Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct
The Pennsylvania State University, 104 Engineering Unit A, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
Departamento de Estructuras, Facultad de Ingeniera, Universidad del Zulia, Av. Goajira, Ala D, Maracaibo, Zulia, Venezuela
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Building and Fire Research Laboratory (MS 8604), 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8604, USA
article
info
Article history:
Received 19 February 2010
Received in revised form
14 April 2010
Accepted 24 May 2010
Available online 23 June 2010
Keywords:
Frequency domain error
Hysteresis
Nonlinear dynamic analysis
Timehistory analysis
abstract
This paper identifies the optimal combination of hysteresis-modeling and damping parameters for use in
practical nonlinear dynamic analysis to obtain satisfactory correlations in both amplitude and waveform
between the calculated and measured seismic response of reinforced concrete frames. In this study, frame
members are characterized by five modeling parameters: initial stiffness, bondslip rotations, post-yield
stiffness, unloading stiffness, and viscous damping. The calculated response is compared with measured
data from three small-scale shake-table multistory test structures and from a seven-story instrumented
building. The three test specimens (structures MF1, MF2, and FNW) are each analyzed for two different
base acceleration tests whereas the seven-story building (Holiday Inn at Van Nuys, CA) is analyzed using
a single recorded seismic event (1994 Northridge) in each of the two principal directions of the building
(structures HNS and HEW). Analyses for all five structures are carried out using three different computer
programs. The goodness-of-fit of the computed response to the recorded experimental data is measured
by the Frequency Domain Error (FDE) index. Simplified rules are presented to derive the best modeling
characterizations that give consistent low values of FDE for the various structures and structural analysis
programs considered.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Practicing engineers are increasingly using nonlinear static or
dynamic analysis to evaluate the response of a structure subjected
to seismic events. When designing new buildings, structural engineers refer to the governing building code for loads and analysis procedures. When designers choose a non-compliant system to
resist lateral loads, sufficient analytical and test data must be submitted to assure that the non-compliant system has adequate seismic response comparable to that of a conventional code-compliant
system. Deviating from the building code is likely to trigger at
least two actions: first, a traditional code-level design is performed
where engineers use a linear response analysis and relate it to
traditional lateral force-resisting systems; second, the building is
evaluated using nonlinear dynamic analysis for its response to a
severe seismic event. These actions are commonplace in the seismic evaluation of existing buildings [1].
Although a nonlinear dynamic analysis is an excellent way to
evaluate the performance of structures subjected to strong ground
motions, the modeling complexities involved in characterizing the
2932
(1)
i =
1
2i
+ i2
3. Modeling parameters
Practicing engineers rarely test the assumptions built-in their
computer models with measured data. With the intention of
helping engineers create meaningful models and computer output,
this section describes the key modeling parameters considered and
gives two relatively extreme values to each. Each value typifies
a modeling assumption that is to be tested in combination with
the values assigned to the other parameters. The test is based on
determining the goodness-of-fit between the calculated nonlinear
seismic response and the measured data for selected structures as
discussed later in Sections 5 and 6.
It is assumed that the loaddeformation characteristics of the
members are dominated by flexure. The effect of axial load was
taken into account when defining the momentrotation relationship for each column. Five basic modeling parameters are considered, four of which directly relate to the primary backbone
momentrotation relationship of frame members: initial stiffness,
bondslip deformations, post-yield stiffness, and unloading stiffness. The fifth parameter, viscous damping, also has a significant
impact on the dynamic response. Table 1 shows a summary of the
parameters considered.
3.1. Initial stiffness
Momentrotation primary curves are derived from moment
curvature relationships with the assumption that inflection points
are at midspans. The initial slope of the momentcurvature diagrams is determined using uncracked (U ) or cracked (C ) section
properties. For U cases, the initial stiffness is based on gross section
properties and the cracking
p point is calculated
p
based on a modulus of rupture, fr , of 1/2 fc0 (MPa) 6 fc0 (psi) . For C cases, the
initial stiffness is defined using the secant to yield. Both U and C
cases share the same yield point. These cases explore if satisfactory
correlations may be obtained when the cracking point is ignored.
