INTERLANGUAGE STUDY OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

A PAPER PRESENTATION

submitted as an assignment for

Second Language Acquisition subject
Dr. Fahriany, M.Pd

By:
Group 3
Ade Amalia
Arnis Silvia
Iffah Salimah
Imrohatin
Lia Nurshohifah
Samsul Marpitasa

MASTER PROGRAM OF ENGLISH EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION
UIN SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH JAKARTA
2012

INTERLANGUAGE:
THE NATURE, THE ISSUES, AND THE PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATION

There is a state during the process of second language acquisition, where

target language (L2) is not acquired completely yet, and the influence of first
language (L1) is still there. As an analogy, a language learner is represented as
Chameleon1 which its green skin represents its first language. The color of object
it steps on is represented as the target language (L2). As chameleon steps on a tree
trunk, it turns its color skin into the the trunk color (brown, for instance), thus its
color is between green and brown. This transition of color from green to brown
in this case can represent the state of Interlanguage the transition state from the
L1 to the L2.
This paper discusses the nature of interlanguage covering its nature, issues
and pedagogical implication which is divided into six discussions, namely: what is
interlanguage?,

the

characteristics

of

Interlanguage,

factors

affecting

Interlanguage, Stages in Interlanguage, issues in Interlanguage, and pedagogical

implication of Interlanguage.

I. What is Interlanguage?
The term interlanguage was initially proposed by Larry Selinker stated
that interlanguage is a linguistic system that is used by the L2 learners and it is
influenced by the L1 (mother tongue).

When the learners learn the target

language, the learners build their own system of language which is different from
their L1. For the first concept, interlanguage can be defined as a half way house
between L1 and L2. L1 can be said as a language source which contains the first
1

the term 'Chameleon' was firstly introduced by Elaine Tarone in 1972 as an analogy of
Interlanguage Process. See E. Tarone, Interlanguage as Chameleon: Language Learning Vol. 29,
No. 1, 1979, pp. 181-191
2
Rod Ellis, Second Language Acquisition, (New York: Oxford University Press., 1997),
p. 33

material and mix with the target language gradually. The result is new and
different. It is neither L1 nor L2, but something in between.
Saville-Troike named interlanguage as transfer, meaning a transition of
prior knowledge from L1 to L2, as one of the processes that is involved in
interlanguage development.3 Further, she identifies two types of transfer: positive
transfer and negative transfer. Positive transfer occurs when an L1 structure or
rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is appropriate or correct in the L2.
Meanwhile, negative transfer occurs when when an L1 structure or rule is used in
an L2 utterance and that use is inappropriate and considered an error. (the issue
of errors will be discussed later on section V). In this process of transfer, the
aspects of language involved are vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and all
other aspects of language structure and use.
There are five central processes that exist central to second language
learning. first, language transfer; second, transfer of training; third, strategies of
second language learning; fourth, strategies of second language communication;
and fifth, overgeneralization of TL linguistic materials.

In the first process

(language transfer), some of the rules in the interlanguage system may be the
result of transfer from the learners first language. The learners use their mother
tongue to create their own language system. And this is not an error but the
process that must be passed by the learners when they learn the second language,
for example: Today was really tired. In the second process (transfer of training),
some of the components of the interlanguage system may be the result from
transfer of specific elements through which the learners is taught the second
language. In the third process (strategies of second language learning), some of
the rules in the learners interlanguage may be the result from the application of
language learning strategies as a tendency on the part of the learners to reduce the

Murielle Saville-Troike, Introducing Second Language Acquisition, (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 18-21
4
L. Selinker, Interlanguage. reprinted from IRAL, Vol. X/3, 1972. in J.C. Richards,
Error Analysis: Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition, (London: Longman, 1974), pp. 3536

TL to a simpler system. In the next process (strategies of second language

communication), interlanguage system rules may also be the result of strategies
employed by the learners in their attempt to communicate with native speakers of
the target language. At the last process, Overgeneralization, some of the rules of
the interlanguage system may be the result of overgeneralization of specific rules
and features of the target language. For instance, the learners can say I goed
home to overgeneralize English rules by adding ed at the end of verb to express
the past form. This error happened because of learning strategies.
Several researchers pointed out that the language of L2 learners is
systematic which leads to rule-governed behavior. 5 This brings a conception that
interlanguage is based on the proposal that L2 learners have internalized a mental
grammar, a natural language system that can be described in terms of linguistic
rules and principles. Therefore, interlanguage grammars are seen like the other
grammar, including Universal Grammar (UG). UG6 is a set of device of grammar
that can detect the general principles of any language grammars, can predict
the acceptable grammar without prior knowledge about it, and to feel the
correctness of a structure. It is the system of principles, conditions, and rules that
are elements or properties of all human languages..the essence of human
language.

