CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL

PHYSICS

THERMAL
PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS

LEARNING OUTCOMES
No.

LEARNING OUTCOME

Use simple kinetic model to explain the structure of solids, liquids and gases.

ii

Relate internal energy to the average potential energies and average kinetic
energies. Relate changes in temperature with changes in internal energy.

iii

Use the simple kinetic model to explain why boiling and melting occurs
without any change in temperature and why liquids cool when evaporation
occurs.

iv

Define specific latent heat (of fusion and vaporisation) and specific heat
capacity. Explain electrical methods to determine the specific latent heat and
specific heat capacity. Compare specific latent heats of fusion and
vaporisation.

Relate the work done by/on a gas to its internal energy.

vi

Relate changes of state with change in internal energy. Differentiate systems

from surroundings.

vii

Define and use the first law of thermodynamics

SIMPLE KINETIC MODEL

The kinetic model of matter assumes that all
matter is made up of molecules that
interact with each other and are a state of
continuous , random motion.
Evidence: Brownian motion.
We will now compare the structure of 3
phases of matter (solids, liquids and gases) in
terms of ordering, movement and
intermolecular distances.

P R O P E R T I E S O F PA R T I C L E S

SIMPLE KINETIC MODEL

PROPERTY

SOLIDS

LIQUIDS

GASES

Ordering of
molecules

Regular structures
repeated
throughout (long
range order ).

Regular
ordering No ordering.
only
in
the
immediate
neighbourhood of a
few molecules (short
range order).

Figures 21.2 (a) , (b), and (c), page 328, Chapter 21: Thermal Physics; Cambridge
International AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside,
2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.

P R O P E R T I E S O F PA R T I C L E S

SIMPLE KINETIC MODEL

PROPERTY

SOLIDS

LIQUIDS

GASES

Movement

Free to vibrate Can vibrate and Free to undergo

about
a fixed translate due to translational
position
some empty spaces motion.

Distance
between
molecules

Least amount of Only slightly more Widely separated.

spacing
of the spaced that in solid
three phases.
of
the
same
substance

INTERNAL ENERGY
Each molecule in a substance has a
certain amount of energy.
This energy is the sum of its kinetic
energy; due to its movement, and the
potential energy; due to the interaction
between the molecules.

INTERNAL ENERGY
The amount of potential energy each
molecule has depends on the spacing
between the molecules.
The closer the molecules are, the more
negative (larger) the potential energy.
Potential energy is assigned a negative
sign.

INTERNAL ENERGY
This is seen in the graph below.

Figures 21.5, page 329, Chapter 21: Thermal Physics; Cambridge International AS and
A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.

INTERNAL ENERGY
This means that solid molecules have the
most negative (largest) stored potential
energy, followed by liquid molecules.
Gas molecules store an insignificant amount
of potential energy.
However, the difference in stored potential
energies between solid and liquid molecules
is lower compared to between liquid and
gas molecules.

INTERNAL ENERGY
All the molecules will have different
kinetic energies as some are moving
faster and some slower.
All the molecules also will have different
amount of potential energies
the
separation between molecules change
continually.

INTERNAL ENERGY
We can now say that the kinetic energies
and potential energies of all of the
molecules follow a random distribution.
When we add the kinetic energies and
potential energies of all the molecules,
we remove the random nature of the
energies.

INTERNAL ENERGY
What we get is known as the internal
energy of the substance.
Definition: The internal energy of a
substance is the sum of the random
distribution of kinetic and potential energies
of all the molecules associated with the
system.

CHANGES IN INTERNAL ENERGY

A N D T E M P E R AT U R E
How do temperature and internal energy of
a substance are related?
When the internal energy of a substance
changes, in certain cases, the temperature
of the substance also changes.
However, if the temperature of a substance
changes, the internal energy of that
substance will change.

CHANGES IN INTERNAL ENERGY

A N D T E M P E R AT U R E
For example, when we heat a liquid from 20
C to 80 C, the temperature increases
because the supplied thermal energy
increases the average kinetic energy of the
molecules of the liquid (but not the
potential energy).
When cooling, say from 80 C to 20 C,
thermal energy is dissipated since the
average kinetic energy of the molecules
decreases.

