SUMMARY INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

Overview: The lectures will address issues such as:

1. IR theories (main strands and protagonists)
a. Week 1 the mainstream in ir why do we need theories? what are they good
for?
i. Lecture 1 Intro to the study of IR: history, ideas, ontology, epistemology
and methodology
ii. Lecture 2 - Mainstream theories: Liberalism (and its strands)
iii. Lecture 3 Mainstream theories: Realism (and its strands)
b. Week 2 challenges to the mainstream (l4 and l5)
i. Lecture 4 Beyond realism and liberalism: English School & Social
Constructivism
ii. Lecture 5 Challenges to the mainstream: critical approaches (Marxism and
Critical Theory) to the study of IR
2. Philosophy and IR normative thinking in IR
a. Week 3 philosophy and ir: historical and critical theory perspectives (l6 & l7
i. Lecture 6- IR, Philosophy, and the Historical Perspective
ii. Lecture 7- IR, Philosophy, and the Critical Perspective
3. International organisations and international regimes
a. Week 4 globalisation, global governance and international regimes (l8 & l9)
i. Lecture 8 International Regimes & International Organisations
ii. Lecture 9 Globalisation & Global Governance
4. War and peace
5. Humanitarian intervention
a. Week 5 saving strangers: the challenges of humanitarian intervention
i. Lecture 10 War and Peace
ii. Lecture 11 Humanitarian Intervention
6. Emerging Powers the BRICS
7. Poverty, development, and human security
a. Week 6 BRICS: the rise of new global powers (l12 & l13)
i. Lecture 12 - Emerging powers in World Politics
ii. Lecture 13 - Poverty, the South and Human Security
8. The environment and IR
a. Week 7 global governance and the environment (l14)
i. Lecture 14 - Global Governance and the Environment
Tutorials - deepening the topics presented in lectures
Theoretical insight: different schools of thought, critical theory, the societal relevance of
studying IR
International cooperation: international regimes, international (governmental) organizations,
issues (non-) compliance.
International conflict: war and peace, humanitarian interventions
Normative basis of global cooperation: International law, the universal quality of values,
ethics and global politics.
Workshop content
Workshop 1 International Relations and popular culture
Workshop 2 What should be done, what can be done? And what is the role of academics?
Workshop 3 Philosophy and IR
Workshop 4 Critically recasting Globalisation

Take-home exam
A 2000-word essay centered around discussing a primary source and linking the discussion to
conceptual debates that were covered in lectures and tutorials. The text will have to be structured
with an intro, body, and conclusions just like a normal academic essay. Literature and evidence
will have to be incorporated into the essay.
For this take-home exam students will have to write a 2000-word essay centered around
discussing a primary source and linking the discussion to conceptual debates that were covered in
lectures and tutorials. The text will have to be structured with an intro, body, and conclusions just
like a normal academic essay. Literature and evidence will have to be incorporated into the essay.
The exact topic question/s and sub-questions (including relevant instructions) will be uploaded 48
hours before the deadline as specified above.
WEEK 1 THE MAINSTREAM IN IR WHY DO WE NEED THEORIES? WHAT ARE
THEY GOOD FOR? (L1, L2 & L3)
In this first assignment of the course, we look at the mainstream debates in the study of IR. In
particular we will discuss why is theory needed in the study of IR; how theories are used, and why
we do not have just one theory to the study of IR. We will also look at how theories in IR develop
and what is the interaction between theory and practical politics. A particularly important
question in this1st tutorial is - What constitutes the international system? We will particularly
discuss how different IR theories explain this issue and what level of analysis they adopt.
Furthermore, this session focuses on the main driving forces of international affairs according to the
two mainstream approaches neo-realism and neoliberalism / neoliberal institutionalism. The
ability to distinguish between the similarities and differences of these two approaches is of
particular importance here. Ultimately, it is important that at the end of this tutorial we are able to
point at the main issue/s in the so-called neo-neo-debate and express an informed opinion on the
current state of affairs in it. A useful way to start practicing your understanding of these approaches
is to link the basic readings for your lecture with the more advanced/applied readings for the
tutorial. See if you can discern how Waltz, Ikenberry, Annan and Mearsheimer apply theoretical
ideas in discussing actual political events. Do you agree or disagree with them? Can you offer your
own theoretically informed interpretation on some of the main news of the day/week?
Key concepts: anarchy; security dilemma; survival; self-help; relative vs absolute gains;
international cooperation and interdependence
Case studies:
The Iranian nuclear issue
The crisis in Ukraine
The role of the UN
US foreign policy
Russias foreign policy
TUTORIAL Mandatory readings
Ikenberry, John. (2009) Liberal Internationalism 3.0: America and the Dilemmas of Liberal
World Order, Perspectives on Politics, 7(1) pp. 71-88.
Kofi Annan (2005) "In Larger Freedom": Decision Time at the UN Foreign Affairs,
(May/June), 84 (3) pp.63-74.
Waltz, Kenneth, (2012) Why Iran Should Get the Bomb, Foreign Affairs (July/August), 91
(4) pp.2-5
John J. Mearsheimer (2014) Why the Ukraine Crisis Is the Wests Fault: The Liberal
Delusions That Provoked Putin, Foreign Affairs, (September/October), 93 (5) pp. 7789.

WORKSHOP International Relations and popular culture

MANDATORY READINGS
Drezner, Daniel (2010) Night of the Living Wonks: Toward an international relations theory
of zombies. Foreign Policy, July/August, Issue 180, pp. 34-38.
Lawson, George (2011) The Living Dead: On the Strange Persistence of Zombie
International Relations. Blog post, November.
http://thedisorderofthings.com/2011/11/10/the-living- dead-on-the-strange-persistence-ofzombie-international-relations/
Weber, Cynthia (2009) Introduction: culture, ideology and the myth function in IR theory,
in International Relations Theory. A critical introduction. Routledge. pp.1-9 (copy from
your tutor)
LECTURE 1 International Relations Intro to a Discipline
MANDATORY READINGS
Kurki, Milja and Colin Wight (2013) International Relations and Social Science, in Dunne,
T. et al. (eds.) International relations theories. Discipline and Diversity, 3rd ed. OUP, pp.
14-33
Nye, Joseph S. (2008) International Relations: The Relevance of Theory to Practice, in
Christian Reus-Smit and Duncan Snidal (eds.): The Oxford Handbook of International
Relations; Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 64860.
Todays Lecture
What is International Relations about?
Main research interests of International Relations (as a sub-discipline of political science)
What do we need theory for?
Thinking theory thoroughly
Ontology, epistemology, methodology
Great Debates in IR
Positivism vs Post-Positivism
Types of theories
What is International Relations about?
World Politics, Inter-national Politics and Inter- national Relations
International Relations used for convenience - a commonly used term
But in this course we will be interested in World Politics - the political relations (broadly defined)
between not only nation-states but also between states, transnational actors, IOs, Regimes, the
individual.
Types of questions What is the shape and process of international politics?
(description)
What are causes for observed shape and process? How can regularities be detected and
generalized into laws? (explanation and theory-building)
Can we be content with established shape and process when judging by certain normative
criteria? Why do these processes occur? (How) Could we do better? (assessment and normative
critique)
How? Why? So what? interpretative questions, pointing at the significance of your enquiry.
What do we need theory for!?
Guidance for research interpretation/explanation (of data- sets) is unavoidable and different
theoretical lenses would lead to different interpretations  Competent analysis requires
knowledge of the advantages and limits of the different theoretical approaches

 To challenge prejudices and suggest new questions and perspectives - when implicit
assumptions, conventional wisdom, or heavy cultural lenses, predominate.
Challenge and evaluate political practice, especially when particular politically convenient
reasoning dominates the discourse.
What do we need theory for (2)
Theories simplify complexity to make it easier to grasp contemporary, multilayered political
processes
International Relations is a discipline defined by its theories - so knowledge of its theories
becomes a precondition for understanding the discipline.
What can a theory deliver - Upgrading research in a given field of study
It takes theoretical reflection to summarise and synthesise the findings of empirical studies.
Lisa Martin on the study of IOs:
For a long time the discipline has been quite policy-oriented and descriptive, lacking an
overarching analytical framework. This lack of a theoretical foundation meant that, although
individual studies generated strong insights, they did not culminate to create a coherent picture of
[...], the role of international organisations in the world economy. This changed with the publication
of Krasners International Regimes and Keohanes After Hegemony. [Both] books [...] suggested
novel explanatory framework for studying international organisations] (2007: 110-11, quoted in
Jorgensen 2010)
To be able to understand theory application... Thinking Theory Thoroughly (Rosenau 1980)
Be genuinely puzzled by international phenomena - ask research questions about specific or
patterned phenomena
Be predisposed to ask of every event, every situation, or every observed phenomenon: Of
what is it an instance?  i.e. What is the larger picture/pattern/category, of which the
observed event is a part?
Be able to assume that human affairs are founded on an underlying principle if events were
assumed to happen randomly there would be little point in theorising.
Be ready to accept (and appreciate) the need to sacrifice detailed descriptions for broad
observations
The driving forces of theoretical advances
Real world developments: e.g.
Experience of World Wars I & II
Rise and decline of nations (e.g. colonial powers, US, BRICs)
Skills revolution, emancipation, waves of democracy
Increasing inter-dependence and cooperation among nations
End of the cold war
September 11, 2001
Financial crises (2008-present) International Relations as a problem driven discipline
The driving forces (2)
Development of scientific methodology in the study of social sciences
From positivism - to post-positivism
From explanatory and problem-solving theories to interpretative and critical (emancipatory)
approaches.  IR as a sub-discipline of Social Sciences
Ontology and epistemology in IR
Ontology (Greek: on, ont being). Theory of being: What exists, what is the world made of
and therefore what our objects of analysis in IR are (the state; individual action; the system as a
whole; cooperation; ideas/discourse);

 Are actors in IR atomistic strategic egoists with interests formed prior to social interaction;
OR are they inherently social actors whose identity and interests are formed thanks to social
interaction?
Epistemology Theory of Knoweledge (From Greek: episteme knowledge; epistasthai know
how to do)How we come to know the world? & How we can study IR?
What are the sources of explanation for the characteristics and behaviour of states, individuals
or systems; What is the credible criteria that we can gaining knowledge. What is the basis for the
justification and verification of knowledge claims.
How to Know?
Empiricist cause-effect logic: shedding light on the ways in which strategic actors can change
or reproduce the rules of the international system through rational action.
Observing the objectively existing empirical data, measuring and generating explanations!
Separates facts and values as well as subject and object.Objective world exists independently
of human consciousness. Objective knowledge is possible (if we exclude values from the
analysis). Constitutive legitimacy/co-constitution of reality: Sheds light on the ideational
rationale for actors actions. Enquires at their values, beliefs, ideas and social interaction. It helps us
understand how actors and the system co-constitute each other.  Interpretation of the
unobservable (such as ideas or beliefs) and generating understanding  Problematizes empiricist
objectivity; Takes into account both facts and values; Does not see the subject & object of analysis
as separate; Focuses on interpretation and understanding; Language and the process of
communication are important.
Methodology Theory of methods Methodology what methods we use to acquire data and
evidence.
Empiricist (natural science-like approach): If you cannot measure it, it does not exist
Quantitative methods of analysis trying to quantify even qualitative data statistical methods;
experiments that are repeatable; mathematical models in Political science electoral behaviour;
party politics, etc.
Constitutive/interpretative:
Qualitative methods of analysis; Discursive inquiry (how is language used); Historical inquiry
(what is the context and how have the problematised processes been evolving in time).

.
.

Debates shaping IR as discipline

st
1 Debate: (pre- & post- WWII) Idealism vs Realism (role of institutions and avoiding war;
IR: a science or an alchemy...?)
nd
2 Debate (1960s) traditionalists vs modernizers in IR (towards a scientifically rigorous
methodology; the rise of behaviourism & identification of the scientific status of IR with
positivism. If IR is to be a true sceince it has to be positivist...)
rd
3 Debate (the 70s and 80s) inter-paradigm debate: realism/ pluralism/Marxism (acceptance
of positivist epistemology and methodology; differ in their definition of what is important in IR:
war; OR institutions/trade; OR economic power/inequality)
th
4 Debate (mid 80s-present): Positivism vs post-positivism (Mainly about epistemological
and methodological differences in the study of IR: How we can study IR? How we know what we
claim to know?)
Positivism
1. Unity of science: objective and verifiable methodology can be applied in both the scientific and
non-scientific domains of knowledge (e.g. to both physics and history)
2. Objective knowledge: distinction between facts and values. Facts are neutral, while values may

.
.

cloud our scientific judgement...

3. Regularities and general (scientific) laws can be discovered in social sciences if we follow the
scientific method: systemic observation; collection of sufficient data; objective measurement;
empirical validation through repeated experiments.
4. Empiricism - The way to determine the truth in social sciences is by appeal to neutral facts and
not to ideas, interests or values.
Post-Positivism
The wholesale rejection of these 4 assumptions characterizes the wide field of post-positivist
social science.
This opens the field to re-thinking of the way we perceive and practice the process of
knowledge accumulation.
A current day debate
Positivism has been the dominant view of what science is for decades. Yet, it gives way to new
approaches to knowing social science in general and IR in particular.
The world is ontologically highly complex. Methods employed in one science may not have
universal application in another => Social Science cannot copy natural sciences as a rule.
No single epistemology has superiority over another in acquiring knowledge. We can know the
world in many ways. However, we should be able to critically adjudicate between competing
knowledge claims. Claims should be open to challenge and robust reasoning for that challenge.
Science = commitment to Critique!
No a priori restriction of methods. Both quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis are
valid and possible but we should know their epistemological grounds and strengths & limitations.
Types of theories 1. Explanatory theory 2 types
1.1. Account of causes in a temporal sequence (end of the Cold War series of connected events).
1.2. Locates a fundamental causal role of concrete elements in IR (anarchy; security dilemma) and
draws general conclusions/predictions Structural Realism.
Theory is considered a simplifying device Theory is useful in its predictive quality.
Types of theory
2. Problem solving theory Concerned only with taking the world as given and attempting to
understand its model of operation. Also concerned with making the world work better within clearly
defined and limited parameters (Cox: Realism, Liberalism, etc are all PSTs).
3. Critical theory about criticising particular social arrangements or outcomes and demonstrating
how they have come to exist. I.e. identification of an unjust state of affairs + consideration of the
causes of that state of affairs (some feminist theories fit this model).
Types of theory
4. Normative theory indicates alternative social modes of operation that do not currently exist
but might be brought into being.
Weak version examines only what ought to be the case in a particular domain: theories of
justice (discuss both what justice IS and what it ought to be).
Strong version also called utopian as it sets out to provide models of how society ought to be
reorganised. (Marxist theory; also Idealism/ Liberalism).
Types of theory
5. Constitutive theory does not attempt to generate or track causal patterns in time but asks: How
is this thing constituted?
State theory What is a state? How a state is constituted (not how it came to be).
Social Constructivism examines the ways in which rules, norms and ideas constitute social
objects (money; green politics; democracy; etc.). The social world is constituted through the ideas
or theories that we hold.

