stainless steel
Permissible stress = f= 130 N/mm2
Design pressure = p = 1.064 x 10 5 N/m2
Stress identification factor W is given by
W = () [3 + ( Rc/R1)1/2]
Crown Radius = Rc= 3.2m
Knuckle radius = R1 = 0.192m
Stress identification factor W is 1.77
Thickness of head = th =
th= 6mm

pRcW
2 fJ

Axial Stress Due to Pressure

Axial stress due to pressure =fap
f ap =

pDi
4(t s c )

= 355.4 kgf/cm2
Stress due to Dead Load
a) Compressive Stress due to weight of shell up to a distance X
Do = Di + 2 ts =3.212m
Density of Shell material = s = 7700 kg /m3

2
(
Do Di2 ) s X
f ds = 4
2
(Do Di2 )
4
=.77X kgf/cm2
b) Compressive stress due to weight of insulation at height X
Insulator used is asbestos
Thickness of insulation = tins =100mm
Diameter of insulation = Dins
Density of insulation =2300 kg / m3
Mean diameter of vessel = Dm
For large diameter column
Dins = Dm
f ins =

Dins t ins ins X

Dm (t s c) )

= 1.925 kgf/cm2
c) Compressive stress due to liquid in column up to height X
Density of liquid =l = 934.4 kg/m3

f liq

2
Di l
4
=
Dm (t s c )
= 23.29 kgf/cm2

d) Compressive stress due to attachment

i.

Packing weight

ii.

Head weight

iii.

Ladder

Density of packing (pall ring) = 270 kg /m3

2
Di p X
4
Packing Weight =
Dm (t s c )
Head weight (approximately) = 2000kg
Weight of Ladder = 140 kg/m
Total compressive stress due to attachments is given by
fattach = ( Packing Weight + Head weight + Ladder ) / [ Di ( ts c ) ]
= (3.1972 + 0.2225 X) kg/cm2

Stress due to Wind

Stress due to wind is given by
f ws =

1.4 Pw X 2
Dm (t s c )

Where,
Pressure due to wind = Pw = 125 kgf/m2
=0.2778 X2 kgf/cm2

To determine the value of X

fmax = 950 kgf/cm2
Upwind side
Jftmax = fwx + fap +fdx
807.5 = 365.4+3.1792+39.6345 X +0.2778 X2
Solving for X we have

X = 10.331m

Downwind side
Jftmax = -fwx - fap -fdx
807.5 = -365.4-3.1792-39.645 X +0.2778 X2
Solving for X for compressive stresses
X=167 m
Hence the column will support a height of 5m as the calculated height is much
higher than 5 m in both cases

DESIGN OF GASKET AND BOLT

Width of gasket =N = 10 mm
Gasket material is asbestos
Gasket factor = m =2
Minimum design seating stress = Ya= 11.2 N / mm2
Basic gasket seating width bo = N/2
bo = 10 mm / 2 = 5mm
Effective gasket seating width
b = 2.5 ( bo )1/2
Inner diameter = Di = 4.85 m
Outer diameter = Do = 4.85m + 2 x 8 x 10 3
Flange inner diameter =Dfi = 4.866 m
Flange outer diameter = Dfo = 4.926 m
Mean diameter = G = (Dfi + Dfo) / 2
= 4.896 m
Under atmospheric conditions, the bolt load due to gasket reaction is given by
Wm1 = b G Ya
=962.98 x10 3 N
Design pressure = p

= 1.064 x 10 5 N/m2
After the internal pressure is applied, the gasket which is compressed
earlier, is released to some extent and the bolt load is given by
Wm2 =(2b) G x m x p + (/4)G2 p
=2.039 x 10 6 N
Bolt used is hot rolled carbon steel
fa is permissible tensile stress in bolts under atmospheric condition
fb is permissible tensile stress in bolts under operating condition
fa=58.7 x 10 6 N/m2
fb = 54.5 x 10 6 N /m2
Am is the area of bolt
Am1= Wm1 / fa
Am2 = Wm2 / fb
Am1= 0.016 m2
Am2= 0.037 m2
Number of bolts = mean diameter /bo x 2.5
=392 bolts
To determine the size of bolts, the larger of above two areas should be
considered
Diameter of bolts =[(Am2 /Number of bolts) x (4/)]1/2
=1.096 cm

FLANGE THICKNESS
Thickness of flange = tf
tf= [G(p/K f) ] + c
Where,
K=1/[ 0.3 + ( 1.5 Wm hG)/H x G]
Hydrostatic end force = H = ( /4) G2 p

=2.003 x10 6 N
hG is radial distance from gasket load reaction to bolt circle,
hG = ( B G )/ 2
= 0.0155
B = outside diameter of gasket + 2 x diameter of bolt + 12mm
= 4.927 m
Wm = 2.039 x 10 6 N
K= 3.28
Hence the thickness of flange = 90.47 mm