The cracking and the yield point are derived from sectional analyses based on the concretes stressstrain relationship by Hognestad [10] and the steel is taken as perfectly elastoplastic. Although
the cracking and yield moments are determined for the initial axial
load due to gravity, both moments are assumed to be independent
of the change in axial load induced by the ground motion.
3.2. Bondslip rotation
Bondslip rotation accounts for the softening effect due to the
elongation of the longitudinal reinforcement beyond the beam
column interface into the joint. Bondslip rotation, 0 , is defined
herein as a function of the development length expressed as a multiple of the bar diameter, db :
0 =
1
2
y db
f
(2)
M
My
2
(3)
where = 4uy , fy is the yield stress of reinforcement, u is the average bond stress, y is the curvature at yielding, M is the applied
moment, and My is the yield moment.
Eq. (3) was derived based on four simplifying assumptions,
similar to those found in Refs. [4,11]: (i) pullout does not occur
when the reinforcement develops fy ; (ii) the steel stress varies
linearly from a maximum at the beamcolumn interface to zero
inside the joint; (iii) the rotation due to bond slip is measured
with respect to the neutral axis; and (iv) the tensile stress in the
reinforcement is proportional to the moment.
Two cases of bondslip rotation are considered: a case of tight
(T ) bond where is taken as 20 bar diameter lengths, and a case
of loose (L) bond where is taken as 40 bar diameter lengths. The
values of closely correspond to practical values of fy and u. For
instance, a case where fy = 410 MPa (60 ksi) and u = 5.2 MPa
(0.75 ksi), gives = 20, and a case where fy = 410 MPa (60 ksi)
2933
Table 1
Parameter identification.
Parameter
Characteristic value
Symbol
Initial stiffness:
Uncracked
Cracked
fr = 1/2
fr 0
Bondslip:
Tight
Loose
= 20
= 40
T
L
Post-yield stiffness:
Hard
Soft
Kp = 0.10 Ke
Kp = 0.02 Ke
H
S
Unloading stiffness:
Nonreducing
Reducing
=0
= 0.6
N
R
Viscous damping:
2% mass proportional
5% mass proportional
2% stiffness proportional
5% stiffness proportional
2
5
2
5
and u = 2.6 MPa (0.375 ksi), gives = 40. The large values of 0
that correspond to the L cases may also be interpreted as including
some joint flexibility.
3.3. Post-yield stiffness
The momentrotation post-yield stiffness, Kp , is expressed as a
fraction of the secant-to-yield stiffness, Ke = My /e where e is the
effective yield rotation which includes bondslip effects. Two cases
are considered: a soft case (S ) where Kp = 0.02Ke and a hard case
(H ) where Kp = 0.10Ke . The values of Kp are directly defined in
programs PERFORM 3D and SAP 2000 via M curves while LARZ
requires a special definition of the bondslip beyond the yield point
to control Kp .
The moment and rotation at ultimate depend on the assumed
material properties, the curvature distribution along the member
length, and the plastic-hinge length. Instead of the precise calculation of the ultimate point, it is convenient to define the post-yield
stiffness as a function of the secant to yield. A finite positive slope
is assigned to the stiffness after yielding to incorporate the strain
hardening characteristics of the longitudinal reinforcement. This
approach also gives the analyst the option of defining the primary
momentrotation curve mainly as a function of the yield point.
Because the structures considered in this study predominantly
responded with rotation demands below the ultimate point, the
suggested approach proved satisfactory without need for consideration of strength degradation.
3.4. Unloading stiffness
Measured loaddeformation hysteresis data for reinforced
concrete members have shown that the unloading stiffness
decreases as the maximum deformation increases [12]. The
unloading stiffness has been defined in relation to a stiffnessreducing exponent, , as implemented by the Takeda hysteresis
model [13]:
Kr = Ke
e
m
(4)
= 0.02
= 0.05
= 0.02
= 0.05
f0
c
(MPa)
U
C
2934
b
Fig. 1. Test structures, (a) MF1 and MF2 and (b) FNW.
defined as stiffness proportional then the damping matrix is updated every time an element cracks or yields, whereas if damping is
defined as mass proportional then it remains unchanged throughout the analysis. In addition, stiffness-proportional damping implies increased damping values on modes of vibration other than
the fundamental mode whereas mass-proportional damping implies reduced damping values on the higher modes.