To recap
What do we need theory for: To structure research To challenge prejudices and suggest new
perspectives.
Evaluate political practice, and shed light on dominant discourses.
Knowledge of theory does not have alternative in learning IR. It is defined by its theories.
Theory and practice what is the link about?
Food for thought in the weeks to come:
How do theories help us understand reality?
What role do theories play in understanding discrete IR events and processes?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the leading theories of IR?
Can theories help us uncover the future?
LECTURE 2 Liberalism: ideals and ideas
MANDATORY READINGS
Dunne, T. (2014): Liberalism (Ch.7), in: Baylis, John, Smith, Steve and Owens, Patricia
(eds.): The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations.
Oxford: Oxford University Press (6th ed.), pp. 113-124.
Lamy, Stephen (2014): Contemporary Mainstream Approaches: Neo-Realism and NeoLiberalism (Ch.8) in: Baylis, John, Smith, Steve and Owens, Patricia (eds.) work cited
(Study Landscape) only pp.132-138.
Dr Hylke Dijkstra
Battle of Solferino (1859)
1864 Geneva Convention
Ambulances and military hospitals shall be recognized as neutral, and as such, protected and
respected by the belligerents (art 1)
Inhabitants of the country who bring help to the wounded shall be respected and shall remain free
(art 5)
Wounded or sick combatants, to whatever nation they may belong, shall be collected and cared
for (art 6)
A distinctive and uniform flag shall be adopted for hospitals, ambulances and evacuation parties ...
it shall bear a red cross on a white ground (art 7)of Arts and Social Sciences 3
Int'l Committee of the Red Cross
The custodian of the Geneva Conventions Impartial, neutral and independent organisation
Care for wounded soldiersInspection of POW camps (since WWI) Protection of civilians (since
1949) Application to civil wars (since 1949)
Code of silence: no public stanceof Arts and Social Sciences 4
Red Cross: Liberalism in Action
Individualism and human rightsCooperation even during warCompliance through international
institutions Entrepreneurship by non-state actor
Agenda for Today
Facets of liberalism Liberalism in XX century
Democracies and War International Organizations
Facets of liberalism
Globalisation
Society-state relations
Individualism
Cooperation

Progress
Facets: Globalisation
Andrew Moravcsik (00:07-00:59) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7D5FNrqT5dM
Facets: Globalisation
"[G]lobal economic development over the past five hundred years has been closely related to
greater per capita wealth, democratization, education systems that reinforce new collective
identities, and greater incentives for transborder economic transactions. Realist theory accords these
changes no theoretical importance. Theorists like Waltz, Gilpin, and Paul Kennedy limit realism to
the analysis of unchanging patterns of state behavior or the cyclical rise and decline of great
powers. Liberal theory, by contrast, forges a direct causal link between economic, political,
and social change and state behavior in world politics." (Moravcsik 1997: 535).
Facets: Society-state relations
"[T]he state is not an actor but a representative institution constantly subject to capture and
recapture, construction and reconstruction by coalitions of social actors. Representative institutions
and practices constitute the critical 'transmission belt' by which the preferences and social power of
individuals and groups are translated into state policy." (Moravcsik 1997: 518).
State preferences are not exogenous and determined by the system (neorealism) but instead
endogenous.
Facets: Individualism
Michael Doyle (00:42-01:22) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X8tgDKq5HS4of Arts and
Facets: Individualism
Michael Doyle on Kant: recognise the fact that every human being should be treated like an end,
not a means
Liberalism ... taps into deep chords of common humanity that lend confidence that all may some
day follow a similar path towards liberation, allowing for the appropriate national and cultural
differences. People will liberate themselves by modernizing themselves. (Doyle 2012: 73-74,
original emphasis).
Facets: Cooperation
Liberal theorists agree with the realists that states exist under anarchy, but they disagree as to the
nature of anarchy (Doyle 2012: 65)of Arts and
Facets: Cooperation
Coordination v. collaboration Relative v. absolute gains One-shot v. repeated games Reciprocity
Institutionalisation
Liberalism in 20 century
Globalisation and peace (pre-1914) Idealism during interbellum Complex interdependence
Neoliberal institutionalismArts and Social Sciences 16
20 century: Peace pre-1914
Margaret Macmillan on 1914 (11:33-13:17) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G_bJSXyO78M
20 century: Peace pre-1914
Norman Angell (1910: synopsis) shows that the commerce and industry of a people no longer
depend upon the expansion of its political frontiers ... that military power is socially and
economically futile ... that it is impossible for one nation to seize by force the wealth or trade of
another ... that, in short, war, even when victorious, can no longer achieve those aims for which
peoples strive.
Wars are expensive; citizens will not allow them.an

20 century: First Great Debate

Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points
every people has a right to choose the sovereignty under which they shall live. (quoted in
Ikenberry 2009: 74).
League of Nations Idealists versus realists
20 century: First Great Debate
Postwar realist critics such as Hans Morgenthau and E. H. Carr took rhetorical advantage of
liberalisms historical role as an ideology to contrast its purported altruism ('idealism,' 'legalism,'
'moralism,' or 'utopianism') with realisms 'theoretical concern with human nature as it actually is
[and] historical processes as they actually take place.' (Moravcsik 1997: 514).
The interwar 'idealists,' who are greatly disparaged, are typically depicted as a group of utopian
pacifists and legalists who focused their attention on reforming international politics rather than on
analyzing the realities of politics among nations. (Schmidt 2012: 14).
20 century: Interdependence
Keohane and Nye (eds) (1971) 'Transnational Relations and World Politics', International
Organization

20 century: Interdependence
This volume does not attempt to prove that states are obsolete. We do not contend that
transnational relations will necessarily bring world peace or even reduce the likelihood of certain

types of conflict ... The essays in this volume show why we believe that the simplifications of the
state-centric approach divert the attention of scholars and statesmen away from many important
current problems and distort the analyses of others. (Keohane and Nye 1971: 748).
20 century: Institutionalism
Power and interdependence (Keohane and Nye 1977)
Bridging realism and liberalism through bargaining insights; focus on states
After Hegemony (Keohane 1984)
Institutions lower transaction costs between states Modified structural realism (Keohane 1986)
[I]nstitutionalist theory does not espouse the Wilsonian concept of collective security ... Nor does
institutionalism embrace the aspirations to transform international relations put forward by some
critical theorists. Like realism, institutionalist theory is utilitarian and rationalistic. (Keohane
and Martin 1995: 39)Social Sciences 24

Democracies and War

A common thread, from Rousseau, Kant and Cobden, to Schumpeter and Doyle, is that wars were
created by militaristic and undemocratic governments for their own vested interests (Burchill et
al. 2005: 58).
When the citizens who bear the burden of war elect their governments, wars become impossible
(Doyle, 1986: 1151)
Schumpeter's explanation for liberal pacifism is quite simple: Only war profiteers and military
aristocrats gain from wars. No democracy would pursue a minority interest and tolerate the high
costs of imperialism (Doyle 1986: 1153)
[A] new 'post post-Vietnam' pattern has emerged in which public support for military force is
neither as generally strong as during the 'Cold War consensus' nor as generally weak as during the
'Vietnam trauma,' but rather varies according to the principal policy objective for which force is
used (Jentleson 1992: 49).
Americans do appear to have a much more pragmatic sense of strategy than they are given credit
for-an approach to the world that is actually 'pretty prudent' when it comes to the use of military
force (ibid.: 71).Sciences 29
Democracies and War
Very little empirical evidence
Korea, Vietnam, Somalia, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, etc.
US Defence Budget / World: 36.6% (SIPRI 2013)

10

Democracies and War

Democracies don't fight each other (Doyle 1986)
Domestic norms / balance / prudence Common moral values / respectEconomic cooperation / spirit
of commerce
Kant's republics are capable of achieving peace among themselves because they exercise
democratic caution and are capable of appreciating the international rights of foreign republics.
(ibid.: 1162).ty of Arts and Social Sciences 31
International Organizations
Transaction costs approach
Information costs Negotiations costs Monitoring costs Enforcement costs
Delegation for credible commitments (Keohane 1984)
IAEA; European Commission; WTO Appellate Body; Red Cross
International Organizations
Legalization of World Politics (Goldstein et al. 2000)
Obligation Precision Delegation
International Organizations
Rational Design of International Institutions (Koremenos et al. 2001)
MembershipScope Centralisation Control mechanisms Flexibility
International Organizations
Delegation and Agency in International Organizations (Hawkins et al. 2006)
IOs as 'agents' from the member states
IOs have some autonomy, but it is predetermined, foreseen, or marginal
States can recontractof Arts and Social Sciences 35
International Organizations
Institutional Choice in Global Commence (Jupille et al. 2013)
Bounded rationality approach Use IOs
Select IOs Change IOs Create IOsof Arts and Social Sciences 36
International Organizations
Contested Multilateralism (Morse and Keohane 2014), Unilateral Control (Stone 2011; Urpelainen
2012), Institutional Capture (Urpelainen and Van de Graaf 2014)
Power-based analyses of IOs.Groups of member states dominate IOs.
IMFNorth-South in UN Emerging powers
Conclusions
Liberalism as an ideal
Liberalism as an idea
Reinvention and dynamism of liberal thought

11

Recurring facets
LECTURE 3 Unpacking the mainstream: REALISM
MANDATORY READINGS
Dunne, Tim and Schmidt, Brian (2014): Realism; chpt. 6 in: Baylis, John, Smith, Steve and
Owens, Patricia (eds.) work cited, (Study Landscape), pp. 99-112.
Lamy, Stephen (2014): Contemporary Mainstream Approaches: Neo-Realism and NeoLiberalism (Ch.8), in Baylis, John, Smith, Steve and Owens, Patricia (eds.): work cited
only pp.128-132.
Petar Petrov
Realism the historical context
The painful reality of WWII New emphasis and critique:
- Studying what the world IS and not what it should be.
- Democracy and rule of law do not universally lead to peace. War-prone regimes can be elected
through democratic procedures.
- International institutions do not work because people are not universally peace oriented
- Idealism equals utopianism (E. H. Carr 1939)
Intellectual origins and main authors
Classical Realism main tenets Human nature is sinful, acquisitive and aggressive This
drives
political actors to power! (Niebuhr, 1932. Moral Man & Immoral Society; Morgenthau 1948.
Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace)
Human condition - the world is based on scarcity and the real conflict is between the haves
and have-nots. The Liberals harmony of interests is a wishful thinking = not based on reality! (E.
H. Carr, 1939, The Twenty Years Crisis).
The international arena is anarchical (no ultimate authority) and hence it is a self-help, brutal
place where states look for opportunities to take advantage of each other (Thucydides; Morgenthau;
Waltz).
The power of words! The way in which Realism a theory (which might be right or wrong)
became associated with realistic (which is a quality of judgement most people want to possess), is
crucial for Realisms success.
Classical Realism Power
State interests dominate state behaviour, which is geared towards greater security and survival
(through power acquisition = military power).
International relations is about states pursuing interests, defined in terms of power
(Morgenthau 1946)
All politics is a struggle for power that is inseparable from social life itself (Morgenthau 1948).
Hans Morgenthau (1948)
1. The main signpost of political realism is the
concept of interest defined in terms of
power, which infuses rational order into the
subject matter of politics and thus makes the
theoretical understanding of politics possible.
Political realism stresses the rational, objective
and unemotional.
2. Realism assumes that interest defined as
power is an objective category, which is
universally valid but not with a meaning that is

J. Ann Tickner (1998; 430-1, 437-8)

1. A feminist perspective believes that the national
interest is multidimensional and contextually
contingent. Therefore it cannot be defined solely in terms
of power. In the contemporary world, the national interest
demands cooperative rather than zero sum solutions to
a set of interdependent global problems, which include
nuclear war, economic well being and environmental
degradation.
2. Power cannot be infused with meaning that is
universally valid. Power as domination and control
privileges masculinity and ignores the possibility of
12

fixed once and for all. Power is the control of collective empowerment, another aspect of power often
man over man.
associated with femininity.
Classical Realism Community Community, norms and identity are the only
determinants of order (Thucydidis and Morgethau).
If there is a cohesive international society (with clear norms and sense of common identity) human
passions and drives can be successfully channelled towards order and stability.
th
Morgenthau compared 18 cent. Europe & pre- Peloponesian War Greece community +
leaders sense of honour and justice; moderation of power ambitions!
This was ruptured by the French Revolution; WWI, WWII; Cold War (states rejecting the
underlying norms of international order), leading to conflict.
Classical Realism Balance of Power
At the international level BoP has contradictory implications for peace.
It might deter war if the strongest states out-power the challengers
Balancing can also intensify tensions and make war more likely (impossibility of accurately
assessing the motives, capability and resolve of other states).
Military capability and alliances are necessary safeguards in international relations, but cannot
be counted on to preserve the peace or the independence of actors. Order, domestic and
international, ultimately rest on the existence and strength of community/international society that
bound together the most important actors in the system.
Classical realism - morality
Morgenthau (1948): Realism as a theoretical perspective is aware of the moral significance of
political action.
To Morgenthaus regret, many who used his work in their courses paid less attention to the
ethical dimensions of foreign policy, which he considered equally important.
Later, he complained that Realpolitik, divorced from any ethical considerations, was the
mindset responsible for intervention in Vietnam and the disastrous war that followed.
Classical Realism and theory
Morgenthau was sceptical of the possibility of general laws and predictions based on limited
generalisations.
The social world is complex and irrational actions abound.
Best a theory can do: to state the consequences of choosing one alternative over another and the
conditions under which alternatives are possible.  Behaviourism rationality of actors affects
outcomes (main causality)
Case study: Classical realists & the invasion of Iraq
Classical Realist claims:
1. Ac0ng outside/ against the community.
2. Ac0ng out of the passions of human nature devoid of ra0onal calcula0on: Inability to formulate
coherent interests.
What actually happened:
Policymaking in the Bush administra@on was devoid of public debate and moved as much
by emo@ons as by ra@onal calcula@on.
3. As states main interest is power, the stronger they become the more power they crave. Human
nature being acquisi0ve fuels that type of behaviour. AEer the end of the Cold War, the US fell
for its unipolar
moment (mistaking power for influence). This led to a disregard for trea@es, agreements

13

and norms that constrained its interests. Intoxica@on with power led the Bush
administra@on to embrace risky foreign policy.
New developments and the return of Liberalism
In the post-war years - and specifically in height of the Cold War - Realism achieved orthodoxy
that could hardly be challenged by Liberalism
Still the 1970s and 1980s brought new issues to the fore that gave rise to renewed criticism to
Realism: - the post-Cuban Missile Crisis detente (less possibility of Hot War); the US fiasco in
Vietnam; the emergence of influential transnational actors (EEC/EC/EU; MNCs) and the growing
significance of economic and social relations worldwide.
The voice of Pluralism
As opposed to the state-centric view of Realism, Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye introduced a
pluralist view of the world, termed: Complex inter- dependence (1971, 1977)
There is a growing myriad of trans-national political relations that involve both state and non-state
actors.
Actions by non-state actors can affect our lives as much as actions by states
There is no hierarchy of issues: any issue area can come on top of the international agenda at any
time (security is just one of them).
The birth of Neo-Realism
Almost as a direct response to the pluralist challenge Kenneth Waltz considerably reinvented
Realism (Theory of International Politics. McGraw Hill. New York: 1979)
Epistemology: based on testable hypotheses, uncovering law-like regularities and explaining
reality through recourse to objective facts (problem solving theory embedded in Positivism).
Rationalism (rational-choice theory) - producing coherent and scientific theory of IR
Waltz simplified Realism - establishing it as a theory of the international system (and not a
general account of all aspects of international relations - as in Pluralism).