NOZZLE THICKNESS
Material Carbon steel
Considering diameter of nozzle = Dn =150 mm
Thickness of nozzle =tn
Material is Stainless steel ( 0.5 cr 18 Ni 11 Mo 3)
Permissible stress =130 x 10 6 N/m2
J=0.85
tn =

pD
2 fJ p

tn = 1.24mm
No corrosion allowance , since the material is stainless steel.
We can use thickness of 3mm

SUPPORT FOR ABSORBER

Material used is structural steel ( IS 800)
Skirt support is used.
Inner Diameter of the vessel = Di =3.2m
Outer Diameter of the vessel = Do =3.212m
Height of the vessel = H = 5.0m
Density of carbon steel= s = 7700 kg /m3
Density of liquid = l = 934.4 kg /m3
Total weight = Weight of vessel+ Weight of Attachments (liquid+ packing + head
+ ladder)
=59430 kg
total stress due to dead loads
f ds =

w 59.00
=
kgf/cm2
t
Dm t

Stress Due to wind load

The force due to wind load acting on vessel is
plw = k p1 h1 Do
.
k=0.7 for cylindrical surface
p1 is wind pressure for the part of the vessel upto a height of 20 m.

p1 = 128.5 kgf/m2
h1=8m
f wb

1.4 p1 H 2 0.054
kgf/cm2
=
=
Dm t
t

Stress due to Seismic Load

Load F= CW
W is total Weight of vessel
C is Seismic Coefficient =0.08
f sb =

8CWH 0.2246
kgf/cm2
=
3Do t
t

Maximum Stress at bottom of Skirt

ftmax = ( fwb or fsb ) fdb
=

58.775
kgf/cm2
t

Permissible tensile Stress for structural steel = 950 kgf/cm2

Equating the two we have
t 0.74mm
therefore the thickness of skirt is taken as 6mm

Maximum Compressive Stress

fcmax = ( fwb or fsb ) + fdb
=

59.2446
kgf/cm2
t

permissible tensile stress for structural steel is 950 kgf/cm2

Equating the two we have
t 0.8mm

Skirt Bearing Plate

fc =

w Ms
+
A
Z

Z VXP RI DOO WKH GHDG ORDGV

A = (/4) ( Dsko2 Dski 2) is the area of contact between skirt plate and the
concrete.
Ms = moment due to wind load

Z = section modulus
fc =5.689 kgf/cm2
Permissible stress f in bending is 950 kgf/cm2
f =

6 M max
bt B2

3 f cl 2
t B2

tB= 63mm

Anchor Bolt,
Wmin=45000 kg (assumed)
fc = (Wmin/ A ) (Mw /Z)
= 1.115 kgf/cm2
Fc is positive ,hence anchor bolts are not required if the safety factor is above 1.5
j=

Wmin R
Ms

= 7.45
The safety factor is above 1.5. Hence anchor bolts are not required.

MECHANICAL DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT

EXCHANGER

Carbon Steel (Corrosion allowance 3 mm)

SHELL SIDE
Number of pass =1
Fluids in shell are Hydrogen, Nitrogen Ammonia and inerts like Argon and
Methane
Design pressure =50.9 kgf?cm2
Shell diameter = 1067mm
Considering steel dished head (torispherical)
Ri= 1067 mm
ri =0.06 of Ri
Inside depth of head can be calculated as

D
D
hi = Ri Ri i Ri + i + 2ri
2
2

= 136 mm
Effective Length = L = 4.88 m + 2 x (0.136)
= 5.154 m

NOZZLE THICKNESS
Material used is carbon steel
Considering diameter of nozzle to be 150mm
Permissible stress = f = 950 kgf/cm2
Corrosion allowance = 3mm
th =

pDi
+c
2 fJ p
=5mm

HEAD THICKNESS
Thickness of head = t h =
W =

pRiW
+c
2 fJ

1
3 + Ri =1.77
ri
4

Hence th = 60 mm thickness
TRANSVERSE BAFFLE
Spacing between baffles as = 534 mm

FLANGE JOINT ( BETWEEN SHELL AND TUBE SHEET )

This will be made to satisfy the requirements of the flange joint between tube
sheet and channel. Gasket width (N) = 22 mm

Flange Thickness
Inner diameter of flange =Dfi = 1143 mm
Outer diameter of flange = 1167mm
Gasket Size G=1155 mm
Material is Steel Jacketed asbestos
Width of gasket =N = 24 mm
Gasket factor = m = 3.75
Minimum design seating stress = ya= 5.34 kgf/cm2
Basic gasket seating width bo = N/2
bo = 24 mm / 2 = 12 mm
Effective gasket seating width
b = 2.5 ( bo )0.5 = 9 mm
under atmospheric conditions, the bolt load due to gasket reaction is given by
Wm1 = bGYa

= 100500 kg

Design pressure = p = 50.9 kgf/cm2

After the internal pressure is applied, the gasket which is compressed
earlier, is released to some extent and the bolt load is given by
Wm 2 = 2bGmp +