CHANGES IN INTERNAL ENERGY

A N D T E M P E R AT U R E
However, when water boils, the supplied
thermal energy increases the potential
energy of the water molecules, but not
the average kinetic energy (no increase
in temperature).

CHANGES IN INTERNAL ENERGY

A N D T E M P E R AT U R E
In conclusion, only changes in average
kinetic energy of the molecules will change
the temperature of the substance. This
happens when matter is heated.
During change of phase, no change in
temperature occurs as the added thermal
energy is used to change the potential
energy stored in the molecules.

INTERNAL ENERGY AND

IDEAL GASES
Recall that for ideal gases, there are no
forces that exist between the gas
molecules. This means that ideal gas
molecules do not store potential energy.
Hence, the internal energy of an ideal
gas equals it sum of the random
distribution of kinetic energies of all its
molecules.

M E LT I N G , B O I L I N G A N D
E VA P O R AT I O N
We will now answer these two
questions:
1. Why melting and boiling occur at a
constant temperature for a specific
substance?
2. Why liquids that undergo evaporation
cool?

M E LT I N G , B O I L I N G A N D
E VA P O R AT I O N
Question 1:
Melting and boiling involve change of phase.
During melting, the phase of a substance
changes from solid into liquid at a constant
temperature.
During boiling, the phase change that occurs
is from liquid into gas, also without any
change in temperature.

M E LT I N G , B O I L I N G A N D
E VA P O R AT I O N
In solids, the stored potential energy in
molecules is more negative (greater in
magnitude) as compared to that in liquids
because the separation between solid
molecules is lesser than that between liquid
molecules.
In order to liquefy, the molecules need to
be separated more. (i.e. the potential energy
made more positive).

M E LT I N G , B O I L I N G A N D
E VA P O R AT I O N
During melting, the thermal energy
supplied is used to increase the
separation between molecules without
increasing the average kinetic energy of
the molecules. Hence, solids melt
without any increase in temperature.

M E LT I N G , B O I L I N G A N D
E VA P O R AT I O N
In liquids, the stored potential energy in
the molecules is more negative (greater
in magnitude) as compared to that in
gases due to the lesser separation
between molecules in liquids.
In order to boil, the liquid molecules
need to separated further (i.e. the
potential energy made more positive).

M E LT I N G , B O I L I N G A N D
E VA P O R AT I O N
During boiling, the thermal energy
supplied is used to increase the
separation between molecules without
increasing the average kinetic energy of
the molecules. Hence, liquids boil
without any increase in temperature.

M E LT I N G , B O I L I N G A N D
E VA P O R AT I O N
Question 2:
During evaporation, the fastest moving
molecules , i.e. the molecules with the
greatest kinetic energies on the surface
of the liquid undergo a change in phase
(into gas).
This causes a reduction in the average
kinetic energy of the liquid.

M E LT I N G , B O I L I N G A N D
E VA P O R AT I O N
A reduction in the average kinetic energy
would reduce the temperature of the
liquid because the average kinetic energy
is proportional to the temperature of the
liquid.

S P E C I F I C H E AT C A PA C I T Y
Definition: Specific heat capacity is the
amount of thermal energy needed to cause a
unit temperature change per unit mass of a
substance without any change in phase.
How do we determine the specific heat
capacity of a substance? Refer to the next 3
slides.

S P E C I F I C H E AT C A PA C I T Y

S P E C I F I C H E AT C A PA C I T Y

S P E C I F I C H E AT C A PA C I T Y
Box 21.1, pages 337, Chapter 21:
Thermal Physics; Cambridge
International AS and A Level
Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones,
Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK,2014.

EXAMPLE
Worked Example and Figure
21.14, page 337, Chapter 21:
Thermal Physics; Cambridge
International AS and A Level
Physics Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and Woodside,
2nd edition, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.

S P EC I F I C L AT E N T H E AT
Definition: Specific latent heat is the amount
of thermal energy needed to cause phase
change to occur in per unit mass of a
substance
without
any
change
in
temperature.
Note: Specific refers to per unit of mass.
How do we determine the specific latent heat
of a substance? Refer to the next 2 slides.