Waltz on Morgenthaus theorising

Hans Morgenthau, in his search for what he sometimes called a rational theory, was able to deal
only with how the acting units affected the outcomes produced. [...]
There was nothing but the acting units to shape those outcomes. In other words, there was no
concept of a structure of international politics. [...]
And that is where we got these typical statements that good states produce good outcomes, or
democracy produces peace. That is inferring from the quality of the actors what the outcomes will
be, and those are the only causal conceptions within the theory that Morgenthau developed.
(Kenneth Waltz, http://www.theory-talks.org/2011/06/theory-talk-40.html )
Structural = Neo-Realism - main tenets
The system of IR is anarchic and hence a self-help one.
The state is the main actor - not necessarily aggressive, but regarding other states as potential
threats to its survival
The state is a rational utility maximiser in that it continuously observes the other states and
ensures that it has more and/or better capabilities and power.
Balance of Power (BoP)defines the system it is the central mechanism for order in the
system (not community and rules)!
The only true balancing actors are states that can threaten each others survival (i.e. the US and
USSR during the Cold War).
Waltz: Being rational utility maximisers such superpowers will prefer to regulate their
competition rather than get rid of each other. Thus, nuclear weapons actually bring peace...
BoP and Waltz

14

 You cannot have a bipolar balance without two parties being the participants in that balance.
So, as soon as the Soviet Union disappeared as a great power, the bipolar balance collapsed, [...].
The balancing takes place within a structure; when the structure changes, the type of balancing,
or whether or not there is any balancing, is directly affected[...] (Theory Talks, Kenneth Waltz)
Is more the better? Nuclear deterrence as bringer of peace?
TT: Could it be fair to say, that having Iran as a nuclear power might be not that bad because as its
position in the structure becomes different, its behavior will adapt accordingly, and they might
become somewhat of a more responsible power?
Yes. It is hard for people to understand that every new nuclear state has behaved exactly the
way the old nuclear states have behaved. One can describe the way all nuclear states have behaved
in one word: responsibly.
The fact is that people worry that a new nuclear country, once it gets a nuclear shield, would
then begin to behave immoderately or irresponsibly under the cover of its own nuclear weapons.
Well, that has never happened. [...] If you think of the Soviet Union and China, both behaved much
more radically before they had nuclear weapons. (Theory Talks; Kenneth Waltz)
Conversa0ons with History: Kenneth Waltz
hIps://www.youtube.com/watch? v=F9eV5gPlPZg
BoP - 31:40 33:50Nuclear deterrence: 52:12 53:32
Structural Realism Power
Acknowledges the classical realist belief in the importance of state power to secure national
interests.
However, for Waltz power is more than the accumulation of military resources and coercing
others.
Power gives a state position in the system and conditions its behaviour => USSR and US the
only superpowers during the Cold War => this positioning would explain the similarity in their
behaviour (predictability!)
Offensive and defensive Realism
Power is not an end in itself (unlike classical R.) but a means to survival! How much power is
enough!?
Defensive R: only up to ensuring parity and balance of power = equilibrium of the system is
the only criteria for peace.
In a world of anarchy, too much power is not good (Waltz criticises George W Bush): it is
quite natural that countries that worry about deterring the United States would turn to nuclear
weapons. I mean, when a president iden;fies an axis of evil, names three countries, and then
invade one of them, the other two are bound to think: Hey! We beGer have nuclear weapons
because it is the only way we can deter the United States.
Offensive R: Having an overwhelming power is the best way to ensure survival. Thus,
achieving (Regional!) hegemony and ensuring that there are no other regional hegemons in the
world is the ultimate way to protect the state interests!
Human nature, anarchy, BoP, defensive and offensive realism - 12:16-16:28
Hegemony 16:42 17:34 hIps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AKFamUu6dGw
Conversations with History: John Mearsheimer
Absolute & Relative gains
Joseph Grieco: States can participate in cooperation if this increases their power and influence
(absolute gains)
However, states are predominantly concerned with how much power other states are gaining as
this can affect their security (relative gains)
2 obstacles to cooperation: cheating (not following the rules) and relative gains.
If states perceive others as gaining more (and hence threatening their survival), they are more

15

likely to cheat or abandon cooperation.

For as long as survival and uncertainty define the system of Intl Politics, states are going
to be preoccupied with relative gains => it will be hard to sustain cooperation.
Limitations of Realism
Explaining and predicting the behaviour of non- state actors case study: Terrorism
Waltz - 53:32-57:33 ; Mearsheimer: 35:55-37:07
Grappling with recognising that Globalisation poses challenges to the power of states:  Claim:
the state not only remains the primary force but also has expanded its power and effectively
manages the processes of globalisation.
Difficulty in predicting and offering solutions to security challenges posed by Globalisation
i.e. increasing inequality, migration, social unrest, etc.
The Neo-Neo Debate agree on the questions, offer different responses...
Anarchy - Both agree that it exists, BUT:- Neo-Realists it puts considerable pressure in terms
of security, hence the main goal is survival.
- Neo-Liberals international interdependence, organizations and regimes weaken the pressures of
anarchy.
International cooperation:- Neo-Realists it cannot happen or sustain unless
states see it as beneficial and it is difficult to maintain;
- Neo-Liberals it is easy to achieve in areas where states have mutual interests; It promotes
stability and order in the system.
The Neo-Neo Debate - contd. Relative vs. absolute gains:
- Neo-Realists relative gains matter the most, because the fundamental goal of states in
cooperation with others is to prevent them to gain more (important for survival).
- Neo-Liberals actors with common interests will try to maximise the gains from their
cooperation.
Institutions and Regimes:- Neo-Realists their role is over-estimated as international
cooperation cannot mitigate the constraining effects of anarchy.
- Neo-Liberalsls they are significant and real forces in international relations and have positive
effect on states calculations of security, because both facilitate cooperation.
WEEK 2 CHALLENGES TO THE MAINSTREAM (L4 AND L5)
In this week we discuss alternative approaches the mainstream views of realism and liberalism (and
their strands). While some of these approaches can be seen as alternative views to the mainstream
theorizing, some of them (e.g. constructivism) have now also become part of the main ways to
theorise IR phenomena. Nevertheless, all the perspectives discussed in this week have unsettled
some of the core ontological, epistemological and methodological assumptions that are at the basis
of realism and liberalism. New topics entered the debate in IR, given the different focus and interest
of these scholars. Moreover, some normative questions, for example What should be the role of
theories in politics and society have been raised. Questions like this have been pushing us to
reflect on what should be the societal function of thinking theoretically about international relations
or more generally What International Relations as a social science discipline is good for.
Key concepts: social construction; international society; agency-structure interaction; mutual
constitution; logic of appropriateness; ideas and norms; positivism vs post-positivism; problem
solving vs critical theory; emancipatory change; hegemony; empire.
Case-studies:
The Occupy movement
The rise of China

16

Faces of hegemonic power in international politics today

TUTORIAL MANDATORY READINGS

Thomas Risse (2000) Lets Argue, International Organization 54(1), pp. 1-41.
Barry Buzan (2010) China in International Society: Is Peaceful Rise Possible?, The
Chinese Journal of International Politics, Vol. 3, pp. 536.
Cox, Robert (1981), Social Forces, States and World Orders: Beyond International Relations
Theory. Millennium - Journal of International Studies, 10(2), pp. 126-155.
Hardt, Michael and Antonio Negri (2011): 'The Fight for 'Real Democracy' at the Heart of
Occupy Wall Street'; Foreign Affairs (11 October).
WORKSHOP What should be done, what can be done?
Paul Collier: New rules for rebuilding a broken nation;
http://www.ted.com/talks/paul_collier_s_new_rules_for_rebuildin g_a_broken_nation
Lord Nicholas Stern: The state of the climate and what we might do about it, available at:
[http://www.ted.com/talks/lord_nicholas_stern_the_state_of_the_
climate_and_what_we_might_do_about_it ]
Smith, Steve (1997): Power and Truth: A Reply to William Wallace; Review of
International Studies 23 (4) pp. 507-516.
Wallace, William (1996): Truth and Power, Monks and Technocrats: Theory and Practice in
International Relations; Review of International Studies 22 (3) pp. 301-321.
LECTURE 4 English School & Constructivism
MANDATORY READINGS
Dunne, Tim (2008) The English School, in Reus-Smith, Christian and Snidal, Duncan The
Oxford Handbook of International Relations, OUP, pp. 267-285
Barnett, Michael (2014) Social Constructivism (Ch.10) in: Baylis, John, Smith, Steve and
Owens, Patricia (eds.) work cited, pp. 150- 164.
Benedetta Voltolini
Outline
English School
Constructivism
Recap
English School
Background
Key concepts
Method
Traditional and newer debates
ES and humanitarian intervention
ES vs. other IR approaches
Background
LSE/British Committee on the Theory of International Politics (1959- 1985)
Name given by Roy Jones (1981)
Scholars: e.g. Wight, Bull, Watson, Vincent, Dunne, Jackson, Wheeler, Buzan, Little, Hurrell
What is the ES?

17

 Via media / middle ground in IR Rooted in history and guided by moral questions
Bull (1969) the ES derives from philosophy, history and law and relies upon the exercise of
judgement
Key concepts/ideas
3 traditions (Wight)
Realism
Rationalism
Revolutionism
3 core elements in continuous coexistence and interplay
International system
International society
World society

Source: Buzan (2001, 475)

Realism/International System
Formed when two or more states have sufficient contact between them, and have sufficient impact
on one anothers decisions, to cause them to behave at least in some measure as part of a whole
(Bull 2002, 9)
Power politics + anarchy
Rationalism/International Society
Exists when a group of states, conscious of certain common interests and common values, forms a
society in the sense that they conceive themselves to be bound by a common set of rules in their
relations with one another, and share in the working of common institutions (Bull 2002, 13)
Mutual recognition, respect of agreements and regulation of violation
Idea of anarchical society
Revolutionism/World Society
Common interests and shared values that link all the parts of the human community (Bull 1995,

18

269-270; Jackson/Sorensen 2013, 144-145)

Community of humanking (vs. int. soc. based on states) + cosmopolitan
Manifested in IOs with humanitarian purpose
Key concepts/ideas (cont.)
Order and justice as fundamental values/key concerns of ES
International order as pattern of activity that sustains the elementary or primary goals of the
society of states (Bull 2002, 8)
Key concepts/ideas (cont.)
First- and second-order societies Primary and secondary institutions Pluralism and solidarism
Method
Bull classical approach/interpretive methodology
Concepts and understanding Historical understanding Normative dimension
Eclectic/pluralist
Traditional and newer debates

Traditional
Expansionstory
Pluralist/solidarist debate
Methods
International system/international society

Newer
Primaryinstitutions
Types of international society
Regionalinternational society
ES and security studies

Pluralist/solidarist debate and humanitarian intervention

Normative choices in FP
Humanitarian intervention/human rights conflict about order and justice
Pluralists consider states as the bearer of rights and during in IL agreement only on minimum
purposes (e.g. Recognition of sovereignty), but NO on ideas of justice and morality in international
politics against hum. int. (e.g. Jackson)
Solidarists view individuals as the ultimate members of international society they have rights and
duties in IL assumption of universal standard of justice/moralityin favour of hum. int. (e.g.
Wheeler and Dunne)
ES vs other IR approaches
Realism

Liberalism

Constructivism

Critical
theory/Poststructu
ralism

State-centrism
BoP automatic
Materialism
Mechanisms and
law-like
generalisations
Focus
only

Focus
on
secondary institutions
No
long historical perspective
Largely rational-choice
Economic/techn ological
sector

Many shared points

No
strong
normative stance
More methodologic
all y conscious

Some shared points

(e.g. methods)
More epistemologicall y
and methodologicall y
conscious

19

on
international
system
Limited interplay with feminism, IPE, security studies, European studies
Constructivism
Background
Key concepts
Strands
Constructivism and War on Terror + Constructivism and Transnational Advocacy Networks
Background
Word coined by Onuf (1989)
Outgrowth of critical international theory, but emphasis on empirical analysis (more than
metatheoretical level)
End of Cold War explanatory power of dominant theories undermined
Key concepts/ideas
Normative and ideational structures
Social being/intersubjectivity
Social vs brute facts
Mutual constitution/structuration
Costruction of identities and interests
Logic of appropriateness
Anarchy is what states make of it (Wendt 1992)
identities/interests are relationalunder anarchy states want security of the self, but [c]oncepts of
security therefore differ in the extent to which and the manner in which the self is identified
cognitively with the other (p. 399)security systems can be competitive, individualistic,
cooperative
Strands
Main difference related to epistemology and methods (explanation vs understanding; positivism vs
postpositivism)

o
o
o

o
o
o

Thin vs thick
Fierke (2013): conventional vs consistent
Adler (2002): 
Modernist
Modernist linguistic
Radical Critical
Reus-Smith (2009):
Systemic
Unit-level
Holistic
What do they research?
Some examples:
Norms
Ideas and power
Identity and state action
Mechanisms and processes of social construction
Norm entrepreneurs

20

International organisations and law

Epistemic communities
Argument and persuasion

Constructivism and the War on Terror

Cf. Fierke (2013)
Focus on how identities, actions and human suffering are constructed through processes of
interaction
Social ontology of conflict
Securitization processes
Constructivism and Transnational Advocacy Networks
Keck/Sikkink (1999)
How TANs change norms and values to promote change at the international level (no material
power)
Recap

English School
Combines history and theory, morality and power, agency and structure
International system, international society, world society
Order and justice
Ecletism
Constructivism
Social and ideational elements in international politics
Social construction of reality
Norms, ideas, values, identities
Different strands

LECTURE 5 Critical Approaches (Marxism and Critical Theory)

International Relations

to the study of

MANDATORY READINGS
Hobden, Stephen & Richard Wyn Jones (2014) Marxist Theories of International Relations
(Ch.9), in Baylis, John, Smith, Steve and Owens, Patricia (eds.) (2014) work cited, pp.141154.
Petar PETROV
Critical to what exactly?
Not that some theories are right and some are wrong!
Not that there is one best way of explaining international relations
But...
Knowing the processes and relationships in IR better; filling the gaps; illuminating some issues
better, etc.
Ability to reduce complexity and apply limited but systematic inquiry
Being aware that by - illuminating some issues, we are inevitably blind-spotting others hence
knowledge is cumulative and open rather than exclusionary.
In todays lecture
Neo-Marxist thought Critical Theory Feminism
New issues in International Politics
The end of the Cold War End of bipolarity and triumph of capitalism Newly found relevance
of Marxism? Emergence of new poles of power (BRICS and transnational actors)

21

 Globalisation Focus on development, inequality, dependency structures, poverty,

and women in world politics.
Newquestions:
1. Why are some states more developed than others?
2. How is dependency sustained?
3. How to achieve a progressive change and a more just society?
4. Wherearethewomeninworldpolitics?
The post-Positivist turn...
Not only new issues in International Politics but also...
New debates and ideas in Social Sciences - a growing critique of Positivist methodology
Positivism 4 main features
Unity of science: objective and verifiable methodology can be applied in both the scientific and
non-scientific domains of knowledge (e.g. to both physics and history)
Objective knowledge: distinction between facts and values. Facts are neutral, while values may
cloud our scientific judgement...
Regularities and scientific laws can be discovered in social sciences if we follow the scientific
method
Empiricism - The way to determine the truth in social sciences is by appeal to neutral facts and
not to ideas, interests or values.
The Critical Turn in IR theory
The wholesale rejection of these 4 assumptions characterises much of the current debate in the
study of International Relations
The critical turn to the study of IR is part of a general trend to challenge the 4 assumptions of
Positivism
Several strands of Critical IR approaches...
Marxism/new Marxism - Why are some states more developed than others?
Key elements of Marxism Analysing the social world in its totality Materialist conception of
history Base andSuperstructure
Class Emancipation