Four cases for the amount and type of viscous damping are considered. Two cases use mass-proportional damping at 2% and 5% of
critical damping (2 , 5 ) and two cases use stiffness-proportional
damping at 2% and 5% of critical damping (2 , 5 ). The constants
and (Eq. (1)) are determined using Eq. (2) with the fundamental
frequency of vibration always based on uncracked section properties.
Table 1 presents a summary of the five modeling parameters
considered. Four parameters adopt two values and a fifth parameter adopts four values, giving at most a total of 64 combinations
per structure for a single ground motion and for each program of
analysis.
4. Structures and ground motions
Nonlinear dynamic analyses are performed on three small-scale
test structures responding to two separate shake-table base motions and a real building subjected to the ground motions recorded
at its base during the 1994 Northridge earthquake. The analyses
incorporate the combinations of parameter values presented in
Section 3.
4.1. Test structures: MF1, MF2, and FNW
The tests were performed using the University of Illinois earthquake simulator [2]. Geometries of the specimens are shown in
Fig. 1. Structures MF1 [15], MF2 [16] and FNW [17] were composed
of two planar frames working in parallel. The ten-story structures,
MF1 and MF2, had identical geometries except for the discontinued beam at the first story in MF2. The nine-story structure, FNW,
had a tall first story. Nominal cross sectional dimensions of beams
and columns were identical for all three frames, with all columns
stiffer and stronger than the beams. The heavy base girders and
the specimen-to-simulator connections were designed to simulate
a fixed-base condition. The story weights were nominally 4.45 kN
(1 kip) with the exception of the first story in MF2 where nearly
1/3 of the weight was removed. The weights were transferred directly to the column centerlines such that each column carried an
equal fraction of the story weight.
2935
Imaginary
to top of slab
(Roof)
(Rc, Ic)
(Base)
Err
or
Elevation NS
(Section BB)
Calculate
Elevation EW
(Section AA)
(Rm, Im)
d
sure
Mea
NORTH
Plan
Real
first floor and roof with depths of 760 mm (30 in.) and 560 mm
(22 in.), respectively. Seismic design of the building was based on
the assumption that the code-specified lateral forces were resisted
by the combined action of the interior slabcolumn frames and
exterior beamcolumn frames. The interior column cross sections
are 510 mm (20 in.) square in the first story and 460 mm (18 in.)
square above. Exterior columns are 360 510 mm (14 20 in.) for
the full building height with the 510 mm (20 in.) dimension along
the NS direction. Although the column longitudinal reinforcement
ratios range between one and three percent of the column gross
area, the transverse reinforcement, spaced at 300 mm (12 in.), is
noncompliant with modern special moment frame requirements.
All concrete is normal-weight with the first-story columns
having a specified compressive strength of 35 MPa (5 ksi). The
first-level floor slab and columns between levels 1 and 2 were
built with 28 MPa (4 ksi) concrete. All other concrete above grade
had a specified concrete strength of 21 MPa (3 ksi). Columns are
reinforced with steel having a specified yield of 410 MPa (60 ksi),
while beams and slabs used 280 MPa (40 ksi) steel. The foundation
system consists of groups of cast-in-place reinforced concrete
friction piles with pile caps connected by grade beams.
The structure damage due to the 1994 Northridge earthquake
was serious. The perimeter frames had extensive cracking of
concrete related to shear and bond stresses, especially at columns.
A total of 16 accelerometers located at the roof, fifth, second, first,
and ground levels recorded motions in the EW, NS, and vertical
directions. The recorded horizontal peak ground accelerations
were 0.45 g (EW) and 0.42 g (NS). The building experienced roof
displacements of about 1.3% the building height.
Tabulated data are included in Ref. [9] describing all member
properties in relation to the modeling parameters presented in
Section 3.