S P EC I F I C L AT E N T H E AT

S P EC I F I C L AT E N T H E AT

Box 21.2, pages 339 and 340, Chapter 21: Thermal Physics; Cambridge International
AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.

T Y P E S O F L AT E N T H E AT
There are two kinds of latent heat; latent heat
of fusion and latent heat of vaporisation.
Fusion is the phase change that occurs when a
liquid undergoes phase change to become
solid. Fusion is the opposite of melting.
Vaporisation is the phase change that occurs
when a liquid undergoes phase change into
gas. Vaporisation is opposite to condensation.

EXAMPLES

Worked Example 3, page 339, Chapter 21: Thermal Physics; Cambridge

International AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.

C O M P A R I N G L AT E N T H E AT S O F
F U S I O N W I T H V A P O R I S AT I O N
The data in the table compares the
specific latent heats of fusion and
vaporisation. You will observe that the
specific latent heats of vaporisation will
be higher than the specific latent heats
of fusion for all the substances given?
Why is this so?

C O M P A R I N G L AT E N T H E AT S O F
F U S I O N W I T H V A P O R I S AT I O N

Source: http://www.kshitij-school.com/Study-Material/Class-11/Physics/Heat-andfirst-law-of-thermodynamics/Latent-heat/2.jpg

C O M P A R I N G L AT E N T H E AT S O F
F U S I O N W I T H V A P O R I S AT I O N
When a unit mass of a substance changes
phase from a liquid to gas, it undergoes a
greater increase in volume as compared to
when a solid changes into a liquid.
This means that the required amount of
change of average potential energy per unit
mass during the vaporisation process is much
greater than that for the fusion process for
the same substance.

C O M P A R I N G L AT E N T H E AT S O F
F U S I O N W I T H V A P O R I S AT I O N
Hence, the required increase in internal
energy per unit mass would be larger in
vaporisation (or condensation) as compared
to melting (or fusion) for the same
substance.
The added thermal energy changes only the
average potential energy of the molecules.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008 Paper 4, Question 2.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008 Paper 4, Question 2 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008 Paper 4, Question 2 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008 Paper 4, Question 2 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008 Paper 4, Question 2 (contd).

WORK DONE ON A GAS

Assume we have a frictionless moving piston
that attached to a container that contains gas.
We apply a compressive force as shown below.
Figure 21.9 b, page 332, Chapter 21: Thermal
Physics; Cambridge International AS and A Level
Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.

WORK DONE ON A GAS

The gas is pushed inwards; i.e. undergoes
compression
under
constant
pressure
conditions as seen below.
Figure 19.4(b), page 626: Chapter 19:
THE FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS; SEARS AND
ZEMANSKYS UNIVERSITY PHYSICS
WITH MODERN PHYSICS; Young,
Hugh D. and Freedman, Roger A.,
Addison Wesley, San Francisco, 2012.

WORK DONE ON A GAS

We are pushing the against the gas; i.e. doing
positive work on the gas.
The molecules that collide with the moving
piston will bounce off faster, thus increasing
the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
This causes the internal energy to increase,
hence the temperature of the gas increases.

WORK DONE ON A GAS

How do we calculate this work done on the
gas? Use
      
o   work done on the gas, in J;
o   the constant pressure, in Pa;
o
= change in volume (amount of compression),
in m3
o
 = final volume, in m3
o
 = initial volume, in m3

WO R K D O N E BY A G A S
What happens if the gas pushes outwards; i.e.
undergoes expansion under constant pressure
conditions as seen below?
Figure 19.4(a), page 626: Chapter 19:
THE FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS; SEARS AND
ZEMANSKYS UNIVERSITY PHYSICS
WITH MODERN PHYSICS; Young,
Hugh D. and Freedman, Roger A.,
Addison Wesley, San Francisco, 2012.