Marxism in contrast to Realism States are not autonomous entities, but driven by ruling
class interests
Wars should be seen in the economic context of competition between capitalist classes of
different states.
Conflicts between states vary substantially across history and time, ==> Realism (and theory in
general) has to explain the role of social forces in each period in history otherwise it offers an
ahistorical account.
Neo-Marxism
Existing structures of world order are susceptible to change. So greater freedom within the

22

existing social relations is possible through emancipation

Emancipation = human progress; just political order; lack of oppression; freedom of
communication, expression and democratic participation.
Emphasises forms of social learning through open dialogue in the search of greater freedom
Main characteristic: The search of change should be anchored in an emancipatory project that
points to progressive change!
Neo-Marxist thought in IR:
Wallersteins World System Theory Politics and economics are strongly tied together in
that they compose the system and depend on each other (Wallerstein 1996)
Economics and the role of the ruling capitalist elites need to be seriously taken into account if we
want to understand why after centuries of free trade some states are better developed than others
Core, periphery, semi-periphery The world system is built on a hierarchy of 3 distinctive
relationships of production observed in different states: Areas with predominant core
relationships
(advanced industrial states),
Areas with predominant peripheral processes (developing states) and
Semi-peripheral areas (dependent on the core, but economically developed).
CORE
Indigenous ruling elite. Uses the profits from the periphery to pacify their own working class. High
wages, high investment and developed welfare services
Semi-Periphery
Dominated by the core, but having a vibrant indigenous industrial base.Plays the role of shock
absorber by providing economic & political stability in the modern world system
Periphery
Highly dependent on the Core. Indigenous elites are allies with the Core elites. Interested only in
making profit, the local elite suppresses emancipatory movements.
Below subsistence wages No welfare services
Source: Baylis and Smith 2007: 148
the3zonesarelinkedinanexploitativerelationship(of dependency) in which wealth is drained away
from the periphery to the core.
Antonio Gramsci: How is dependency sustained? Hegemony!
(Gramsci, A.1971)
Hegemony explains power in society. The combination of coercive and consensual methods of
power over the working class stabilises ruling elites power.
Not to be confused with: Hegemonic Stability Theory
Hegemony in Realism is a different concept HST refers to the presence of one country which
is more powerful than all other countries in the international system. Unipolar Balance of Power
Gramsci: Hegemony
Decisive role in disseminating the ideology of the ruling class is played by the media,
education system, the church and civil organisations.
Hence we have to take super-structure in society seriously!
Robert W. Cox
Political science professor and United Nations officer. Most famous for what is now labeled as

23

Neo-Gramscian school in IR, that paved the way for

Critical Political Economy.
Cox illuminates how politics can never be separated from economics, how theory is always
linked to practice, and how material relations and ideas are inextricably intertwined to coproduce world orders.
Neo-Gramscian thought - International Hegemony
Cox was the first IR scholar to tackle the international implications of Gramscis ideas.
Developing Gramscis notion of hegemony, Cox speaks of international hegemony of developed
industrialised states and non-state corporate entities (Cox 1981).
Neither military nor economic power alone or even in combination, necessarily implies
international hegemony - cultural and ideological factors are decisive.
Evolution of large-scale capitalist structures are inventing new trends of domination and
legitimizing tactics in international relations.
The role of theory
Problem-Solving vs Critical Theory - the role of theory is to problematise the status-quo and
assist emancipatory change.
There is no objective social theory or knowledge they always reflect certain context time and
space.
R.Cox: Theory is always for someone and for some purpose (1981, 128).
Current relevance of neo-Marxist ideas: Zlavoj Zizek
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Qhk8az8K-Y - AlJazeera Interview
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdwF3j1F2pg - Wallstreet Speech 00:00 02:45
The marriage between Capitalism and Democracy is over... Fukyama was not an idiot, yet
we have to break the Fukyama Taboo as the system lost its self-evidence and legitimacy.
This is demonstrated by the protests around the world. And now the field is open... which is a
great achievement. The greatest difficulty is who will appropriate this energy of protest...
What energy and understanding will fill in the open space...Nov. 2011 @ Al Jazeera
Neo-Marxist thought - summary
Core questions: What determines power in IR?
How is international hegemony sustained?
What is the role of theory?
Case Study:
The idea that free trade benefits everybody has been so widely accepted that it receives a
commonplace status nowadays... But how a world-wide acceptance of this idea is sustained
nowadays?
Critical Theory: How to achieve progressive change and a more just society?
History
Social Science underpinning
Notable early theorists (Frankfurt School): Max Horkheimer; Theodor Adorno: Walter
Benjamin; Erich From; Jurgen Habermans; Herbert Marcuse
Critical IR theorists: Robert Cox, Mark Hoffman; Richard Ashley; Andrew Linklater
By the mid-1990s critical international theory encompassed a wide array of different theoretical
strands, including cosmopolitanism, postmodernism, postcolonialism, and critical security
studies.
Main Tenets
Opposes the scientific pretence of the positivist tradition;

24

 Opposes the idea that the existing structures of world order are not susceptible to change and
examines the prospects for greater freedom within the existing social relations; 
Main argument: rather than liberating man from oppression, technology, market forces
(consumerism), and liberal political forces had conspired to suppress the political consciousness of
man.
 The search of change should be anchored in an emancipatory project that points to not just any
change but a progressive one.
Emancipation
A key feature of the first-generation Frankfurt School theorists legacy, was its negative
critique of the metaphysical, ideological, and social origins of authoritarianism.
Jrgen Habermas, however, redirected this negative dialectical critique towards the
progressive aspects of communicative reason and social action/communicative democracy.
The importance of social learning through open dialogue, which pointed to the need of
greater freedom (emancipation). This allowed the Frankfurt School theory to evolve into a more
expansive and reflexive critique of world citizenship and global governance.
Interview, Habermans (00:00-03:20) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jBl6ALNh18Q
Critical IR theory
Central questions: How did the deep (material) structure of the international system emerge in
the first place? How could we know the differentiated structures of international relations?
By treating the anarchical structure as given, Realists ignored the social determinants of
states interests and motives for interaction (Cox 1981 ).
However, these early critical IR scholars ignored, the most important agent of the emancipatory
project, namely, the individual citizen whose shared values and beliefs were assuming more
importance within a participatory network of global organizations and non-state actors.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Critical IR theory
Andrew Linklaters notion of humane governance opening possibilities for increased
representation, accountability, and participation, and opportunities for realizing these through a
growing global network of political and judicial bodies
His objective: to position critical theory within IR, by explicating what he called modes of
exclusion and inclusion and the evolution of norms and justice into the global realm.
To recap so far...
Some states are more developed than others, and the underlying structures of global capitalism may
shed some light on this...
The structures of dependency proved to be quite stable and the concept of hegemonic power may
give us some hints...
Communicative democracy, the social determinants of states interests/motives, and the role of
the individual citizen may help us understand how to understand emancipatory change of greater
freedom and justice.
But ... where are the women in the study of International politics and more broadly do issues of
gender shape contemporary social reality?
What is the role of women in International Politics?
Generally Feminism stays close to the critical theorists in striving for progressive change
through social learning and emancipation i.e. denouncing any form of control and oppression.
It does not simply take theories, language, concepts and knowledge for granted, but sees them
as having an important role in constructing the world we live in.
It sheds light on the ways in which gender has shaped contemporary social reality and IR in
particular. Most feminist thinking is embedded in the post-positivist tradition.
Bananas, Beaches and Bases...
Feminist work in IR has become prominent since the mid-1980s and started with the radical for that

25

time question: Where are the women in the study of international politics
Early Feminism
Although in many cases the role women played in politics have been central, they have been
neglected by the mainstream approaches in studying IR.
The first Feminist writings (Liberal Feminism) - illuminating the ways in which women have
been excluded from power and politics.
The main aim of Feminist thought at that time to ask for the same rights and opportunities
(available to men) to be extended to women.
Main ideas of Feminism
Ideas matter Constructivist and Critical Feminism
Language matters Post-structural Feminism
Power relations matter Critical Feminism
Linguistic dichotomies assign certain social roles for men and women: strong/weak, breadwinning/child-care, rational/emotional, public/private. This creates power relations and
subordination of men over women, which perpetuates in the way IR is practiced and studied.
Emancipatory change Critical Feminism
Hans Morgenthau
1. The main signpost of political realism is the
concept of interest defined in terms of
power, which infuses rational order into the
subject matter of politics and thus makes the
theoretical understanding of politics possible.
Political realism stresses the rational, objective
and unemotional.

J. Ann Tickner
1. A feminist perspective believes that
the national interest is multidimensional and
contextually contingent. Therefore it cannot be
defined solely in terms of power. In the
contemporary world, the national interest demands
cooperative rather than zero sum solutions to a
set of interdependent global problems, which
include nuclear war, economic well being and
environmental degradation.

2. Realism assumes that interest defined as

2. Power cannot be infused with meaning that is
power is an objective category, which is
universally valid. Power as domination and
universally valid but not with a meaning that is
control privileges masculinity and ignores the
fixed once and for all. Power is the control of
possibility of collective empowerment, another
man over man.
aspect of power often associated with femininity.
(J.Ann Tickner 1988: 430-1, 437-8)
Criticism within...
Critique towards Mainstream Feminism voiced by Postcolonial feminist scholar Chandra
Mohanty for constructing an overly-generalised, based on Western values and
victimised vision of the Third World Woman
Current feminist scholarship tries to strike a balance between knowledge about the global
political economy and the state on one side and culturally-, geographically-, race- and class-specific
gender relations on the other.
Feminism Key questions
What kind of social roles for men and women have been established and perpetuated in
contemporary world politics?
How does this affect understanding and conduct of International Relations generally and
national Foreign Policies in particular?
How to establish free, equal and just international society? Case Study: How could gender be
st
used by both the proponents and opponents of economic embargo against Iraq after the 1 Gulf
War?
Positivism vs Critical approaches

26

 Unity of science: verifiable methodology is applicable to all domains of science opposed by

Neo-Marxism, Feminism, and Social Constructivism.
Objective knowledge: strong distinction between facts and values opposed by all approaches
Regularities and scientific laws can be discovered in social sciences if we follow the scientific
method opposed by Feminism and Critical Theory. Closest to this stays neo-Marxism who see
almost law-like regularities in IR (cycles of crisis).
Empiricism - The way to determine the truth in social sciences is by appeal to neutral facts and
not to ideas, interests or values Opposed by all approaches!
Studying Theory in IR
Knowing the diversity of points of view and making informed choice, opinion etc.
(political/social activism, consultancy, research, education)
Understanding the value of knowing better and not necessarily proving your theory right
(education, research, activism)
Being aware of the possibility to find the middle ground by utilising the strengths of different,
but often complementary approaches (research; consultancy, teaching; activism).
WEEK 3 PHILOSOPHY AND
PERSPECTIVES (L 6 & L7 )

IR:

HISTORICAL

AND

CRITICAL

THEORY

IR scholars have always given a respectful nod to its philosophical grandfathers, from
Thucydides and Machiavelli, to Hobbes and Kant. However, beyond the customary references of
the Realists to Machiavelli and Thucydides, of the Liberals to Hobbes, and of the Cosmopolitans to
Kant, there is very little in the way of substantive engagement with their thought. Philosophers may
have had a good idea or two, but IR scholars are more concerned, they claim, with the real world as
it is now. Similarly, modern philosophers and critical theorists (if acknowledged) are noted in IR
scholarship but quickly dismissed. Is this wise? The purpose of this weeks lectures, tutorials, and
workshops is to consider if there isnt more to be said regarding the importance of political
philosophy for how we now understand IR, and for how we could understand IR going forward.
To do so we will think through the importance of norms. We will consider what the sources of the
major normative frameworks are. We will ask whether the ideas that most IR scholars presume as
factual and concrete truths are perhaps something quite different, started as mere ideas (and
perhaps still only exist as fictions). Some questions that will be considered are: is violence at the
root of the cosmopolitan ideal? Is human nature a normative construction? Is the state a fiction? Is
the very notion of IR colonial? Can gender tell us anything about IR? Is philosophy still relevant?
Key concepts: Political Philosophy; the State; Cosmopolitanism; Norms; Colonialism; Gender;
Violence.
Case studies:
Gender, norms, and IR.
The weaponization of norms.
The subaltern critique.
TUTORIAL Mandatory readings
Youngs, Gillian (2004) Feminist International Relations: a contradiction in terms? Or: why
women and gender are essential to understanding the world we live in, International
Affairs 80 (1) pp. 75-87.
Seth, Sanjay (2011) Postcolonial Theory and the Critique of International Relations,
Millennium: Journal of International Studies , 40 (1), pp. 167-183.

27

Hardt, Michael and Negri, Antonio (2000) Network Power: U.S. Sovereignty and the New
Empire (Ch. 2.5), in Hardt, M. and Negri, A. (2000) Empire, Harvard Uni. Press, pp. 160182 (ELEUM)

WORKSHOP ISIL, IR, Myths and Norms

Concepts:
Constructivism, Realism, Statism, Cosmopolitanism, Feminism, Human Rights.
Mandatory readings
Patrick Cockburn (2014) ISIS Consolidates, London Review of Books, 36 (16) p. 3-5,
Available at [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v36/n16/patrick-cockburn/isis-consolidates]
Chomsky, Noam (2008) Humanitarian Imperialism: The New Doctrine of Imperial Right,
Monthly Review, (September) Available at: [http://www.chomsky.info/articles/200809-.htm]
LECTURE 6 IR, Norms, and Philosophy: The Early Modern Perspective
MANDATORY READINGS
Machiavelli, Niccol. The Prince. Chapter 3 & 15.
http://www.constitution.org/mac/prince.pdf (Any version will do)
Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan. Chapter 16.!
http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/hobbes/Leviathan.pdf (Any version will do)
Kant, Perpetual Peace. (Any version will do)!
http://www2.hawaii.edu/~freeman/courses/phil320/21.%20Perpetu al%20Peace.pdf (Any
version will do)
Concepts:
IR, Philosophy, and the Historical Perspective.
-Machiavelli: Global normative orders, realism, and interests-Hobbes: Empirics and norms of IR,
on the creation of the fictional state agent. On IR and Liberalism-Kant: Cosmopolitatinism, Statism
and Law
MACHIAVELLI
CHAPTER 3 -HUMAN NATURE AND MILANS SHIFTING FORTUNES
Chapter 3 On Closer Inspection
First Preliminary Lesson
Second Preliminary Lesson
Chapter 6: Armed and Unarmed Prophets
MACHIAVELLI
Prophets Armed
Prophets Unarmed
 Unarmed Prophets Redux
 Virtue and Fortuna
 Mirror of Princes and The Prince
MACHIAVELLI
Chapter 15: On Learning How to be Evil
The Wars of Moral Philosophy: Machiavelli Against Jesus
Human Nature and Normative Orders
Concluding Chapter: Prophetic Founders and a Return to Idealism?