2
G p
4

= 667719 kg

Thickness of flange = tf
p
+c
kf

tf = G
Where,
k=

0.3 +

1
1.5wm hg
HG

Hydrostatic end force = H =

2
G p
4

hG is radial distance from gasket load reaction to bolt circle,

hG = (B G )/2
=37.5 mm
B = bolt circle diameter
wm is the greater of the two loads in this case Wm2
Hence the thickness of flange = 138.8 mm

TUBE SIDE
Stainless steel ( IS- grade 10)
Tube thickness
pD
2 fJ + p
Where,
tt =

Working pressure = 1atm = 1.054 kgf/cm2

Design pressure = p =1.1 times 1.054 = 1.136 kgf/cm2
Permissible Stress =f = 950 kgf/cm2

J=1 for seamless tubes

Thickness of tube =0.2 mm
The thickness of tubes is taken as 2 mm with no corrosion allowance as the
material is made of stainless steel.
Tube Sheet
The tube sheet is held between shell flange and the channel. The joint on the shell
flange side is of male and female facing and on the channel side of ring facing,
since the pressure on the channel
Thickness of Tube Sheet
kp
f
Where F = 1
t ts = FG

K=0.25
Thickness of tube sheet = 18 mm
Channel and Channel Cover
Carbon Steel
Thickness of channel
Permissible stress = f = 95 kgf/cm2
K=0.3
Thickness of channel
kp
f
Substituting the values the thickness of the channel and channel cover is
th = G

obtained as 19mm
Flange Joint
Gasket material is steel jacketed asbestos
Gasket width (N) = 22 mm
Gasket factor = m = 5.5
Minimum design seating stress = Ya= 12.66 kgf/cm2
Basic gasket seating width bo = N / 8

bo = 2.75 mm
Effective gasket seating width
b = bo
Mean diameter = G = 1000mm
Design pressure = p = 1.136 kgf/cm2
Wm1 = Gby a
Under atmospheric conditions, the bolt load due to gasket reaction is given by
= 10002 kgf
After the internal pressure is applied, the gasket which is compressed

G 2 p
4
earlier, is released to some extent and the bolt load is given by
Wm 2 = 2bGmp +

= 109374 kgf
Bolt used is hot rolled carbon steel
fa is permissible tensile stress in bolts under atmospheric condition
fb is permissible tensile stress in bolts under operating condition
For Cr Ni Steel,
fa= 1406 kgf/cm2
fb = 66 kgf/cm2
Wm1
fb
=7.114 cm2
Am1 =

Wm 2
fa
= 16.572 cm2

Am 2 =

Am is larger area of Am1 and Am2 =16.572 cm2

Number of bolts = mean diameter / bo x 2 = 40 bolts

To determine the size of bolts , the larger of above two areas should be
considered
db =

Am
4
= 36 mm

Using M 48 bolts
Pitch diameter = 44.68 mm
Minor diameter = 41.795 mm

(4.4681 + 4.1795)2
8
Actual bolt area is given by
Ab =

= 19.66 cm2
Minimum pitch diameter = G +N+2db = 1118mm
Hence Bolt diameter is chosen as B= 1150 mm

tf = G

p
+c
kf

1
1.5Wm hG
0.3 +
HG
Flange Thickness

k=

=2.91
Hence tf = 25 mm
THICKNESS OF NOZZLE
Considering inlet and outlet diameter to be 200mm

pD
2 fJ + p
Thickness of nozzle
tn =

= 1 mm
Thickness of nozzles is taken as 6mm

SUPPORT FOR SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

Length of the heat exchanger = 4.88m
InnerdiameterofShell=1067 mm
Outer diameter of Shell = 1137 mm
Inner diameter of tube = 22.1 mm
Outer diameter of tube = 25.4 mm
Number of tubes =738
Density of Steel =s =7850 kg /m3
Density of Liquid =l = 995.3 kg/m3
Volume of Shell body = V = ( / 4) ( Do2 Di2 ) x L
= 0.591m3
Weight of Shell body = Ws = V x s
= 4479 kg
Volume of Tubes = Vt = ( / 4 ) ( do2 di2 ) x L x N
= 0.44 m3
Total Weight of Tubes = Wt = Vt x s
= 3360 kg
Volume of Head = Vh = 0.087 Di3
= 0.106m3
Weight of Head = Wh = Vh x s
= 801 kg
Weight of Liquid = Wl = ( / 4) (di2) x L x N x l
= 10845 kg
Total Weight = W = Ws+ Wt + Wh + Wl
= 19485 kgf
Q =W/2 =9742.5 kgf
Distance of saddle center line from shell end =A= 0.6 x Ri
=320 mm

Longitudinal Bending Moments

Radius = R =1.067m
Height of head =H = 0.136 m
The bending moment at the supports is
M1 = QA [ 1 {(A/L)+ (R2 - H2) / 2 AL}/{1 + 4H/3L}]
= 1842.6 kgf m
The bending moment at the center of the span is given by
M2 = ( Q L / 4)[{1+ 2 ( R2 - H2 ) / L2 }/{1+ 4H / 3L} - ( 4A / L) ]
= 2131kgf m

