Speciation

The formation of new species is termed speciation. Speciation can be a result of genetic
changes occurring typically in isolated populations. It is almost always preceded by geographical
isolation of a population from other populations of the same species. Further exchange of genes
between the original and new species will be impossible. Therefore, mutations, gene
recombination and genetic drift will result in genetic incompatibility and no offspring will ever
be formed. To put in a simple equation, geographical isolation plus genetic change result to new
species. Geographic isolation provides the necessary time for the drifting process. The time it
takes depends on many factors but one thing is for sure, there will be an emergence of new
species. This formation of new species results to phylogenesis or the formation of new taxa.
(Kent & Carr, 2001)
Simply put, speciation is a lineage-splitting event that gives off two different species.
Speciation may either be anagenesis or cladogenesis. Anagenesis is when a single species
changes over time into a new form that is different enough to be considered a new species.
Cladogenesis is when a species splits into two groups with different gene pool. Speciation can
also be considered as sympatric, allopatric or parapatric. Sympatric speciation occurs when
populations of a species that share the same habitat become reproductively isolated from each
other. This is a rare type of speciation. The most common one, allopatric, occurs when
populations of a species become geographically isolated. Parapatric speciation is extremely rare.
It occurs when populations are separated not by a geographical barrier, such as a body of water,
but by an extreme change in habitat. [1]

As clich as it sounds, change is an inevitable process. In the field of speciation, one of

the most observed changes is that which concerns the language used by the evolutionary
biologists. Like any science that matures, speciation has developed new terms and new concepts
through time. Technological advancement and improved research facilities may be the factors to
be credited for the changes in speciation, specifically, speciation language. More often than not,
its language has become more complex than ever a sign of improvement in the field as well as
the understanding of humans. But still, new scientific terms and concepts must have consilience
that is why the works of Mayr and Dobzhansky still serve as reference points for speciation
literature. The morphing and development of terms and concepts isnt a hundred percent
straightforward which means that ambiguity is always present. Hence, the challenge for the
proponents is to provide a convincing rationale for why the new term is to be used and the
former term be discarded. In the end, even after careful observations, the language used in a field
like this will always have a bias depending on our own experiences.[2] It should be recognized
that the speciation process, the source of remarkable diversity, is probably as diverse in its
characteristics as the lineages it produces. (Harrison, 2012)
As the morphing and development of the speciation language was brought to light, it is
only proper to think of using the terms and concepts of speciation that have evolved through time
and have faced different obstacles. Consider the case of subterranean insects. Since speciation
was defined as the sum of geographical isolation and genetic change, cave organisms have been
a target for evolutionary biologists who seek to answer some questions of science. Why these
organisms? Basically, they are considered to be much geographically isolated. They have a
simple community structure as well as specialization. But then, study of this group of organisms
does not prove to be that easy. Understanding of the different models (allopatric model,
2

parapatric model, etc) is an important factor as well as the knowledge of the following
parameters: dispersal capacity, population size and ability to adapt and persist. With the use of
technologies, study of this group of animals can be made bearable. It is through these
technologies that unrecognized species have been revealed with the use of molecular data.[3]
Another study on speciation that involves insects is focused on the effect of divergent
selection to speciation. Divergent natural selection has been shown to promote speciation in a
wide range of taxa. As early as Darwins time, the idea that adaptation to different environments
can promote speciation has surfaced and phytophagous insects have been known to show this
adaptation. Research on these insects has contributed on the field of ecological speciation.
Ecological speciation is defined as the process by which barriers to gene flow evolve between
populations as a result of ecologically-based divergent selection (Schluter, 2000, 2009). Selection
is ecological when it arises as a consequence of the interaction of individuals with their
environment during resource acquisition or from the interaction of individuals with other
organisms in their attempt to achieve resources (e.g., competition). Selection is divergent when it
acts in contrasting directions in the two populations (this includes the case in which selection
favors opposite phenotypes within a single population, normally termed disruptive selection).
(Matsubayashi, 2009) So basically, there are three components of ecological speciation. The first
is the so-called source of divergent selection which can be differences in environments, sexual
selection, and interaction between populations (competition, predation). Second component is a
form of reproductive isolation (premating or postmating isolation). The third component is the
mechanism that links selection to reproductive isolation. Nowadays, there is a significant
increase in the genetic studies of ecological speciation, thanks to model species like the
phytophagous insects.[4]
3

Now that different groups of living things were put in their respective species, it is time to
relate all these species to one another. After knowing about speciation, it is thus important to
know about phylogeny or relationship by common ancestry. Phylogeny s often represented by
what is called phylogenetic trees. These phylogenetic trees represent the evolutionary
relationship of species. They give information about underlying speciation and extinction pattern.
Phylogenetic trees not only inform systematists about the evolutionary relationship of species,
but also allow us to infer evolutionary dynamics of the considered species clade using
comparative methods (Harvey & Pagel, 1991). Methods to account speciation and extinction
have been formulated. The first method uses ranked tree shapes. Second, methods being based on
the reconstructed tree with branch lengths have been proposed to quantify speciation and
extinction rates and to test between different hypothesized speciation-extinction models (beyond
only testing between species-speciation-exchangeable models and species-non-exchangeable
models inducing non-uniform ranked tree shape distributions).[5]
Based on all the terms and concepts that were discussed above, it is safe to assume that
speciation is a complex process that depends on many factors. These factors can either prevent or
promote the formation of new species. The vital components/factors are isolation (reproductive
or geographical) and genetic change.[6] With these two factors present, speciation is inevitable.
Development of speciation language is somewhat ambiguous because of the difficulty faced after
translation. Thanks to advanced technology though, accurate and more data are being obtained
today. After species formation, phylogenetics comes next. A phylogenetic tree is used to show
information regarding the species speciation and extinction dynamics. To sum up, speciation is
an important factor that decides the types of organisms that exist on Earth. Without speciation,

genetic pools will remain the same. When this happens, diversity also decreases. Low diversity is
generally a poor condition because it decreases the probability of eradicating bad genes.

References
[1]

Kent, G., Carr, R. (2001) McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. New York. p.16

[2]

Harrison, R. (2012) The Language of Speciation. Evolution 66-12: 36433657

[3]

Carlos, J., Emerson, B. (2010) Evolution underground: shedding light on the diversification of

subterranean insects. Journal of Biology 9:17

[4]

Matsubayashi, K., Ohshima, I., Nosil, P. (2009) Ecological speciation in phytophagous insects.

Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 134: 127

[5]

Stadler, T. (2013) Recovering speciation and extinction dynamics based on phylogenies.

Evolutionary Biology 26, pp.12031219

[6]

Crow, J. (2009) Mayr, mathematics and the study of evolution. Journal of Biology 8:13