28

HOBBES
Hobbes as a Grandfather of IR
 Hobbess Contribution to Political Philosophy
Who Was Hobbes Writing Against?
HOBBES
Hobbes and the Fictional State Agent
The Rhetoric of Anarchy
The Myth of the Sovereign
Hobbes Summary
Hobbess Weird Conclusion: Leviathans and Philosopher Kings
KANT
Introduction to Kant
Kant and Idealism
Kant on Human Nature and the State
Kant on the International Order
Kants Cosmopolitanism
Kant Summary
LECTURE 7 : IR, Norms, and Philosophy: A (Post)Modern Perspective
MANDATORY READINGS
Armitage, David. (2005) The Contagion of Sovereignty: Declarations of Independence since
1776, South African Historical Journal, 52, pp.1-18 (Available online through the UM
library).
Concepts :
IR, Philosophy, and the Critical Perspective
David Armitage and the contagious idea of self- determination.
Critical Engagements: Cosmopolitanism, Feminism, and Post- Colonialism in IR.
Neo-Empire
GENDER AND IR
Gender, IR, and Machiavelli
 Gillian Youngs and the (de)Gendering of IR
Hobbes and Gender
Gender and IR, The Early Modern Perspective
ARMITAGE AND THE CONTAGION OF SOVEREIGNTY
The Paradox of New Foundations
Hobbes in Reverse
American Unexceptionalism
The Contagion of Sovereignty
Exceptions to the Rules: Towards the Post- Colonial Critique
Armitage Summary
POST-COLONIALISM
History Matters
The Other
R2P and the Activation of the Cosmopolitan Order
Imposing Fictions?
Failed States, Failed Fictions?
IR as Colonialism

29

 Questions? Concerns?
NEO-EMPIRE AND COSMOPOLITANISM
The Colonial Boomerang Effect
Sovereignty and the New Empire
There is no Outside
 The Global Constitutional Order of the UN
Global Police
Gender and Empire
Global Exceptions
Summary: Empire and The New Dark Ages
CONCLUSIONS: PHILOSOPHY, NORMS, AND IR
WEEK 4 GLOBALISATION, GLOBAL GOVERNANCE AND INTERNATIONAL
REGIMES (L8 & L9)
One of the key characteristics of international affairs has been the steady growth of international
organizations and international regimes. A huge number of these bodies exist and tackle the global
dimensions of almost every policy issue. Many scholars argue that such international institutions
are reacting to the challenges of a globalising world and that international organizations (and
regimes) matter in terms of addressing common challenges. Yet, this statement is too general to be
helpful. First, it does not differentiate between different international organizations and regimes.
Second, it is not clear in what respects, by which means and instruments, and under what conditions
they matter. Third, the very pattern of international cooperation is undergoing a sea change: More
and more are private actors drawn into governance arrangements. The term global governance
signifies this change, yet the concept as such remains elusive: What is global governance? How
effective is it? And how global is it?
Key concepts: International organisations, international regimes, global governance, non-state
actors, private governance
Case studies:
Global Compact
World Commission on Dams
Forest Stewardship Council
Fighting HIV / Aids
TUTORIAL Mandatory readings
Commission on Global Governance (1995) Our Global Neighbourhood. The Report of the
Commission on Global Governance; Oxford: Oxford University Press. Online:
http://www.gdrc.org/u-gov/global-neighbourhood/ (read Chapter 1: A New World).
Ruggie, John G. (2004) Reconstituting the Global Public Domain - Issues, Actors, and
Practices, European Journal of International Relations 10 (4) pp. 499531. (E-Journal).
WORKSHOP Critically recasting Globalisation
Mandatory readings
Fukuyama, F. (1989) The end of history? The National Interest. (Summer 1989) available
at: [http://www.wesjones.com/eoh.htm]
Fukuyama (2012) Can Liberal Democracy Survive the Decline of the Middle Class? Foreign
Affairs, (Jan/Feb), 91 (1), pp.53-61

30

LECTURE 8 International Regimes and International Organizations

MANDATORY READINGS
Little, Richard (2014): International Regimes (Ch.19) in Baylis, Smith and Owens, work
cited. (Study Landscape).
Rittberger, Volker and Bernhard Zangl (2006) Introduction, pp 3-13, in Rittberger, V. and
Zangl, B. International Organization. Polity, Politics and Policies; New York: Palgrave
Macmillan (ELEUM).
Aneta B. Spendzharova 19 November 2014
Addressing a common problem through collective action
General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
More international trade is desirable, because it brings about economic development and higher
living standards (pursuit of free trade based on comparative advantage).
n Our state will lower the tariffs on imports but what if our trading partners do not reciprocate?
How can we assure that our producers will have access to foreign markets?
GATT in detailn The GATT agreements stipulated thatb all participating countries would: reduce
tariff barrierslift restrictions on trade eliminate some subsidies
GATT in detail: After 8 rounds of trade negotiations following the beginning of GATT in 1947, the
average tariffs on industrial goods fell from over 40% to less than 4% (Bagwell and Staiger 1998).
Addressing a common problem through collective action
Marine Pollution Regime
We would prefer to enjoy clean seas and beaches, and preserve the marine flora and fauna.
Some countries ships pollute.
Why should our countrys shipping industry absorb the higher costs of using cleaner technology
(competitiveness concern)?
At the domestic level, the government can step in and control the use of the common environmental
resources introducing quotas, licenses, and fines.
At the international level, we face a dilemma.
How can we manage common environmental resources in the absence of an overarching legitimate
equivalent to the state?
The Great Pacific Garbage Patch
The Marine Pollution Regime
Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS) from 1982, International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) from 1973 modified in 1978, and the London Dumping
Convention from 1972.
UNCLOS establishes territorial waters limits and contains general provisions about avoiding sea
pollution, rights of fishing, and protecting marine mammals.
MARPOL aims to minimize pollution of the seas, including from dumping, oil, and exhaust
pollution.
The London Dumping Convention establishes a black list of materials and substances that may
not be dumped in the ocean and a grey list of materials that require special care when dumped.
MARPOL in detail
1) The total quantity of oil which a tanker may discharge in any ballast voyage while under way
must not exceed 1/15,000 of the total cargo carrying capacity of the vessel.

31

2) The rate at which oil may be discharged must not exceed 60 liters per mile travelled by the ship.
3) No discharge of any oil whatsoever must be made from the cargo spaces of a tanker within 50
miles of the nearest land.
Defining International Regimes
Implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures around which actors
expectations converge in a given area of international relations (Krasner 1983; 1985).
Principles are beliefs about facts, causation, and rectitude. Norms are standards of behavior defined
in terms of rights and obligations. Rules are specific prescriptions or proscriptions for action.
Decision-making procedures are prevailing practices for making and implementing collective
choice.
GATT
Principles: Liberal principles asserting that global welfare is maximized by free trade.Norms:
Tariffs and non-tariff barriers should be reduced to facilitate free trade.
Most favored nation and reciprocal trade liberalization.
Rules: Special and differentiated treatment for developing countries.
Decision-making procedures: GATT decision- making was based on consensus-building.Dispute
settlement panels to resolve conflicts. The panels could authorize retaliatory action and award
compensation for any incurred damages.
International regimes, international institutions, and international organizations
International regimes are examples of international institutions, but an institution is a broader
concept. Krasners (1983;1985) definition further specifies what we mean by an international
regime.
International regimes are often based on international treaties. Beyond the formal rules and
principles laid out in an agreement or a treaty, an international regime implies more regularized
interaction and cooperation.
International regimes, international institutions, and international organizations
n International regimes n are not international organizations. Many international regimes
International regimes provide a framework for cooperation among states and do not possess an
independent capacity to act.
By contrast, international organizations do have an independent capacity to act.
are accompanied by the creation of international organizations. For example, GATT and the WTO,
the Marine Pollution Regime and the IMO.
International Organizations
International institutions:
- Sets of rules that stipulate the ways in which states should cooperate and compete with each
other (Mearsheimer, 1995);
- IOs as bureaucracies are a distinctive social form of authority with its own internal logic and
behavioral proclivities (Bernett & Finnemore, 2004).
International organizations as actors: Formal administrative structure (bureaucracies); Some
autonomy from the principals; Organizational self-interest.
The Growth of International Organizations
Some early international organozations
Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine (1831)
International Telegraphic Bureau (1865)
Universal Postal Union (1874)
Change of ideas, change of technologies
The League of Nations (1919)

32

The first international collective security system

The ILO as an attempt to secure fair and humane

Rapid growth after 1945 :

UN ; WTO, IMF, World Bank, NATO, UNOOSA
The European Union

Several Puzzles

33

What accounts for the emergence of rule- based cooperation in the international system through
international regimes and international organizations?
What goals do states pursue?
How do international regimes and international organizations affect the behavior of states and nonstate actors in the issue areas in which they have been created?
What factors influence the success and stability of international regimes?
Theorizing international regimes and international organizations
Power-based theories (neorealist school of thought).
Interest-based theories (neoliberal school of thought).
Knowledge-based theories (social constructivism). The discussion presented here draws on
Hasenclever, Mayer, and Rittberger (1997).
Power-based theories
Regimes are established and maintained by the actors which hold the most power and resources in
the relevant issue area.
The underlying assumption is that international regimes involve the provision of public goods.
This theory is very skeptical about the possibility of large-scale and long-term cooperation at the
international level.
Hegemonic stability
Regimes decline when power becomes more equally distributed.
Power-based theories
The benevolent hegemon model depicts a hegemonic state that provides the collective good all by
itself while other participating states are free from the responsibility to maintain the regime.
The coercive hegemon model depicts a hegemonic state that uses its preponderant power to coerce
smaller states to contribute to the regime creation and sustenance.
Decline of US hegemony
By the 1970s, the US was no longer the dominant economic power it had been after WWII.
The Bretton-Woods system of fixed exchange rates fell apart in 1971-US unilaterally went off its
fixed exchange rate of $35 per ounce gold.
Hegemonic stability theory would predict the demise of international regimes established under US
leadership. But GATT did not fall apart. On the contrary, new rounds were under negotiation.
Interest-based theories
States do not gain or lose utility simply because of the gains or losses of other states.
Cooperation is based on common interests and the pursuit of mutual gains (Keohane 1984; 1989;
1993).
Keohane and Nye (1977) argued that the decline of using military force as a policy tool and
increase in economic and other forms of interdependence increased the likelihood of cooperation
among states.
Interest-based theories
International regimes and international organizations help states overcome the obstacles to
cooperation such as uncertainty about other states commitments and transaction costs.
Issue linkages and multiple iterations of the interaction among states make cooperation more likely
(Axelrod 1984).
Monitoring and enforcement are important mechanisms to sustain cooperation, i.e. imposing
sanctions (Young 1989).

34

Prisioners dilemma

Prisoners Dilemma
prisioners dilemma

The UK

Not pollute (C)

Japan

Dump waste (D)

Not pollute (C)

3,3

1,4

Dump waste (D)

4,1

2,2

Battle of the Sexes

The battle of sexes

The UK
France

British system

Metric system

British system

1,2

0,0

Metric system

0,0

2,1

Knowledge-based theories
Social constructivists criticism of power-based and interest-based approaches departs from the
three realist heritages:
1) a concept of states as rational actors (this does not imply that states are irrational, what are the

35

preconditions for rational action?)

2) a static approach that precludes learning effects and alteration of goals/behavior;
3) a positivist methodology that precludes from understanding the effect of social norms.
Knowledge-based theories
From the point of view of social constructivists, states interests and identities cannot be treated as
exogenously given.
They need to be theorized in their own right.
Knowledge-based theories
Social constructivists argue that policy processes are shaped by the normative and causal beliefs
held by decision- makers.
Thus an underlying change in belief systems is what triggers changes in policy.
Knowledge-based theories
Some authors focus on the impact of ideas, learning, and epistemic communities (Peter Haas, Judith
Goldstein, Marc Levy, Robert Keohane, Robert Nye).
Ideas are causal and normative beliefs held by actors in international politics.
The importance of learning: states can learn over time new ways of engaging in rule-based
cooperation with other states.
Epistemic communities are transnational networks of experts that can affect agenda setting and
regime formation.
Knowledge-based theories
From a rationalist perspective, international regimes as problem-solving devices that are put into
place by states in order to achieve mutually desirable goals.
Epistemologically, according to rationalists, causal explanations are possible and objective
knowledge is achievable in social science.
Knowledge-based theories
Social constructivism emphasizes understanding rather than causal explanation.
Knowledge is contingent upon convention, human perception, and social experience.
International regimes and international organizations are a web of meaning (Neufeld 1993).
Knowledge-based theories
According to social constructivists, knowledge constitutes states to begin with and enables them to
undertake actions on the international arena.
Several important authors in this tradition are Friedrich Kratochwil, John Gerald Ruggie, Alexander
Wendt, and Robert Cox.

36

LECTURE 9 : Globalization, Development & Global Governance in the 21 Century: current

debates
MANDATORY READINGS
McGrew, Anthony (2014): Globalisation and Global politics (Ch. 1) in Baylis, Smith and
Owens, work cited. (Study Landscape).
Wiebe Nauta
Overview/Agenda
1. What is debated? A Changing world;
2. How China challenges the thinking about Globalization & Development;
3. BRICS: the New Development Bank
4. History & Development;
5. Post-2015 Agenda;
6. Korea in Rwanda.
A Changing World
2014 (?) What do we see? Does it do justice to the world we live in?
1994 (?) What do we see? Does it do justice to the world we live in?
Post-Colonial Time-line Africa I
Golden Age (oil boom): 1960s-1970s
High Raw material prices;
Debt-led growth (easy lending due to availability of oil $);
Public spending:
Health, education. 
Economic Decline (oil crisis): 1970s-1980s

37

Oil crisis;
Little productive investment;
Consumption 
Inefficient State machinery:
Corruption;
Self-enriching (political) elites.
Post-Colonial Time-line Africa II
Structural Adjustment (IMF and 1 World Bank): 1980s-1990s
Cuts in public spending Health and education
Democratization & Good Governance: 1990s-2005
Rediscovery of the state
The End of the Washington Consensus: 2005-present
The Asian Century

Building Better Global Economic BRICs

Jim O'Neill, Goldman Sachs: 30th November 2001
In 2001 and 2002, real GDP growth in large emerging market economies will exceed that of the
G7; On a current GDP basis, BRIC share of world GDP is 8% (...);
Over the next 10 years, the weight of the BRICs and especially China in world GDP will grow,
raising important issues about the global economic impact of fiscal and monetary policy in the
BRICs;
In line with these prospects, (...), the G7 should be adjusted to incorporate BRIC representatives.
BRICS Leaders
- Dilma Rousseff - Vladimir Putin - Narendra Modi - Xi Jinping- Jacob Zuma

Rise of the Middle Class

38

Dominant Factor in BRICS

The Rise of China:
What are the implications in the field of globalization & development?
Globalization with Chinese Characteristics
Henderson, Appelbaum and Ho (2013) Special Issue Development & Change, 44
how Chinas rise may be reconstituting the nature of globalization; and
The potentially significant implications for the conceptualization and policy-practice of
development
Enter the Eagle
Transnationalization of private corporate power;  Following colonial corporations U.S. took
over
Cyber networks and space-time compression; Dominance of Silicon Valley from 1950s
Militarization of US foreign policy Iran, Chile, Cuba, Nicaragua, Iraq
Neoliberalism;
Financialization.
Enter the Dragon
Transnationalization of state-owned corporate power;
'Western assumptions too monolithic, top-down, highly coordinated; disregarding independence
provincial and city governments and the companies
Authoritarian, neo-Leninist state; developmental authoritarianism
A developing country; Solidarity with other DCs?
Alternative modernization; Less individuaistic? Questioning Western notions?
Militarization Soft power rather than hard power?
With the rise of China, a giant country from the global South with its alternative vision of
modernity and its externalization of a form of capitalism that differs dramatically from what has
gone before, we may need to question the utility of traditional conceptions of development and
the policy-practices that flow from them.
Why Development is Problematic?
Locates the problems of development in
developing countries (e.g. Pogge: explanatory nationalism);