Stress in Shell at the Saddle

For A > 0.5 Ri , the shell is not sufficiently stiffened by the end
For =120,
k1= 0.107
k2 = 0.192
Thickness of shell t = 35 mm
f1 = M1/( k1R2 t)
= 13.97 kgf/cm2
f2 = M1/( k2 R2 t)
=7.79 kgf/cm2

Stress in the shell at Mid- Span

The stress at the mid span is f3, which is either tensile or compressive
depending on the position of the fiber. The resultant tensile stresses ( including
the axial stress due to internal pressure ) should not exceed the permissible
stress, and the resultant compressive stress should not exceed the permissible
compressive stress .
f3 = M2 /(R2 t )
= 18.62 kgf/cm2

Axial Stress in Shell due to internal pressure

fp = (p Di )/ (4 t)
= 34.99 kgf/cm2
The combined stresses ( fp + f1 ) , ( fp + f2 ) , and ( fp + f3 ) are will within the
permissible values

ENERGY BALANCE
Desulphurizer
Here Sulphur in Naphtha is made to react with Hydrogen in presence of
catalysts to give Hydrogen Sulphide. This reaction takes place at a temperature
of 623 K
H2 + S
Hydrogen and Naphtha are assumed to be stored at 303 K
Specific Heat capacity of naphtha is assumed to be 3.5235 kcal/kmol
Specific Heat capacity of Hydrogen =(6.62+0.00081T) kcal/kmol K
H = ni C pi dT = 6.015915 x10 6 kcal hr
i

Hence heat required to raise their temperature from 303 K to 693 K

Assuming that the fuel used is Natural gas (calorific value = 39383.82 kJ/m3)
Thus amount of fuel needed to supply this quantity of heat =152.75 m3/hr

Heat liberated within the reactor due to reaction = 1414.575 kcal/kmol

T

H sul = ni ni C pi dT = 15560.325
623

Hr Hence total heat liberated = 11.1 x 1414.575 = 15560.325 kcal/hr

This heat released is utilized in increasing the temperature of the effluents
Solving the equation by a trial and error process we obtain the outlet
temperature value as 623.8 K. Hence it is assumed that the outlet temperature is
623 K itself.

Primary Reformer
Within the reformer steam reacts with Naphtha and produces Carbon monoxide
and Hydrogen. Side reactions also take place producing Carbon dioxide and

C n H m + nH 2 O nCO + m 2 + n H 2

Methane. The exit gases from the reformer are at a temperature of 1093 K .
Hr is 53.376 x 103 kcal/kmol
H1 is 10.29823 x 107 kcal/hr
CO + H 2 O CO2 + H 2
Hr is 7.834 x 103 kcal/kmol
H2 is 0.44489 x 107 kcal/hr
CO + 3H 2 CH 4 + H 2 O
Hr is 49.271 x 103
H3 is 1.66672 x 107 kcal/hr
Heat required to raise the temperature of the reaction products from 673 K to
1093 K is
T

H ref = ni ni C pi dT = 13.94433 x10 7 kcal

hr
i

623

Thus total heat to be supplied is sum of all the heat requirements and the
enthalpy of reactions =22.11061 x 107 kcal/hr
Fuel required for supplying this amount of heat is 5614.13 m3/hr of natural gas.
Secondary Reformer
In the secondary reformer methane produced is converted into CO and H2.
Here air is mixed with the effluent stream in such a quantity that the exit stream
contains 1:3 ratio of N2: H2. It is assumed that the inlet to the reformer enters at
1093 K and reaction takes place at this temperature.
Heat required to raise the temperature of air from ambient conditions at 303 K to
1093 K is
T

H air = ni ni C pi dT = 2.16325 x10 7 kcal

hr
i

623

This heat is supplied by natural gas. Hence fuel required to provide this amount
of heat is 549.3 m3/hr
CH 4 + H 2 O CO + 3H 2
H is 1.96936 x 107 kcal/hr

H 2 + 1 O2 H 2 O
2
H is 2.88989 x 107 kcal/hr
H is 1.28508 x 107 kcal/hr
CO + 1 O2 CO2
2
Total heat liberated during reaction is 2.26464 x 107 kcal/hr. This heat is utilized
in heating the effluents from 1093 K to the exit temperature.
H = ni
i

pi

dT = 2.26464 x10 6 kcal hr

1093

Thus by a trial and error process the temperature is found to be 1262 K.