II. The Characteristics of Interlanguage

An interlanguage has the following characteristics: 7
1) Systematic. At any particular point or stage of development, the IL is governed
by rules which constitute the learners internal grammar. These rules are
5

Lydia White, On the Nature of Interlanguage Representation: Universal Grammar in the

Second Language, in C.J Doughty, and M.H. Long, The Handbook of Second Language
Acquisition. (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003), p. 19
6
UG is Chomskys term for the genetic blueprint of grammar. See Noam Chomsky, On
Nature and Language, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), p. 29
7
M. Saville-Troike, Introducing Second Language Acquisition, (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2006), pp. 41-42

discoverable by analyzing the language that is used by the learner at that time
what he or she can produce and interpret correctly as well as errors that are
made.
2) Dynamic. The system of rules which learners have in their minds changes
frequently, or is in a state of flux, resulting in a succession of interim
grammars. Selinker views this change not as a steady progression along a
continuum, but discontinuous progression from stable plateau to stable
plateau.
3) Variable. Although the IL is systematic, differences in context result in
different patterns of language use.
4) Reduced system, both in form and function. The characteristic of reduced form
refers to the less complex grammatical structures that typically occur in an IL
compared to the target language (e.g. omission of inflections, such as the past
tense suffix in English). The characteristic of reduced function refers to the
smaller range of communicative needs typically served by an IL (especially if
the learner is still in contact with members of the L1 speech community).

III. Factors Affecting Interlanguage (Aspects of Interlanguage)

Interlanguage has been widely influenced by several factors. In this case,
we

conclude

such

influence

from

perspectives

of

social,

discourse,

psycholinguistics, and linguistics as offered by Rod Ellis.8

A. Social Aspects of Interlanguage
From the social angle, Ellis introduced three different approaches of
interlanguage:

Rod Ellis, Second Language Acquisition, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp.

37-71

1.

Interlanguage involves a stylistic continuum that learners develop a

capability for using the L2 which is based on all regular language behavior
and produces an abstract linguistic system. This view recognizes two styles
of learners: (1) careful style is that when they are consciously involved in
choosing of linguistic forms as they need to be correct, (2) vernacular style
is that when learners are making spontaneous choices of linguistic forms as
in free conversation. In addition, the L2 acquisition is influenced by a
learners social group.

2.

In constructing their interlanguage, learners use the input influenced by

social factors. Along with this, John Schumann proposed the acculturation
model of L2 acquisition. He found fossilization of L2 learners when they
fail to acculturate to the target language group that they are unable or
unwilling to adapt to a new culture. The main reasons of this failure are
social distance and psychological distance, such as language shock and
motivation.

3.

To shape their opportunities to speak and to learn an L2, learners negotiate

their social identities in their interactions with native speakers. Thus, it
emphasizes the relationship between social context and L2 acquisition.
The learning will be successful when learners are able to impose their right
and to become the subject of the discourse. The process needs investment
in which learners will make it when they believe their efforts will cause
good return (success).
Those three socio-cultural models of L2 acquisition are less relevant to

foreign language settings when most learners primary contact with the L2 is in a
classroom.
B. Discourse Aspects of Interlanguage
Through this aspect, Rod Ellis suggested the role of input and interaction and
the role of output in L2 acquisition as follow:
5

 The role of input and interaction in L2 acquisition can be viewed from the
perspectives of some prominents:
1) Behaviorist views language learning determined from environment. It is
controlled from the outside through stimulus and the reinforcement.
2) Mentalist suggests the importance of the learners black box. Learners are
already equipped with brain ability to learn language and that they need
minimal exposure to the acquisition.
3) Interactionist emphasizes the importance of both input and internal language
processing.
Foreigner talk means the language that native speakers use to speak with nonnative speaker. There are two type: (1) grammatical, and (2) ungrammatical.
Various types of modification to assist interlanguage development:
1)

Grammatical foreigner talk is delivered at a slower pace.

2)

The input is simplified.

3)

Grammatical foreigner talk is sometimes regularized.

4)

Foreigner talk sometimes consists of elaborated language use.