39

 Hierarchy: Global North at the top & Global South at the bottom: the North Helps/gives/
aids...
With emerging countries from the Global South becoming so dominant in development:
changing our notions & understandings?
Transformation vs Development
Henderson, Appelbaum and Ho:
Transformation, superior for the analysis of economic, political and social change, is that while
a known starting point for the change process is obviously assumed, unlike transition discourses for
instance (...), it does not presuppose that we know the end point.
Question: do we agree?
China Challenges Liberal Models of Development
Zhang- three intellectual challenges:
1. Anglo-American discourse of the rise of China = problematic; Reforms not recognized:
Just imagine British industrialization, the French Revolution, the American democratic
experiment, and German nation building all happening at the same time in a territorially- bound
state!
China Challenges Liberal Models of Development
Zhang- three intellectual challenges:
2. Unpacking the China puzzle:
More reflexive knowledge necessary on China;  Not only an unequalizing force...
China knowledge is always inextricably linked with the general dynamism of Western
knowledge, desire and power in global politics;
China Challenges Liberal Models of Development
Zhang- three intellectual challenges:
3. Challenges to our liberal assumptions in the social sciences:
Chinese Communist Party has become indispensable to capitalism;
Authoritarianism as a viable regime form even under conditions of advanced modernization
and integration with the world economy.
China-Africa
China- Africa (0455-1545)
http://tegenlicht.vpro.nl/ afleveringen/2012-2013/ de-toekomst-komt-uit- afrika.html
The Power of Emerging Countries
Brazil opened nineteen embassies in Africa and President Rousseff visited the continent three
times in 2013, 700 million debt of African countries will be written off;
Japan has pledged 25 billion euro for public and private projects at a conference on African
development in Yokohama;
China has strengthened its presence in Africa;
NL closes embassies and cut ODA by 1 billion.
Conceptual issues
The terms new or emerging or even non-traditional donors, which is also sometimes
used are (...) problematically dehistoricizing (Mawdsley, 2012: 5)
The label Western excludes Japan (and now South Korea), which at one time was the largest
single supplier of bilateral foreign aid and a DAC member aculty of Arts & Social Sciences,

40

Conceptual issues
Th(e) neglect of the non-DAC donors and development partners is powerfully revealing about the
dominant psychology and representational regime of development in the West (Mawdsley, 2012:
9)
Controversy over Qatar's plan to help deprived French suburbs (CNN, 2012)
Russia & Ukraine Crisis
How BRICS affects position of Putin:
Gas deal China: less dependence on Europe;
Brazilian Agricultural exports to Russia expected to rise dramatically due to EU economic
boycott;
Arts & Social Sciences, Maastricht University
BRICS:New Development Bank
Creation NDB: for infrastructure & sustainable development projects (50 Billion);
Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA) (100 Billion:  China 48, SA 5 & others 18 Billion
(Economist)
Challenging the West?
Desai in the Guardian: Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa, united by rejection of the
neoliberal model, plan to create their own institutions;
Stiglitz: importance in terms of huge shortfall of development funds 1 Trillion annually);
World leadership is changing: Chen on Chinas global leadership;
Eichengreen in Guardian: a PR-Coup, mainly the symbolic importance:
Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences, Challenging the West?
Chen: the BRICS bank is not currently challenging the international liberal economic order.
China and India are perhaps the two greatest beneficiaries of an open liberal economic order;
Bond: BRICS bank to link construction firms to finance; BRICS are co-dependent subimperialists;
Eichengreen: Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA) if countries draw more than 30% of their
inlay: they should negotiate terms with IMF; CRA is empty symbolism...
The Next 11 (N-11)?
Bangladesh; Egypt; Indonesia; Iran;
Mexico; Nigeria;
Pakistan; Turkey; South Korea; Vietnam; Philippines.
Post-2015: Where do we stand?
Sustainable Development
Brundtland Report: sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs (Our Common Future, 1987: 37)
needs? Monetary needs of the wealthy? Shareholders of the large corporations? or
Health and social needs of the most vulnerable in the Global South and North?
Sustainable Development
Three dimensions:
Economic sustainability;
 Environmental sustainability; and
Social sustainability (e.g. UN, 2013; Sachs, 2012)
Marrying Contradicting Goals & Targets

41

In terms of an economic activity it follows that a profit can be made that should not be based on:
the exploitation of the environment;
nor on the exploitation of the people.
High-Level Panel (HLP) of Eminent Persons
Slogan leave no one behind: social justice and universal human rights;
At the same time a major emphasis on:
the economy, on technologies, on the Global North and on the inclusion of the private
sector particularly the large global companies;
Subtitle Report:
Eradicate poverty and transform economies through sustainable development.
Preferable: Societies
Eradicate poverty and transform societies through sustainable development

Business as Usual?
Economistic approach? the green economy and green growth;
Appraising the role of corporations too positively?
...many of the worlds largest companies are already leading this transformation to a green
economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication (viii).
OECD report on Assessing Green Growth policies (OECD, 2010):
To minimize (...) the economic cost of a transition towards a growth path that better internalises
environmental externalities. Therefore, one of the primary criteria for policy assessment is (...) costeffectiveness;
Somewhat cleaner environment, but: within the realm of our capitalist, or neoliberal,
world order;
Prevents us to table more fundamental issues about the future of humanity.
Development and Development Cooperation
Broadly define development: social justice and universal human rights; or Sen
development as freedom.
Pogge: The affluent are ...involved in harming (...) massively violating the human rights
of the global poor (2008, p. 26) ;
Development is not something to give to the poor. It is something that the poor have a right
to demand...
Hegemonic Development?
The term development neatly locates and situates certain problems in developing countries: 
Colonial legacy; Too hegemonic (development industry);
New or (re-)emerging donors can be very attractive for developing country actors:  In
Rwanda many breathed a sigh of relief.
Paul Kagame Looks East

42

There are things I admire, for example, about South Korea or Singapore. I admire their history,
their development and how intensively they have invested in their people and in technology. It
was not so long ago that they were at the same level of development as we are.
Today, they are far ahead of us. (Der Spiegel: 2006)
Kicukiro Korean TVET Team
Three of the four Korean team members, were retirees who had been involved, in the early phase of
their career, in setting up the TVET system in Korea in the 1970s and 1980s in close cooperation
with, what was called, the German Advisory Team (GAT). It was this team of which the World
Bank wrote: The GATs effective technical advice contributed a great deal toward Koreas
vocationaleducation (World Bank, 1985: 10).
TVET ICT Centre
Very Short Development Cycle
Strong emphasis on Korean equipment & infrastructure;
Sustainability issues in terms of: Maintenance & replacement budget: iow longterm investment/partnership?
Rwandans trained in Korea very enthusiastic;
The fact that retired Koreans are assisting in setting up the physical and curricular TVET
infrastructure in Rwanda is fascinating. From recipients to donors in one generation.
WEEK 5 SAVING
INTERVENTION

STRANGERS:

THE

CHALLENGES

OF

HUMANITARIAN

After the end of the Cold War the world community had high hopes that a more democratic and
peaceful period was dawning. These hopes were soon shattered by bloody civil wars in the former
Yugoslavia and in some African countries. However, other than in the pre-1989 period, the United
Nations Security Council, freed from the blockades between two opposing ideological and political
camps, was increasingly willing to authorise military interventions for humanitarian purposes in
cases where civil wars could not be ended in other ways. The cases of Somalia, Rwanda, BosniaHerzegovina are the best known, but by far not the only military interventions in the early to mid1990s. From the late 1990s until the present day two new developments occurred: On the one hand,
the Kosovo intervention in 1999 marked a case were a military intervention was justified by
humanitarian purposes, yet did not have the authorisation of the UNSC. On the other hand, a new
doctrine of the Responsibility to Protect emerged, that made the exertion of sovereignty rights and
the non- interference into internal affairs dependent on the way in which sovereignty was exerted. It
also started a discussion on whether the UNSC should always be the last resort of decision-making,
also in cases where it was blocked because of political reasons.
These developments raised a number of tricky ethical and legal challenges, ranging from the danger
of undermining the authority of the UNSC up to the issue of whether the values in the name of
which the world community intervened were actually universal. A second challenge came from the
obvious selectivity of intervention. In some case of abhorrent violations of human rights since 2000
the international community intervened relatively swiftly (Lybia), unnervingly slow (Darfur), or not
at all (Syria).
Key concepts: Humanitarian intervention, UN Security Council, International law, Ethics, War and
its changing character, Coalitions of the willing
Case studies:
The emergence and development of the R2P principle
Rwanda / Bosnia- Herzegovina / Kosovo
Lybia / Syria

43

The use and misuse of norms in global politics

TUTORIAL Mandatory readings

Wheeler, Nicholas J. (2005) Victory for Common Humanity - The Responsibility to Protect
after the 2005 World Summit, Journal of International Law and International Relations 2 (1)
pp. 95105 (e-Journal).
Bellamy, Alex J. (2010) The Responsibility to Protect - Five Years On, Ethics &
International Affairs 24 (2) pp. 14369. (e- Journal)
Morris, Justin (2013) Libya and Syria: R2P and the Spectre of the Swinging Pendulum,
International Affairs 89 (5) pp.126583. (e- Journal)
Chandler, David (2004) The Responsibility to Protect? Imposing the Liberal Peace,
International Peacekeeping 11 (1) pp. 5981. (e-Journal)
LECTURE 10 War and Peace (I) : Causes of War, Strategies for Peace
MANDATORY READINGS
Sheehan, Michael (2014) The Changing Character of War, in John Baylis, Steve Smith and
Patricia Owens (eds.): work cited, pp. 21528.
War, to be abolished, must be understood. To be understood, it must be studied. (Deutsch 1970:
473)
Conceptual Jungle

A conceptual
jumble
Civil
War
Cold
War

War on
Terror

Just
War

War
Holy
War

Interstate
War
New
Wars

Drone
War

Todays lecture
1. What is war?2. How does it change?
- Historic perspectives
- Qualitative perspectives
- Quantitative perspectives 3. Causes of war, strategies for peace
- Schools of thought and levels of analysis
- Explaining the decrease of wars
- Explaining geographical patterns
- Strategies for peace
Definitions of war
l War is (...) an act of violence intended to compel our opponent to submit to our will. (...) War is a
... continuation of political activity by other means
(Carl v. Clausewitz (1831): On War) rational pursuit of political interest
l the legal condition which permits two

44

or more hostile groups to carry on a

conflict by armed force (Quincy Wright (1965): A Study on War)
containment by international law
A minimalist definition
War is the occurrence of ...
... large scale (not sporadic)
... organized (identifiable warring parties, executed by armed forces or trained fighters)
... violence (not just threats)
...between politically defined groups (distinct from private quarrels, organised crime) (Jack S.
Levy (2002): 351)
2. Historic perspectives: How does war change?
l War a constant in history- Absence / weakness of superior authorities allows social
collectives to pursue political objectives by violent means
l Changing forms, actors and means of war
- Forms: armies on battlefields / guerilla tactics / terrorising civilians
- Actors: Mercenaries, state armies, warlords, guerillas
- Means: Longbow, muskets, rifles, tanks, WMD, drones l Emerging legal restrictions on the use
of force
International law and warfare
l Ius ad bellum: the UN Charter (1945)
- Major progress from both pre-1920 period and League of Nations
- Prohibits the use of military force (Art. 2 (3) and 2 (4)).
- Exemptions: 
A threat to international peace (Art. 39).BUT: UN SC determines existence of threat, only
institution to authorize use of military force
Self-defense in case of an (imminent?) attack by another country (Art. 51). BUT: States must refer
the case to UN SC
Ius in bello regulates conduct of war
- Protection of non-combatants; prisoners of war
- Prohibition of certain inhumane weapons
- Protection of cultural property in armed conflict
Quantitative perspectives: Do we see a growth of (specific) wars?
Defining criteria: What is counted as a war?
Conflicts between two parties (qualitative assessment)
The use of vioelnce and armed force (qualitative assessment)
Societal impact: operationalised through battledeaths or additional qualitative assessments
Differentiatingcriteria:Howdowarsdiffer?
- Motives and conflict items: Territory, secession, ideology, resources
- Conflict parties: Inter-state vs. intra-state (rebellion) and sub-state wars
- Magnitude: Degree of societal impact (deaths, forced migration...)
Quantitative example 1: The definition of the Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP)
Armed conflict:
... contested incompatibility that concerns government and/or territory

45

 ... where the use of armed force

between two parties
results in at least 25 battle-related deaths per calendar year  Varieties Interstate
(2 govts)  Intrastate (govt and non-state actor NSA) Internationalised intrastate (govt+NSA,
external involvement), Extrasystemic (govt and NSA outside own territory), Non-state (no govt
involvement).

Quantitative example 2: The definition used by Center for System Peace (www.systemicpeace.org)
l Major armed conflict with at least 500 fatalities
l Types:
- Inter-state warfare
- Societal warfare (e.g. Revolutionary, civil, ethnic, communal) l Societalimpact
- Scale of one to seven [ten in historic terms] according to an
assessment of the full impact of their violence on the societies that directly experience their effects;

46

e.g. fatalities and casualties, resource depletion, destruction of infrastructure, and population
dislocations

47

Summary of quantitative findings

The total number of armed conflicts and their deadliness rose during the Cold War until the early
1990s and is decreasing since then
l The majority of current wars are intra-state wars
Armed conflict is most deadly for civilians, not for formal combattants
Armed conflict and wars are mostly located in the less developed regions of the globe.
Qualitative change 1: New wars (Kaldor 2006)
l Actorsinvolved- Asymmetrical character: involves non-state actors (guerillas,
warlords, irregular armies, mercenaries) on at least one side
l Motivations of warring parties
- ethnical wars and identity politics
- the operation of war economies (drugs, diamonds...)
l Methods of warfare
- terrorist attacks; expulsion or killing of civilians
- the use of small weapons, landmines, explosive belts, etc.
Addressing the new wars
Asymmetricalwarfare(statearmiesdealingwithguerilla fighters)
l
Proper equipment and tactics, blurring civilian-military line Compromsing humanitarian values
(Vietnam, post-2004
Iraq, Palestine Occupied Territories)
Legal containment and termination
- Little significance of ius ad bello / ius in bellum;- Who negotiates with whom?; instable
settlements
Qualitative change 2: The revolution in military affairs (RMA)
Means: laser-guided missiles (precision bombing), drones, satellite-based communcations

48

Key idea: reliance on new technology to ... fight wars more effectively and with less
collateral damage ... keep own (physical) involvement to a minimum ... secure support of
critical electorates
Extremely unequal distribution of capacities
Problems related to RMA
Underminingthedemocraticpeace? Sanitised war
Legalcontainment Targeted killings without trials
Blurring the military / civilian line Political and military control of intelligence officers
3. Causes of War: Levels of Analysis
The international system
The structure of state and society
Neo-R / LI: War caused
LI: Authoritarian political systems
by clashing interests and
use violence to distract from
security dilemma; war
internal problems
made possible by anarchy
M: War results from grossly unjust
M: War a strategy of
distribution of wealth
violent expropriation of
C: Societal construction of threats
peripheral
regions,
and enemies
clashes likely

The human nature and perceptions

R/LI/M: The cause of war are
aggres- sive leaders (and popular
support)
C: Individual perceptions of threats
and enemies