Heat Recovery between Secondary Reformer and HTSC
The stream entering the HTSC is at 693 K (value obtained from literature). Hence
the stream is cooled from 1262 K to 693 K. The heat recovered from this stream is
utilized in producing steam in quenchers.
Heat recovered is
H = ni
i

pi

dT = 2.26464 x10 7 kcal hr

1093

Amount of steam at 373 K at 1 atm produced from this heat is

H
= 7401.87 kmol hr
C pw T + s
High Temperature Shift Converter
ms =

In the HTSC Carbon monoxide percentage is reduced to around 3% by volume of

the exiting stream by converting it to Carbon dioxide by the water shift reaction.
CO + H 2 O CO2 + H 2
Hr is 7.963 x 103 kcal/kmol at 693 K
H is 0.77180 x 107 kcal/hr .
This heat is utilized in increasing the heat content of the exit stream.
T

H = ni C pi dT = 0.77180 x10 7 kcal hr

i

693

Solving for T by a trial and error process we get T = 700 K

Heat recovery from HTSC to LTSC

The effluents from the HTSC are at a temperature of 700 K. The inlet stream into
the LTSC is at a temperature of 523 K. The heat recovered from this stream is
utilized in producing steam at 373 K and 1 atm in quencher.
Heat recovered
700

H = ni C pi dT = 2.13555 x10 7 kcal hr

i

ms =

523

H
= 2181.36 kmol
hr
C pw T + s

Amount of steam produced will be

Low Temperature Shift Converter
Here the Carbon monoxide content is reduced to 0.3% by volume of the total
effluent gases. The reaction being exothermic heat is liberated which is used to
increase the temperature of the outlet stream.
CO + H 2 O CO2 + H 2
Hr is 8.237 x 103 kcal/kmol at 523 K
H is 0.27252x 107 kcal/hr
The temperature of the outlet stream can be found out by making a heat balance
T

H = ni C pi dT = 0..27252 x10 7 kcal hr

i

523

By a trial and error process the temperature is found to be 543 K.

Condenser
The exit stream from the LTSC contains steam which would be an additional
unwanted load on the absorber. Hence steam is removed by condensation and
the dry gases leave the condenser at 493 K and are cooled to 373 K which is the
temperature at which the gases enter the absorber. It is assumed that all steam
produced is removed by condensation
Heat removed by condensation
QC = ns s = 4.16939 x10 7 kcal hr

Heat Exchanger
The gases are cooled from 493 K to 373 K. The heat transferred during this
process is
493

H = ni C pi dT = 1.40919 x10 7 kcal hr

i

373

Methanator
Here the trace quantities of CO and CO2 are converted to Methane by reaction
with H2 in the presence of catalysts. The methanator operates at a temperature of
623K. The entering gases have to be heated from 373 K to 623 K.
Heat supplied
623

H = ni C pi dT = 3.17869 x10 7 kcal hr

i

373

This heat may be supplied by condensing steam and utilizing the heat of
condensation.
H
= 2970.6 kmol
hr
s
Amount of steam at 373 K and 1 atm required to heat the gases is
ms =

Reactions taking place in the methanator are

CO + H 2 O CO2 + H 2
Hr is 49.271 x 103 kcal/kmol at 623 K
H is 1.36386 x 106 kcal/hr
CO2 + 3H 2 CH 4 + H 2 O
Hr is 39.433x 103 kcal/kmol at 623 K
H is 0.31561 x 106 kcal/hr

Total heat liberated within the methanator is used to increase the temperature of
the exit gases.

H = ni C pi dT = 1.67949 x10 6 kcal hr

i

623

The temperature of the exit stream found out by a trail and error process is 632 K.
The gases from the Methanator are cooled, water removed by condensation and
the dry gases cooled to 313 K and stored.
Ammonia Synthesis Loop
The synthesis gas enters the converter at a temperature of 673 K. From the
compressor section it is assumed that the gases come out at 313 K. The inlet
stream is heated by the exit stream to the converter inlet temperature. The
converter exit gas is then cooled to 313 K at which temperature at the high
pressure of 50 MPa ammonia condenses.
CO2 + 3H 2 CH 4 + H 2 O
Hr is 7.301x 103 kcal/kmol at 673 K
H is 2.73698x 107 kcal/hr
This heat produced is utilized in heating the exit gases to a final exit temperature,
found by doing a heat balance.
T

H = ni C pi dT = 2.73698 x10 7 kcal hr

i

673

The exit temperature from the condenser found out by a trial and error process is
T = 778 K
Ammonia condenses at a temperature of 313 K at the given pressure and mole
fraction of 0.0952
Heat evolved by cooling gases from 778 K to 313 K
778

H = ni C pi dT = 11.59567 x10 7 kcal hr

i

313

Heat needed to raise the temperature of synthesis gases from 313 K to 673 K is
673

H = ni C pi dT = 9.45070 x10 7 kcal hr

i

313

Thus the excess heat, which is to be removed by the Heat Exchanger, is

H = 2.14497 x 107 kcal/hr
As the heat load is very high five HE in parallel are used. The inlet temperature
of the hot gases found by a trial and error process is 405 K. The exit temperature
is ammonia saturation temperature of 313 K.
Cooling water is assumed to enter at 293 K and exit at 308 K. The mass flow rate
of cooling water is calculated and found to be 79.4 kg/s per HE.
Condenser heat load may be calculated as
QC = n N N = 2.02284 x10 7 kcal
hr
Where N is the latent heat of vaporization of ammonia at the given pressure
= 4471.65 kcal/kmol
The condenser coolants used are refrigerants because water cannot be used to
cool the contents.