WO R K D O N E BY A G A S
Now, the gas does work on the surroundings;
i.e. work done by gas is negative.
This is because the molecules bounce off
slower, thus reducing the average kinetic
energy of the molecules.
This reduces the internal energy of the
molecules and the temperature of the gas.

WO R K D O N E BY A G A S
How do we calculate this work done by the
gas? We may use
      
o where   work done by the gas, in J;
o   the constant pressure, in Pa;
o
= change in volume (amount of expansion), in
m3
o
 = final volume, in m3
o
 = initial volume, in m3

CHANGES IN INTERNAL ENERGY

A N D C H A N G E S I N S TAT E
Recall the state variables: P, V and T.
A change in any one of the state
variables will cause a change in state;
the system moves from one state to
another.
A change in state may cause the internal
energy of the system to change.

CHANGES IN INTERNAL ENERGY

A N D C H A N G E S I N S TAT E
Changes in state are path
independent. This means that if we
move from state A to state D directly, or
move from state A to B to C then to D ,
  

SYSTEM/SURROUNDINGS
Before we look at the first law of
thermodynamics, it is a good idea
first to understand what is meant by
system
and
its
the
term
surroundings.
It is up to us to define the system
(and surroundings).

SYSTEM/SURROUNDINGS
For example, if we have cylinder that is
fitted with a piston that contains an ideal
gas, then:
the ideal gas alone could be the system, then
the cylinder and piston and everything else
would be the surroundings;
II. the cylinder, piston and ideal gas can be the
system. In this case everything else will be the
surroundings.

I.

SYSTEM/SURROUNDINGS
If we have an electrical heater that is
placed in a beaker containing a liquid, the
system could either be:
the heater only , in this case the liquid
and the beaker and everything else is the
surroundings; or
II. the heater, the liquid and the beaker; i.e.
everything else is the surrounding.
I.

F I RST L AW O F
THERMODYNAMICS
Definition: The first law of thermodynamics
states that the change in the amount of
internal energy of a system is equal to the
sum of the amount of the work done on the
system and the amount of thermal energy
added to the system.

F I RST L AW O F
THERMODYNAMICS
Mathematically,

; where

  the increase in internal energy

of the system;

  the thermal energy added to the
system; and

  the work done on the system
(by the surroundings).

F I RST L AW O F
THERMODYNAMICS
What this means is we can change the internal
energy of a system either by:
adding to (  or removing from ( 
thermal energy in a system;
II. The surrounding doing work on a system (
,
or the system doing work on the surroundings
(
);
III. Both I and II above

I.

EXAMPLES
Question 3, page
332, Chapter 21:
Thermal Physics;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.

C YC LIC PROC ESSES

A cyclic process is a process which returns the
state of a system to its initial state.
Since the system returns to its initial state, the
increase in internal energy of the system is
zero; or   .
Thus total thermal energy added to the
system plus the work done on the system; or
  
 .


EXAMPLES

Example 19.4, page 633: Chapter 19: THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS; SEARS AND
ZEMANSKYS UNIVERSITY PHYSICS WITH MODERN PHYSICS; Young, Hugh D. and Freedman,
Roger A., Addison Wesley, San Francisco, 2012.

EXAMPLES
Figure 19.13, example 19.4, page 633:
Chapter 19: THE FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS; SEARS AND
ZEMANSKYS UNIVERSITY PHYSICS WITH
MODERN PHYSICS; Young, Hugh D. and
Freedman, Roger A., Addison Wesley,
San Francisco, 2012.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 41, question 2.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 41, question 2 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 41, question 2 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 41, question 2 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 41, question 2 (contd).

HOMEWORK
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Question 3, Paper 4, Summer 2009.

Question 3, Paper 41, Winter 2009.
Question 2, Paper 42, Winter 2009.
Question 2, Paper 41, Summer 2010.
Question 3, Paper 42, Summer 2010.
Question 2, Paper 41, Winter 2011.
Question 2, Paper 43, Winter 2011.
Question 3, Paper 41, Summer 2012.

HOMEWORK
9. Question 3, Paper 42, Summer 2012.
10.Question 2, Paper 41, Winter 2012.
11.Question 3, Paper 41, Winter 2012.