Applications (I): Decreasing number of wars (inter-state since 1945; intra-state since 1992)
Neorealism:
- Stabilization of international order through balance of threat;
- Role of hegemonial powers
Liberal / institutionalist:
- The spread of democracy post 1945 and post 1990
- International economic / societal interdependence
- Normative proscription against resorting to war, legal containment through UN Charter,
humanitarian intervention
Marxism:
- War between states is dysfunctional for the smooth
functioning of capitalism
l Constructivist:- Collective learning; norm transformation
Applications (II): Rise and fall of intra-state wars, especially in developing countries
Neorealism:
- Intra-state war severed by external powers during Cold War (proxy wars), declines after 1989
- Regional power vacui; regional powers striving for domination
Liberal / institutionalist:
- Heterogeneous post-colonial societies; 'state nations'; border disputes
- Autocratic states and democratisation post-1989
- Weakness of regional systems of collective security
Marxism:
- Wars to secure access to resources
- Intervention by developed powers
Constructivism: Inherited threat / enemy perceptions

49

a condition between social and political collectives;l characterized by the absence of direct, hurting
physical violence;l in which the potential use of it [violence] against each other is not accepted in
the discourses of the collectives
School of
International Order
Structure of state and society
Individual
thought
Hierarchic
Horizontal
State
Society
Hegemonic
Balance of
Realism
stability
power
InterdePluralism
pendence
Building
trans/ liberal World
Citizen
Legalisation Democratic Peace national
links
institutio- government
education
and
between societies
nalism
diplomacy
School
of
thought

International Order

Structure of state and society

Hierarchic

State

Horizontal

Individual

Society
More
equal
Overcoming the capitalist End of class
Marxism
distribution
of
economic order
rule
economic goods
Socialising
deviant states InstitutionaDemocratic culture, Educate
citizens
Construc
into norms of lising such
de- legitimising use about
mist- ivism
peaceful
norms
of violence
perceptions
cooperation
LECTURE 11 War and Peace (II) : Military (Humanitarian) Interventions Ethical and
Legal Challenges
MANDATORY READINGS
Welsh, Jennifer (2002) 'From Right to Responsibility: Humanitarian Intervention and
International Society'; Global Governance 8 (4), pp. 50321.
if humanitarian intervention is, indeed, an unacceptable assault on sovereignty, how should we
respond to a Rwanda, to a Srebrenica to gross and systematic violations of human rights that
affect every precept of our common humanity? (Kofi Annan, 2000, p. 48)
Overview
- Definitions and HI in the context of the UN Charter
- Trends in intervention
- A selective practice of intervention
- Responsibility to protect (R2P): re-defining rules for the legitimate use of force in the UN
Charta?
- (Humanitarian) interventions: how successful?
Increasing intensity
Defining military (humanitarian) intervention
Intervention: The physical crossing of the boundaries of one state by actors from other states; with
the aim of changing the
situation in the target country

50

Means: Decreassing intensities

1. Technical aid, relief work
2. Preventive use of military force: No-Fly Zones, Peace-keeping
3. Active use of military force: air strikes, drones, ground troops
Motives: Humanitarian or otherwise
- Humanitarian objectives (ending or curbing human suffering), no intention of annexation
- However, pure humanitarian motives are the exception.
democratisation, fighting terrorism, preventing WMD proliferation, stabilize 'failing states', regime
change

Source. Binder 2009, p. 339

Source. Binder
p. 339(I)
The framework
of the 2009,
UN Charter
CHAPTER I: PURPOSES AND PRINCIPLES
Art 2.
The Organization and its Members, in pursuit of the Purposes stated in Article 1, shall act in
accordance with the following Principles.
3. All Members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that
international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered.
4. All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the
territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with
the Purposes of the United Nations.
7. Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters
which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require the Members to
submit such matters to settlement under the present Charter; but this principle shall not prejudice
the application of enforcement measures under Chapter Vll.
The framework of the UN Charter (II)
Chapter VII: action with respect to threats to the peace, breaches of the peace, and acts of
aggression
ART 39

51

The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace,
or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in
accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security
ART 41
The Security Council may decide what measures not involving the use of armed force are to be
employed to give effect to its decisions, and it may call upon the Members of the United Nations to
apply such measures. These may include complete or partial interruption of economic relations and
of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of communication, and the severance of
diplomatic relations.
ART 42
Should the Security Council consider that measures provided for in Article 41 would be inadequate
or have proved to be inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be
necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security. Such action may include
demonstrations, blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land forces of Members of the United
Nations.
Trends in intervention: pre 1989
- Unilateral interventions, no humanitarian agenda l USSR: GDR, Hungary, Czechoslovakia,
Afghanistanl USA: Vietnam, Grenada, Libya, Panamal France: Algeria, Indochina
- Unilateral interventions with some humanitarian motives (legitimised by interveners with ref.
to Art. 51 UN Charta) l Tansania > Uganda 1979l Vietnam > Cambodia 1979
- In all cases, no mandate from the UN Security Council (centrality of non-intervention principle,
Cold War)
Trends in intervention: post 1989
- Multilateral interventions with (some) humanitarian aims  No-fly zone in Iraq March 1991,
Somalia 1992, BiH 1992-95, Rwanda 1994, Haiti 1994, Kosovo 1999, East Timor 1999, DR Congo
2003, Darfur 2007, Lybia 2011
- Multilateral interventions with security and other political aims l Afghanistan 2001, Iraq 2003
- Not mandated by UN Security Council l Kosovo 1999 (NATO), Iraq 2003 (coalition of
willing)
- Followed by UN administration:l Kosovo since 1999, East Timor 1999-2002
Rise of interventions after 1989: A changed opportunity structure
The end of systemic bipolarity
- Hegemonic power of the US and its European allies
- UN SC no longer blocked by Cold War
Normative change
- Softening of the non-intervention norm, re-interpretation of sovereignty as a right and an
obligation
- More acceptance for assessing intra-state situations as threats to international peace
Technological advances (RMA)
- High-tech warfare lowers risk for intervening party
- Precision bombing seems to be morally more acceptable
A selective practice:When and how promptly do states intervene?
Impact of crisis on security of neighbouring or intervening states
- Refugees, terrorism, economic impact

52

Public pressure
- Media attention: the 'CNN effect'
- NGO activism
(Perceived) calculability of costs and risks
- Duration of intervention
- Own troops, equipment, logistics in comparison to target state
- Burden sharing with other states, local (regular) forces, PSAs
Ability to achieve consensus in P-5 and majority in UNSC
- A function of the factors above...
- ... and of previous engagement of UN in crisis (sunk costs)

A story of failure
A story of
failure

Rwanda Deaths

800000
700000

Res. 918

Res. 929

600000

casualties

500000
400000

300000
Res. 912
200000
100000

1000-

6 April
21 April '94
13 April '94

17 May '94

22 June '94

The problem is not the legitimacy of humanitarian intervention, but the overwhelming prevalence
of inhumanitarian non-intervention (Chesterman 2013: 495)
A new departure? The R2P principle
'International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty' (ICISS) founded in 2001,
sponsored by Canadian government, made up by UN GA members
'Responsibility to Protect' (R2P) the key element of the final Commission report (ICISS 2001).
What if the UNSC is not acting? (in ICISS 2001)
"In view of the Council s past inability or unwillingness to fulfill the role expected of it, if the
Security Council expressly rejects a proposal for intervention where humanitarian or human rights
issues are significantly at stake, or the Council fails to deal with such a proposal within a reasonable
time, it is difficult to argue that alternative means of discharging the responsibility to protect can be
entirely discounted." (ICISS 2001, p. 53)
Which responsibilities?
The individual state:
Responsibility to protect their populations from four crimes (genocide, war crimes, ethnic
cleansing, and crimes against humanity)
The community of states:

53

1. Responsibility to prevent by addressing both the root and immediate causes of conflicts within
countries;
2. Responsibility to react by responding appropriately to situations of massive human rights violations
..., in extreme cases, intervening with military force;
3. Responsibility to rebuild by providing full assistance with recovery, reconstruction and
reconciliation
Weighing ethical and legal issues (ICISS 2001)
"The non-interference rule not only protects states and governments: it also protects people and
cultures. (...) [T]here are exceptional circumstances in which the very interest that all states have in
maintaining a stable international order requires them to react when all order within a state has
broken down or when conflict and repression are so violent that civilians are threatened with
massacre, genocide or ethnic cleansing on a large scale." (p. 31)
"It is the real question in these circumstances where lies the most harm: in the damage to
international order if the Security Council is bypassed or in the damage to that order if human
beings are slaughtered while the Security Council stands by." (p. 55)
Reanimating the 'just war' doctrine? (ICISS 2001)
Just Cause- in order to halt or avert large scale loss of life (...), or large scale
"ethnic cleansing"
Right Intention:- "The primary purpose ... must be to halt or avert human
suffering
LastResort:
- "Every diplomatic and non-military avenue for the prevention or peaceful resolution of the crisis
must have been explored."
Proportional Means:- "The scale, duration and intensity of the ... intervention should be
the minimum necessary to secure the humanitarian objective
Reasonable Prospects:
- "Military action can only be justified if it stands a reasonable chance of success (...) [It] is not
justified if actual protection cannot be achieved, or if the consequences of embarking upon the
intervention are likely to be worse than if there is no action at all.
Right authority
We have made abundantly clear our view that the Security Council should be the first port of call
(...). But the question remains whether it should be the last".
Although the General Assembly lacks the power to direct that action be taken, a decision by
the General Assembly in favour of action, if supported by an overwhelming majority of member
states, would provide a high degree of legitimacy for an intervention which subsequently took
place
A further possibility would be for collective intervention to be pursued by a regional or subregional organization acting within its defining boundaries. (...) [T]here are recent cases when
approval has been sought ex post facto
R2Ps political career
2004: Concept supported by UN High Panel
2005: UN GA unanimously approves; HOWEVER
R2P strongly focused on responsibilities of home states, no obligation to intervene

54

 No adoption of guidelines when intervention is legitimate (as defined in just war

criteria)
No circumvention of UNSC possible
2006: recognized in UN Res 1674
2007: R2P referred to in UN Res 1706 (Darfur)
2009: Ban Ki Moon report on Implementing the Responsibilty to Protect broadly supported in UN
GA
2011: R2P a key argument in UN resolutions 1970 and 1973 (sanctions and interventions in Lybia)
2008: Russia invokes principle in its support for separatist Georgian province, France for victims of
cyclone Narghis in Myanmar (both widely resisted)

Interventions: how successful? (I)

More lasting peace settlements
Deterrence of warring parties to recur to arms
Communication channels between warring parties
Help with (re-)building administration and
government
Reducinghumansuffering
Many political goals have been reached
Stabilization, democratization
Fewer safe havens for terrorist groups

Interventions: how successful? (II)

Interventions freeze conflicts, but do not resolve underlying causes
No lasting stabilization in some cases; high death toll if presence is enduring (Afghanistan, Iraq)
Selectivity of intervention, political haggling in UNSC
External administrations with poor legitimacy and local support
Whosevalues?

Summary
The post-cold war period has seen a number of interventions for noble and less noble causes.
There are a number of pull and push factors that show the prime importance of political factors in
accounting for the 'new interventionism' and its selective use.
The interpretation of the sovereignty principle has increasingly been moved in the direction of a
responsibility to protect.
The success record of interventions is mixed, quite a few pitfalls have occurred
The key issue remains political will, especially among P-5
WEEK 6 BRICS: THE RISE OF NEW GLOBAL POWERS (L12 & L13)
The world order as it has emerged in the aftermath of World War II was based on a clear hierarchy
between superpowers, second-order powers, and a large group of states with lesser abilities to
influence global politics. These abilities were seen to be based on politico-military power, as well as
economic might. Some observers have also analysed the patterns of global governance that emerged
in that period (as discussed in week 4) as an outcome of the hegemony and sponsorship of the
United States. The so- called BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) are
increasingly seen to be challenging this order, be it because of their rapid economic growth (Brazil,
China, South Africa), their huge populations (India, China) or their large military might (Russia,
China). Some changes were made recently to global institutions to accommodate the growing role
of such countries, for instance through the extension of the G8 / G7 to the G 20 group or some
institutional changes in the International Monetary Fund. At the same time, the larger part of
developing countries remains relegated to a secondary role.

55

This tutorial will discuss what the rise of new global powers means for global governance and the
state of the world. Is the discussion about the rise of new powers simply based on economic
growth figures, or is this also a reflection of commonalities in terms of strategic outlook? Will
existing global governance arrangements be undermined and superseded, remain stable, or will they
be transformed step by step? What does the rise of these powers mean for challenging global
problems such as development, world trade, the environment, or security issues? How unified are
the BRICS actually in their strategic outlook, and how sustainable is their economic growth?
Finally, how is our own theorising about global affairs influenced? How would the discipline of
International Relations look like if it was to break free of the intellectual hegemony of US-based
research institutions and scholars?
Key concepts: BRICS states, global governance, world order, superpower, post-colonial IR theory
Case studies:
The role of China and India in Africa
Reform plans for global governance advanced by BRICS in various fields (trade,
environment, security)
TUTORIAL MANDATORY READINGS
Cooper, Andrew F., Antkiewicz, Agata and Shaw, Timothy M. (2006): Economic Size
Trumps All Else? Lessons from BRICSAM (CIGI Working Paper 12/2006); available at
http://www.cigionline.org/publications/2006/12/economic-size- trumps-all-else-lessonsbricsam [Last accessed 26 October 2014].
Vickers, Brendan (2013) Africa and the Rising Powers: Bargaining for the Marginalized
Many, International Affairs 89 (3) pp. 67393. (e-Journal).
Buzan, Barry (2011) The Inaugural Kenneth N. Waltz Annual Lecture: A World Order
Without Superpowers: Decentered Globalism, International Relations, 25 (1), pp. 3-25 (eJournal).
Callahan, William A. (2008): 'Chinese Visions of World Order: Post-hegemonic or a New
Hegemony?'; International Studies Review 10 (4) pp. 74961 (E-Journal).
LECTURE 12 The BRICS countries Towards a transformation of global governance?
MANDATORY READINGS
Cooper, Andrew F. and Ramesh Thakur (2013) The BRICs in the New Global Economic
Geography, in Thomas G. Weiss and Rorden Wilkinson (eds.): International Organization
and Global Governance; London, New York: Routledge, pp. 26578.
Overview
Basics The prediction of a BRIC world by 2050 World powers and global governance
An assessment Economic and military potential Unity of purpose: BRIC, BRICS, BRICSAM,
IBSA Normative attractiveness, credible value orientation
Scenarios of global governance Conflictive and cooperative global governance Transforming
global governance arrangements?  Conclusion
The Goldman Sachs papers
Real GDP growth in large emerging market economies exceeds that of the G7.
In less than 40 years, BRICs economies together could be larger than the G6 in US dollar terms. Of
the current G6, only the US and Japan may be among the six largest economies in US dollar terms
in 2050.