MATERIAL BALANCE
The naphtha has the following composition by weight
Hydrogen

16.2%

Carbon

83.0%

Sulphur

0.8%

Composition of the same naphtha by mole is

Hydrogen (H2)

53.85%

Carbon (C)

45.98%

Sulphur (S)

0.17%

Desulphurizer
Sulphur present is removed as Hydrogen Sulphide in the desulphurizer
Input
Naptha :
Hydrogen (H2)

2454.7 kmol/hr

Carbon (C)

1929.7 kmol/hr

Sulphur (S)

11.1 kmol/hr

Hydrogen gas stream(H2)

209.8 kmol/hr

Output
Desulphurized Naptha :
Hydrogen (H2)

2454.7 kmol/hr

Carbon (C)

1929.7 kmol/hr

Hydrogen gas (H2)

Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

198.1 kmol/hr
11.1 kmol/hr

Primary Reformer
In the primary reformer the desulphurized naphtha is made to react with Steam
to yield Hydrogen, Carbon monoxide, Carbon dioxide, Methane.
To prevent the formation of carbon the steam to carbon ratio is maintained at 3.9

Input
Desulphurized Naptha:
Hydrogen (H2)
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen gas
Steam (H2O)

2454,7 kmol/hr
1929.7 kmol/hr
198.1 kmol/hr
7525.8 kmol/hr

Output
Hydrogen (H2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)

3745.8 kmol/hr
964.8 kmol/hr

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

567.6 kmol/hr

Methane (CH4)

397.4 kmol/hr

Steam (H2O)

5440.0 kmol/hr

Secondary Reformer
Input
Hydrogen (H2)

3745.8

kmol/hr

Carbon monoxide (CO)

964.8

kmol/hr

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

567.6

kmol/hr

Methane (CH4)

397.4

kmol/hr

2148,4

kmol/hr

Air:
Nitrogen (N2)
Oxygen (O2)
Inerts (Ar +others)
Water vapour (H2O)
Steam (H2O)

596.4

kmol/hr

9.5

kmol/hr

428.4

kmol/hr

5440

kmol/hr

Hydrogen (H2)

5418.4

kmol/hr

Carbon monoxide (CO)

1093.2

kmol/hr

817.5

kmol/hr

19.0

kmol/hr

Output

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Methane (CH4)

Nitrogen (N2)
Inerts (Ar +others)
Steam (H2O)

2148,4

kmol/hr

9.5

kmol/hr

5350.5

kmol/hr

High Temperature Shift Converter

Input
Hydrogen (H2)

5418.4

kmol/hr

Carbon monoxide (CO)

1093.2

kmol/hr

817.5

kmol/hr

19.0

kmol/hr

2148,4

kmol/hr

9.5

kmol/hr

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Methane (CH4)
Nitrogen (N2)
Inerts (Ar +others)
Steam (H2O)

5350.5

kmol/hr

6202.9

kmol/hr

308.9

kmol/hr

1602.0

kmol/hr

19.0

kmol/hr

2148,4

kmol/hr

9.5

kmol/hr

Output
Hydrogen (H2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrogen (N2)
Inerts (Ar +others)
Steam (H2O)

4566.5

kmol/hr

Low Temperature Shift Converter

Input
Hydrogen (H2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrogen (N2)
Inerts (Ar +others)
Steam (H2O)

6202.9

kmol/hr

308.9

kmol/hr

1602.0

kmol/hr

19.0

kmol/hr

2148,4

kmol/hr

9.5

kmol/hr

4566.5

kmol/hr

Output
Hydrogen (H2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrogen (N2)
Inerts (Ar +others)
Steam (H2O)

6474.9

kmol/hr

31.7

kmol/hr

1879.0

kmol/hr

19.0

kmol/hr

2148,4

kmol/hr

9.5

kmol/hr

4289.5

kmol/hr

Condenser
The exit stream from the Low temperature Converter is sent into a condenser to
remove the steam present which would be an additional excess load on the
Absorber
Within the condenser all the water is removed as condensate. Only water is
removed and the exit stream from this goes to the Absorber
Input
Hydrogen (H2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrogen (N2)
Inerts (Ar +others)
Steam (H2O)

6474.9

kmol/hr

31.7

kmol/hr

1879.0

kmol/hr

19.0

kmol/hr

2148,4

kmol/hr

9.5

kmol/hr

4289.5

kmol/hr

6474.9

kmol/hr

31.7

kmol/hr

1879.0

kmol/hr

19.0

kmol/hr

2148,4

kmol/hr

9.5

kmol/hr

Output
Hydrogen (H2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrogen (N2)
Inerts (Ar +others)

Absorber
Within the absorber Carbon dioxide is absorbed using Monoethanolamine. It is
assumed that only Carbon dioxide is soluble in MEA solution. Solubility of other
gases in MEA is assumed to be negligible. It is further obtained from literature
that the CO2 content in the exit stream is 0.5% of the total gas stream.
Input
Hydrogen (H2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrogen (N2)
Inerts (Ar +others)