5. FDE index
The FDE index [18] measures the correlation between two
waveforms. The index is used herein to help identify the combinations of modeling parameters that lead to the best correlations
between measured and calculated roof displacement response for
the structures considered. Roof displacement is chosen as the key
response parameter because it has proven satisfactory for characterizing the global and local response of frames having individual
elements without abrupt changes in stiffness and with columns
proportioned to develop limited yielding [4].
The FDE index quantifies amplitude and phase deviations between two signals and gives a value between 0 and 1, where 0 is
for a perfect correlation and 1 is for 180 out of phase. The index
uses the Fourier transform of both the measured and calculated
signals to represent them as complex numbers in the frequency
f2
P
FDE =
RMi RCi
2
+ IMi IC i
2
i=f1
f2 q
P
i=f1
2
R2Mi + IM
i
(5)
q
R2Ci + IC2i
where RMi and IMi are the real and imaginary components of the
measured signal at frequency i; RCi and ICi are the real and imaginary components of the calculated signal at frequency i; f1 and
f2 are the starting and ending frequencies for summation. In this
study, frequencies f1 and f2 are defined as a function of the fundamental period, T1 , of the uncracked structure, using 1/(4T1 )
and 1/(0.1T1 ), respectively. This range is expected to capture the
most relevant frequency content of the signals representing inelastic structural response. The duration of the response history over
which the index is calculated is set to approximately 30T1 .
6. Analysis cases and results
To identify the combinations of modeling parameters that
lead to a realistic response, the FDE index is determined for the
roof displacement history obtained from each of the nonlinear
dynamic analysis cases considered. First, trends are identified in
the data corresponding to the test structures; and second, the
Holiday Inn building is analyzed to verify if the combinations that
give satisfactory calculated-to-measured correlations for the test
structures also work for the full-scale building.
Program LARZ was used in all three test structures (MF1, MF2,
and FNW) and in the Holiday Inn building (HEW and HNS) for all
64 possible parameter value combinations (see Table 2). Programs
PERFORM 3D and SAP 2000 were also used to model the same
structures but with a reduced number of cases due to program limitations. When using discrete nonlinear springs at member ends,
both PERFORM 3D and SAP 2000 cannot appropriately represent
the U models using a breakpoint before the yield point.
For each analysis program, the FDE index data were sorted
for each type of structure and damping and presented in the
form of FDE clocks (Figs. 49). An FDE clock [18] is a graphical
representation resembling a dart board, where the center of the
chart (FDE = 0) indicates a perfect correlation between the
measured and calculated response histories. A point near the
periphery (FDE = 0.75) represents a very poor correlation. The
circle is divided into 16 sectors, where each sector represents one
of the 16 models after the combination of U /C , H /S, N /R, and T /L.
2936
Table 2
Analysis cases.
Program
Structure
Base motion
Parameters
Cases
LARZ
MF1/MF2/FNW
HEW/HNS
run 1/run 2
1994 Northridge
U /C , H /S , N /R, T /L, 2 /5 /2 /5
U /C , H /S , N /R, T /L, 2 /5 /2 /5
3 2 64 = 384
2 1 64 = 128
PERFORM 3D
MF1/MF2/FNW
HEW/HNS
run 1/run 2
1994 Northridge
C , H /S , N /R, T /L, 2 /5 /2 /5
C , H /S , N /R, T /L, 2
3 2 32 = 192
2 1 8 = 16
SAP 2000
MF1/MF2/FNW
HEW/HNS
run 1/run 2
1994 Northridge
C , H /S , N /R, T /L, 2 /5 /2 /5
C , H /S , N /R, T /L, 2
3 2 32 = 192
2 1 8 = 16
2937
Fig. 7. FDE clocks, structure MF1, (a) PERFORM 3D and (b) SAP 2000.
Fig. 8. FDE clocks, structure MF2, (a) PERFORM 3D and (b) SAP 2000.
Fig. 9. FDE clocks, structure FNW, (a) PERFORM 3D and (b) SAP 2000.
Fig. 11. Roof displacement histories, test structures run 2, program LARZ.