56

In line with these prospects, world policymaking forums should be re- organised and in particular,
the G7 should be adjusted to incorporate BRIC representatives
Key texts ONeill (2001)
Wilson / Purushothaman (2003)
But... What buys power in global governance?
Global governance as context
Negotiation as mode of interaction(how does control over resources translate into control over
outcomes?)
Fragmentation across policy fields(power is not spread evenly across policy fields)
Which resources / features buy power?
Economic and military power
Unity of objectives and purpose
Normative attractiveness, credible value orientation
Domestic structures
Dimension 1: Comparing world powers
Land area
Military
Population
(km2) (2012 expenditure
(2014 national
UN
(2013 SIPRI data,
estimates)
Statistics)
2013 current USD)
EU-28
508 m.
4,324 m.
$ 278,8 bn. (16%)
$ 640,2 bn.
USA
317 m.
9,526 m.
(36,6%)
China
1.360 m.
9,572 m.
$ 188,5 bn.
India
1.210 m.
3,288 m.
$ 47,4 bn.
Russia
not incl. 144 m.
17,098 m.
$ 87,8 bn.
Crimea
Brazil
203 m.
8,516 m.
$ 31,5 bn.
S. Africa
54 m.
1,211 m.
$ 4,1 bn.
EU825 m.
13.850 m.
$919 bn. (52,6%)
28+US
BRICS
2.971 m.
39.685 m.
$ 359,3 bn. (20,6%)
GDP, current
GDP (PPP)
USD
(Oct.
(Oct. 2014 GDP per
2014
IMF
IMF World capita, PPP,
World
Economic
current USD
Economic
Outlook,
(Oct. 2014 IMF
Outlook,
partly
WEO, estimates)
partly
estimated)
estimated)
EU-28
$ 17.597 bn.
$ 16.869 bn. $ 33.456
USA
$ 17.416 bn.
$ 17.416 bn. $ 54.678
G-7
$35.285 bn.
$ 33.691 bn. $ 44.723
China
$ 10.355 bn.
$ 17.632 bn. $ 12.893
India
$ 2.048 bn.
$ 7.277 bn.
$ 5.777
Russia
$ 2.057 bn.
$ 3.559 bn.
$ 24.764
not incl.

Active troops
(2012 IISS data,
2012 EDA data)
1.453.028
1.369.532
2.285.000
1.325.000
766.000
318.480
62.082
2.822.560
4.756.562
GDP growth
rates (at constant
prices,
2012-14
average; Oct. 2014
IMF WEO, pt.
est.)
0,35 %
2,23 %
1,62 %
7,57 %
5,13 %
1,65%
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Crimea
Brazil
S. Africa
EU28+US
BRICS

$ 2.244 bn.
$ 341 bn.

$ 3.073 bn.
$ 683 bn.

$ 35.013 bn.

$ 35.540 bn.

$ 17.045 bn.

$ 32.224 bn.

$ 15.153
$ 12.721

1,28 %
1,92%

Dimension 1:Economic and military power of the BRICS

Economy
1 giant, 3 middle powers, South Africa out of line
Significant growth rates (especially China and India), others lagging behind  Military 3
nuclear powers, formidable army strength Brazil and SA lagging behind
To add:
Increasingly important ODA providers (CACF, India-Africa summit)
Dimension 2: Organising the BRICS
Different fora: BRICs, BRICS, BRICSAM SA gave BRICS a truly global dimension (Lavrov
Increasing political cooperation at BRICS level  2009 first BRIC summit, 2011 BRICS  2011
aannouncement of broad consensus to coordinate and cooperate on international and regional
issues of common interest (BRICS 2011)
Dimension 2: Alternative fora
The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
China and Russia + other Eurasian countries
India, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan likely future members
Focus originally on security issues, ranging into economics and energy issues
IBSA Dialogue Forum
Contains India, Brazil and South Africa
Strong focus on development matters and South-South cooperation
Dimension 2:What is the mortar holding the BRICS?
Overlapping and competing interests Transformation of world economic order  Unity: alternative
development bank Disagreement: economic competition in Africa  Reform of international
institutions Unity: World Bank, G 20  Disagreement: UNSC reform
Disagreement on specific policy issues (energy prices, climate governance, WTO Doha round)
Dimension 2: Interpretations
Leveraging the weight of the rising powers Counterweight to G 7 Agenda of competition and
counterbalancing
Imagined community  It is not common location or common status, but a perception of common
fate and interest that keeps an alliance together
Dimension 3: Normative attractiveness
Possible value orientations
Alternative development models
3rd world leadership
Competitor / complement to G7 group
Maintaining a non-interventionist and respectful international order
Lack of research on resonance among smaller and non-aligned states  Willingness to be integrated
in BRIC-led coalitions? Soft power of Brazil, China and India?
Dimension 4: Domestic structures

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Divergent political and economic models Authoritarian vs. democratic states Liberal vs. statepermeated market economies
Strong societal conflicts
Distribution of wealth, absence of welfare states, uncertainty of future growth
rates
Ethnic struggles (China, India)
Environmental challenges Air pollution, deforestation, climate change
Transformation of global governance? (Conzelmann / Faust 2009)
Political order
Liberal
Autocratic
- General readiness to cooperate
- Selective willingness to cooperate
- Absolute gains orientation
- Relative gains orientation
Low
Few
value
or
other
Emphasis
on
sovereignty
Pressure
conflicts
C

ooperative
governance
issues
C

ompetitive
governance
linked to
strategies
strategies
economic
and
- Fragile readiness to cooperate
- Selective and fragile cooperation
political
- Relative gains cooperation
- Absolute gains cooperation
transition
High
Emphasis
on
Different
issues
of
distributional conflicts Distributive conflict
Confrontative
governance
governance strategies
strategies
Transformation of global governance?
Possibility of long-term political convergence
Embedding into global regimes makes policy priorities converge
Wealthier and more educated citizens will be more supportive of a democratic and
liberal order
Effective delegitimization of alternative orders (Fukuyama)
Empirical reality?
Blocked democratic transition in China and Russia
Partial cooperation with retreats to non-cooperative strategies
Possibility that the BRICS forum could be a more attractive socialisation
environment than Western-dominated institutions
Transformation of the G7/G8 to G 20
If the G7 was to become a forum where true world- wide economic policy co-ordination was
discussed, the US, Japan, Germany, France and the UK would be joined by China and India rather
than Italy and Canada if PPP weights were the appropriate judge (ONeill 2001: 5).
O5 / G 20 process (see discussion in Cooper / Thakur text)
Galvanising role of the 1999 and 2008 financial crises
The rise of the G 20
Launched in 1999, bringing together Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors;
Brings together heads of state and government since 2008
Focus on international economic cooperation, but increasingly other topics (health, terrorism,
drugs).
Unclear relationship to G 7/8

59

Summary
The BRICS are unlikely to present a formidable military challenge to the West, but increasingly
matter in economic terms (China in particular).
The BRICS group shows some limited but nonetheless significant cohesion in terms of comparable
interests. It allows states to pursue individual and shared interests in a collective framework.
The BRICS concept is most useful as a label for challenges to the existing (Western-dominated)
global economic order.
The advent of the BRICS may add a more conflictive turn to global governance, but is unlikely to
transform the system.
LECTURE 13 POVERTY, THE SOUTH AND HUMAN SECURITY
MANDATORY READINGS
Evans, T., Thomas, K. (2014) Poverty, Development and Hunger (Ch. 28), in Baylis, John,
Smith, Steve and Owens, Patricia (eds.) work cited, pp.430-446.
Acharya, A. (2014) Human Security (Ch. 29), in: Baylis, John, Smith, Steve and Owens,
Patricia (eds.) work cited, pp.448-461.
Structure
1. Clarification of key concepts
2. The birth of human security
3. The theory of human security
4. Human security in practice
5. Critiques of human security
6. Conclusion beyond human security?
Some Caveats:
From the perspective of a development scholar rather than security analyst
Will explore many of these themes more deeply in April (3rd track)
What is Poverty?
1) Material deprivation
Per capita income / Simple headcount basic needs poverty gap multidimensional
poverty etc etc.
Connotations of conservatism, but can also be tied to radical scholars such as Pogge (2004)
who see poverty as a severe violation of negative duties and calls for monetary
reparations.

60

ty?
Multi-dimensional Poverty Index (MPI):

014
ed
n of

University of Oxford and UNDP

Colombias National Development Plan 2011-2014
the deprivations experienced by the poor as a proportion of all possible deprivations in
society (Alkire and Santos 2010)
Measures the severity of poverty
Household rather than individual as unit of analysis

2) Lack of freedom / non-material deprivation

Sens capability approach development consists of the removal of various types of
unfreedoms that leave people with little choice and little opportunity of exercising their
collective agency (Development as Freedom xii)
Human development, MDGs. Human Development Index: "to shift the focus of
development economics from national income accounting to people-centered policies
(Mahbub-ul-Haq):
o GNI per capita
o Life expectancy at birth
o Mean and expected years of schooling
o Gender Inequality Index
3) Exclusion and lack of power:
Renewed focus on inequality with Pikketys Capital in the 21st Century (2013) and
Wilkinson and Picketts Spirit Level: Why Equal Societies Almost Always do Better (2009).
Individuals, families and groups in the population can be said to be in poverty whentheir
resources are so seriously below those commanded by the average individual or family that
they are, in effect, excluded from ordinary patterns, customs and activities (Townsend
1979)
But inequality and exclusion also as a cause and root feature of chronic poverty (Hulme and
Shepherd 2003).

61

4) A social construct:
As the post-World War II process of decolonization by European imperial powers
progressed, it was remarkable to observe how societies that had known hundreds (and
sometimes thousands) of years of high civilization, suddenly found themselves in a state of
economic underdevelopment. (O Connor and Latouche 2001).
What is the Global South?
Not an entirely unproblematic term, but better than the alternatives.
Does it mean non-OECD members (more or less the old 2nd and 3rd worlds)?
Or poorcountries? (map below shows GDP per capita above and below global average)
Or countries with low human development? (in white and light blue below)
What is Human Security?
Human security aims at ensuring the survival, livelihood and dignity of people in response
to current and emerging threatsAccordingly, human security underscores the universality
and interdependence of a set of freedoms that are fundamental to human life: freedom from
fear, freedom from want and freedom to live in dignity. As a result, human security
acknowledges the interlinkages between security, development and human rights and
considers these to be the building blocks of human and, therefore, national security. UN
Trust Fund for Human Security (2014).
Freedom from fear (narrow definition) vs freedom from want (wide definition)
On one hand, represents the inclusion of themes of development, poverty, inequality and
vulnerability into traditional security analysis and policy. UNDP and many others have
explicitly linked human development and human security (although latter broader than
former).
On the other hand, mirrors the journey that poverty and development themselves have
undertaken in past decades.
The Birth of Human Security
Academic debates critical of materialist and statist conceptualisations of security since
1980s (constructivists, criticial theorists, feminist theorists, etc)
Came to global prominence with UNDPs 1994 Human Development Report. A new
security vision for a new world order.
Broad and widely-accepted definition of human security: like other fundamental
concepts, such as human freedom, human security is more easily identified through its
absence than its presence. And most people instinctively understand what security means.
Nevertheless, it may be useful to have a more explicit definition. Human security can be
said to have two main aspects. It means, first, safety from such chronic threats as hunger,
disease and repression. And second, it means protection from sudden and hurtful disruptions
in the patterns of daily life-whether in homes, in jobs or in communities. Such threats can
exist at all levels of national income and development (UNDP 1994).
The Theory of Human Security
From states individuals
From threat of military violence cross-cutting threats
It is therefore:
People-centred
Multi-sectoral
Comprehensive
Context-specific

62

Prevention-oriented
Protection + Empowerment
Rooted in discussions on risk, vulnerability, insecurity, technology
Need for global and regional governance

of Human Security
Environmental
security

ons on

Communi
ty
security

ogy
and
ance

Political
security

Food
security

Personal
security

Health
security
Economic
security

Human Security in Practice

Main actors:
UN Trust Fund for Human Security(funded by Japan and run by UNOCHAs Human
Security Unit)
But a range of actors have incorporated it into their programmes (directly and indirectly),
including World Bank
Two case studies:
Northern Uganda: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=axb0KkB2Le4
Bangladesh:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nD3WB26_cEA&list=PLCCAF3B4C9F6E5112&index
=1

Canadian government one of key backers of concept (and a member of the UNs 13-member
Human Security Network) Ottowa Convention on Landmines Mine Ban Treaty

Critiques of Human Security

Distorted from its original definition: from universal ethic to foreign policy tool and
justification for intervention (peacekeeping, anti-terrorism, ICC) (Tadjbakhsh 2007)
Part of the Liberal Peace consensus and therefore often rejected by the Global South
(Tadjbakhsh 2007)
Rock (2013) and others worry about the elasticity of the concept whether by trying to
include too much it might, in the long run, achieve too little
Narrow vision criticised for betraying UNDPs original vision, while broad vision criticised
for simply providing a laundry list of bad things that can happen (Krause 2004) and
conflating dependent and independent variables (Mack 2004).
Conclusion Beyond Human Security?
Does the pragmatism and clarity of a narrow definition outweigh the moral courage and
ambition of the wider definition? I believe it does.
Most useful as a vital corrective to Cold War thinking and a reflection of impact of
globalisation on security concerns...

63

..but does anyone still think like this?

Insights of critical security studies illustrate need for it to examine its own assumptions,
particularly if it is to remain relevant for Global South.

WEEK 7 GLOBAL GOVERNANCE AND THE ENVIRONMENT (L14)

Engaging with the problems of the environment has a long history in international relations being
present at various international diplomatic forums for more than 100 years. To address
environmental challenges, competing policy approaches have emerged that are rooted in different
theoretical worldviews as well as normative decisions to prioritise certain values over others. In this
timeframe, one thing is certain - the demand for greener politics have risen to the statute of a norm
in world politics today. In the context of continuing deforestation, disappearance of arable land
depletion of natural resources, increasing energy demands, destruction of eco-systems and rising
global temperature, environmental politics has ceased to be a second-order, low-politics domain.
The security concerns associated with the current environmental challenges are nowhere near the
definition of soft security issues as military conflicts over resources abound, climate change induces
human security challenges and environmental degradation increasingly obtains the status of an
existential threat. Environmental responsibility becomes one of the leading norms of modern
politics bearing fundamental impact on the social structure of international relations. Thus
environmental politics has achieved a priority status in todays global governance architecture.
Some of the questions which we will address in this tutorial are: why has the domain of green
politics has risen to such a prominence; what are the new security threats stemming from
environmental degradation; are there any challenges to the governance structures and practices as
we know them on both national and trans-national levels; what are the potential and the
limitations of the process of greening' of international society today.
Keywords: environmental politics; greening; international society; norms; environmental
governance; social structures; hard vs soft security; diplomacy.
Case studies:
Negotiations on climate change - from Kyoto to today
Governing the commons overfishing and over- usage of fresh water from international
basins
Climate change and human conflict
Trade and environment ethics and sustainability (the 1991 GATT Tuna- Dolphin case)
TUTORIAL Mandatory readings
Mitchell, Ronald B. (2013) International Environmental Politics in Walter Carlsnaes,
Thomas Risse and Beth A. Simmons (eds.): Handbook of International Relations (2nd ed.);
London, Thousand Oaks: Sage, pp. 80126.
Falkner, Robert (2012) Global environmentalism and the greening of international society,
International Affairs 88 (3), pp. 503522.
Rafael Reuveny (2007) Climate change-induced Migration and Violent Conflict, Political
Geography 26, pp. 656-673. !
Ostrom, Elinor et al (1999) Revisiting the Commons: Local Lessons, Global Challenges;
Science, 284 (5412), pp. 278-282 (9 April) available at:
[http://www.sciencemag.org/content/284/5412/278.full] ;

64

LECTURE 14
MANDATORY READINGS
Vogler, John (2014) Environmental Issues (Ch.22), in Baylis, John, Smith, Steve and Owens,
Patricia (eds.) work cited, pp.341- 356.

65