6474.9

kmol/hr

31.7

kmol/hr

1879.0

kmol/hr

19.0

kmol/hr

2148,4

kmol/hr

9.5

kmol/hr

Output
Hydrogen (H2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrogen (N2)
Inerts (Ar +others)

6474.9

kmol/hr

31.7

kmol/hr

1879.0

kmol/hr

19.0

kmol/hr

2148,4

kmol/hr

9.5

kmol/hr

Methanator
Within the Methanator Oxides of Carbon are made to react with Hydrogen in the
presence of catalysts because oxides of carbon act as poisons for the catalysts in
the Ammonia synthesis loop. CO and CO2 react with Hydrogen to form Methane
and steam. Steam is removed by condensation and separated from the gaseous
mixture going into the synthesis loop. Methane is an inert material in the
synthesis loop.
Input
Hydrogen (H2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)

6474.9

kmol/hr

31.7

kmol/hr

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

1879.0

kmol/hr

19.0

kmol/hr

2148,4

kmol/hr

9.5

kmol/hr

Hydrogen (H2)

6367.9

kmol/hr

Methane (CH4)

60.1

kmol/hr

2148,4

kmol/hr

Methane (CH4)
Nitrogen (N2)
Inerts (Ar +others)
Output

Nitrogen (N2)
Inerts (Ar +others)
Steam (H2O)

34.5

kmol/hr

25.3

kmol/hr

Hydrogen (H2)

6367.4

kmol/hr

Methane (CH4)

60.1

kmol/hr

2148,4

kmol/hr

Ammonia Synthesis Loop

Make up Gas

Nitrogen (N2)
Inerts (Ar +others)

34.5

kmol/hr

Recycle Stream
Hydrogen (H2)

18624.3

kmol/hr

Nitrogen (N2)

6182.2

kmol/hr

Ammonia (NH3)

774.9

kmol/hr

Inerts (Ar + CH4)

4555.0

kmol/hr

Hydrogen (H2)

24991.7

kmol/hr

Nitrogen (N2)

8330.6

kmol/hr

Ammonia (NH3)

774,9

kmol/hr

Inerts (Ar + CH4)

4649.6

kmol/hr

Gas into Converter

Purge
Hydrogen (H2)

560.5 kmol/hr

Nitrogen (N2)

69.8 kmol/hr

Ammonia (NH3)

74.2 kmol/hr

Inerts (Ar + CH4)

72.4 kmol/hr

Storage
Ammonia (NH3)

3676.4 kmol/hr

Nitrogen (N2)

204.2 kmol/hr

Hydrogen (H2)

183.8 kmol/hr

Inerts (Ar + CH4)

20.4

kmol/hr

PLANT LAYOUT

SITE LAYOUT
The location of the plant can have a turning effect on the overall viability of a
process plant, and the scope for future expansion. Many factors must be
considered when selecting a suitable plant site. The most important factors are as
follows :
Location, with respect to the marketing area
Raw material supply
Transport facilities
Availability of labor
Availability of suitable land
Environmental impact and effluent disposal
Local community consideration
Climate
Political and strategic consideration
In addition to the main plant , we also have to consider the associated services
which have to be amalgamated within a particular plant site. Canteens, parks,
general utilies, emergency medical services and places for storage must also be
taken into consideration while deciding on a particular site.

PLANT LAYOUT
The economic construction and operation of a process unit will depend on how
well the plant equipment specified on the process flow sheet and laid out.
The principal factors to be considered are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Economic consideration: construction and operation cost.

The process requirement
Convenience of operation
convenience of maintenance
Safety
Future expansion

COSTS:
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives
shortest run of connecting pipes between equipment, and adopting the least
amount of structural steel work. However, this will not necessarily be the best
arrangement for operation and maintenance.
PROCESS REQUIREMENT:
All the required equipments have to be placed properly within process. Even the
installation of the auxiliaries should be done in such a way that it will occupy the
least space.

OPERATION
Equipment that needs to have frequent operation should be located convenient
to the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at
convenient position and height. Sufficient working space and headroom must be
provided to allow easy access to equipment.
MAINTENANCE
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily
withdrawn for cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent
replacement of catalyst or packing should be located on the outside of buildings.
Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and
large pumps, should be placed under cover.
SAFETY
Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and
confine the effects of an explosion.
At least two escape routes for operator must beprovided from each level in the
process building.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
In the manufacturing of ammonia, there arises a need to vent gases and to
remove condensates. These liquid and gaseous effluents and the chemicals used
in the process may tend to pollute the environment.

The main source of gaseous ammonia emission are from the inert gas purge and
from the ammonia storage section of the ammonia plant. In the case of non
functioning or breakdown of the equipment large quantity of ammonia emission
increases ammonia concentration in the atmosphere.

The liquid effluents contain dissolved ammonia and dissolved Carbon dioxide.
The toxic effect of ammonia depends upon the concentration of free ammonia. Its
presence in water leads to suffocation of aquatic life forms.