7. Conclusions
To identify the modeling assumptions that lead to the best correlation between calculated and measured seismic responses, a
series of nonlinear dynamic analyses was performed on three
small-scale shake-table test structures (MF1, MF2, and FNW) and
on the orthogonal structural systems (HNS and HEW) of an instrumented seven-story building located in Van Nuys, California. The
structures represent multibay multistory reinforced concrete moment frames. The nonlinear dynamic analyses were implemented
using three programs (LARZ [4], PERFORM 3D [5] and SAP 2000 [6]).
Each program was used to represent the influence of five modeling parameters: initial stiffness, bondslip rotations, post-yield
stiffness, unloading stiffness, and viscous damping. Each of the
modeling parameters is assigned two extreme but plausible values to help identify the direction of the parameter value that
most favorably represents a realistic response. In all, for a single
2938
Fig. 15. FDE clocks, structures HEW and HNS, (a) PERFORM 3D and (b) SAP 2000.
Fig. 12. Base shear histories, test structures run 2, program LARZ.
Fig. 16. Roof displacement histories, structures HEW and HNS, program LARZ.
Fig. 14. FDE clocks, structures HEW and HNS, program LARZ.
structure and ground motion, up to 64 analysis cases were considered per program. The Frequency Domain Error (FDE) index [18]
helped identify the analytical models having the best and most
consistent correlation with the measured data. The calculated response wasprocessed using the FDE clocks, which is an effective
tool for visualizing the influence of multiple parameter values on
the correlation between the calculated response and the measured
response histories.
From the limited number of structures, modeling assumptions,
modeling parameter range of values, and computer programs considered, the following are concluded (refer to Table 1 for parameter
identification):
(1) For the test structures (MF1, MF2, and FNW) subjected to
run 1, the best models for each type of damping were: CHRT-2 ,
CHRL-5 , UHRT-2 , and UHRL-5 .
These models are derived by the following three rules: (i) use
10% post-yield stiffness ratio and an unloading stiffness parameter
of 0.6 (i.e. use models with H and R); (ii) for models using uncracked initial stiffness select stiffness-proportional damping and
for models using cracked initial stiffness select mass-proportional
damping (i.e. use U models with or C models with ); and
(iii) for models where bondslip deformations are based on development lengths of 20 bar diameters use 2% damping and for development lengths of 40 bar diameters use 5% damping (i.e. use T
models with 2% damping or L models with 5% damping). Note that
constant damping (mass proportional) works well with the softer
C models and that higher values of damping work well with the
softer L models.
(2) For the test structures (MF1, MF2, and FNW) subjected to
run 2, model CHRL-2 outperformed all others. This model may be
viewed as a logical outcome from the rules given for run 1 because
before run 2 the structures had already yielded and experienced
some damage. The change from T to L is justified because the
structure is effectively softer.
(3) For the full-scale Holiday Inn building (structures HNS and
HEW) two of the best models were consistent with the rules given
above in conclusion (1): UHRT-2 and UHRL-5 .
In general, the models derived with the first two rules of
conclusion (1) had satisfactory accuracy when representing the
global measured response of the test structures for both run 1 and
run 2. Calculated roof displacement, base shear, and overturning
moment histories successfully tracked the measured response.
Although the models for the test structures in run 1 were able to
satisfactorily represent the local measured response, indicated by
story drift ratios, the models for run 2 were not as accurate. This
is possibly due to limitations in the analytical models to properly
account for high-mode effects.
The findings from this study suggest that a valuable contribution to practicing engineers would be to have developers of structural software incorporate moment frame model templates with
pre-assigned nonlinear springs. The default spring properties may
be based on conclusion (1) for an undamaged structure and on
conclusion (2) for a previously damage structure. These properties would set the stage for a more reliable evaluation of the relative merits of several preliminary designs before the final design
is reached.
Research is needed to develop more definite recommendations
of parameter values following statistical analysis of a larger number of structures and a more refined grid of parameter values.
Acknowledgements
The writers are grateful to Prof. Mete Sozen (Purdue University)
for sharing the data from the University of Illinois earthquake
simulator.
2939
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