Also there is the possibility of emission of particulate matter like Carbon oxides
of Sulfur etc. These may removed by electrostatic precipitation or vacuum
filtration.

Pollution Control
This may be achieved by
1 . Segregation of effluent streams
2 . Control of particulate matter by
a) Mechanical separators
b) Wet Scrubbers
c) Fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators.

Ammonia may be removed by any of the following methods

Ammonia removal technique

Steam stripping
Air stripping
Simple lagooning after PH adjustment
Biological treatment

Concentration
3.4 wt %
>1500 ppm
1500 ppm
About 700 ppm

COST ESTIMATION
Fixed capital investment for cost index of 300 = Rs 3.6108
Cost index for 2002 = 402
Therefore present fixed capital investment = 3.7253107(402/300)
=Rs 482 400 000
Estimation of total investment cost:
1) Direct cost:
a) Purchased equipment cost:(15 40% of FCI )
Assume 30% of FCI
=Rs 144 720 000
Installation cost:(35 45% of PEC)
Assume 35%
=Rs 50 652 000
c) Instrument and control installed:(6 30% of PEC)
Assume 25% of PEC
=Rs 36 180 000
d) Piping installation cost:(10 80% of PEC)
Assume 60%
=Rs.86 832 000
e) Electrical installation cost:(10 40% of PEC)
Assume 35% of PEC
=Rs 50 652 000
f) Building process and auxilliary:(10-70% of PEC)
Assume 60%
=Rs 86 832 000
g) Service facilities:(30-80% 0f PEC)
Assume 50%
=Rs 72 360 000
h) Yard improvement:(10-15% of PEC)
Assume 10%

=Rs 14 472 000

i) Land:(4-8% of PEC)
Assume 6%
=Rs 8 683 200
Therefore direct cost =538 358 400
Indirect cost:
Expenses which are not directly involved with material and labour of actual installation or complete
facility
a) Engineering and supervision:(5-30% of DC)
Assume 25%
=Rs 134 589 600
b)Construction expenses:(10% of DC)
=Rs 53 835 840
c)Contractors fee:(2-7% 0f DC)
Assume 6%
=Rs 32 301 504
d)Contingency:(8-20% of DC)
Assume 12%
=Rs 64 603 008
Therefore total indirect cost =Rs 285 329 952
Fixed capital investment:
Fixed capital investment(FCI) = DC+IC
= Rs 823 688 352
Working capital investment:
10 20% of FCI
Assume 16%
=Rs 107 079 486
2) Total capital investment:
= FCI + WC
=Rs 930 767 838

Estimation of total product cost(TPC):

Fixed charges:
a) Depreciation:(10% of FCI for machinery)
=Rs 82 368 835
b) Local taxes:(3-4% of TPC)
Assume 3%
=Rs 42 625 872
c) Insurances:(0.4-1% of FCI)
Assume 0.7%
=Rs 5 765 818
d)Rent:(8-12% of FCI)
Assume 10%
=Rs 82 368 835
Therefore total fixed charges = 213 129 360
But, Fixed charges = (10-20% of TPC)
Assume 15%
Therefore Total product cost = 1 420 862 400
Direct production:
a) Raw material:(10-50% 0f TPC)
Assume 40%
=Rs 568 344 960
b)Operating labour(OL):(10-20% of TPC)
Assume 15%
=Rs 213 129 360
c)Direct supervisory and electric labour:(10-25% of OL)
Assume 20%
=Rs 42 625 872
b) Utilities:(10-20% of TPC)
Assume 15%
=Rs 213 129 360

c) Maintainence:(2-10% of FCI)
Assume 8%
= Rs 65 895 068
d) Operating supplies (OS):(10-20% of maintainence)
Assume 15%
=Rs 9 884 260
e) Laboratory charges:(10-20% of OL)
Assume 12%
=Rs 7 907 408
f) Patent and royalties:(2-6% of TPC)
Assume 4%
=Rs 56 834 496
Plant overhead cost:
50-70% of (OL+OS+M)
Assume 65%
=Rs 187 790 647
General expenses:
a) Administration cost:(40-60% of OL)
Assume 50%
=Rs 106 564 680
b) Distribution and selling price:(2-30% of TPC)
Assume 20%
=Rs 284 172 480
c) Research and development cost:(3% of TPC)
=Rs 42 625 872
Therefore general expenses(GE) =Rs 433 363 032
Therefore manufaacturing cost(MC)= Product cost+fixed chages+Plant overhead expenses
=Rs1 821 782 407
Total production cost:
Total production cost =MC + GE
=Rs 2 255 145 439

Gross earnings and rate of return:

The plant is working for say 320 days a year
Selling price =Rs. 35 /kg
Total income =1500320100035 = Rs1.68 x 1010

Gross income =Total income total product cost

=Rs 1.5379 x 1010
Tax =50%
Net profit =Rs7 689 568 800
Rate of return =net profit/total capital investment
=82.615 %