The role of output in L2 acquisition

Swain argued that comprehensible output plays some important roles in L2
acquisition, such as:
1) It serves learners consciousness and helps them to notice gaps in their
interlanguages.
2) It helps learners to test hypothesis that they can try some rules and see the
feedback, positive or negative.
3) It gives chance to them to talk about their own output, identify some problems
in it and discuss solution to fix it.
6

C. Psycholinguistic Aspects of Interlanguage

Rod Ellis defines psycholinguistics as the study of the mental structures
and processes involved in the acquisition and use of language. In this field, we
focus on some of major issues: L1 transfer and the role of consciousness.
1.

L1 Transfer
L1 transfer is the influence that the learners L1 exerts over the acquisition of
an L2. The influence can be seen as: (1) sources of error in learner
language/negative transfer, (2) facilitation of L2 acquisition/positive transfer,
(3) avoidance, and (4) overuse.

2.

The Role of Consciousness in L2 Acquisition

Richard

Schmidt

distinguishes

the

term

consciousness

into

(1)

intentionality-a conscious and deliberate decision of a learner to learn some

L2 knowledge, and (2) attention-in which he proposes noticing that is the
process of attending consciously to linguistic features in the input. In
addition, he introduces awareness which refers to whether learners are
conscious of acquiring new L2 elements.
D. Linguistic Aspects of Interlanguage
In this section, Rod Ellis considers how the nature of the language
influences development.
1.

Typological Universals

The typological study of languages gives interesting predictions about what

learners will acquire first and what they will transfer from their L1. Moreover,
linguistic facts can be used to explain and even predict acquisition and the result
of empirical studies of L2 acquisition can be used to refine our understanding of
linguistic facts.

2.

Universal Grammar

Noam Chomsky argues that language is governed by a set of highly abstract

principles that provide parameters which are given particular settings in different
languages. It serves as a source of hypothesis about what structures will cause
learning difficulty and determines whether L2 and L1 are the same or different.
3.

Learnability is that the children have to rely on innate knowledge of

language, and that they need stimulus, positive and negative evidence.
4.

The Critical Period Hypothesis is that there is a period during which

language acquisition is easy and complete and beyond which it is difficult and
typically incomplete.
5.

Access to UG

a.

Complete access is that the learners begin with the parameter settings of
their L1 but subsequently learn to switch to the L2 parameter setting, and
that full target language competence is possible and no critical period lies.

b.

No access is that UG is not available to adult L2 learners, that they will

normally not be able to achieve full competence.

c.

Partial access is that learners only have some parts of UG. L2 acquisition is
partly regulated by UG and partly by general learning strategies.

d.

Dual access is that adult L2 learners make use of both UG and general
learning strategies, and that they can be fully successful providing they rely
on UG.

6.

Markedness refers to the general idea that some structures are more

natural or basic than other structures. Research shows that learners are mre
likely to acquire a frequent but marked structure before an infrequent but
unmarked structure than vice versa.

IV. Stages in Interlanguage

A. Initial State

The stages of Interlanguage9

In this initial state, L1 grammar is affecting much. Since L2 acquisition
follows L1 acquisition, a major component of the initial state for L2 learning must
be prior knowledge of L1. Following this idea, L2 learners have already had an
innate capacity or natural ability to learn a language. This innate ability concept
is based on this principles:

children begin to learn their L1 at the same age, and in much the same way,
whether it is English, Bengali, Korean, Swahili, or any other language in
the world.
children master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in their
L1 by the age of about five or six, as noted above, regardless of what the
language is.
9

Murielle Saville-Troike, Introducing Second Language Acquisition, (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 17

children can understand and create novel utterances; they are not limited to
repeating what they have heard, and indeed the utterances that children
produce are often systematically different from those of the adults around
them.
there is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition, beyond which it can never be
complete.
acquisition of L1 is not simply a facet of general intelligence. 10
The initial state of L1 learning thus is composed solely of an innate

capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available
for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The initial state for L2
learning, on the other hand, has resources of L1 competence, world knowledge,
and established skills for interaction, which can be both an asset and an
impediment. In addition, White11 stated that In L1 acquisition, UG is the initial
state, determining, in advance, the form and the functioning of language-particular
grammars.

The L2 learner is assumed to start out with grammatical

representations derived from the L1 grammar, in whole or in part.

Regarding the state of UG in initial state, there are some theories which
define the difference of its role in initial state. Full Access without Transfer and
Full Transfer Full Access would seem to represent the most logical possibilities,
at least in principle: either UG is the initial state or the L1 grammar is the initial
state. The Minimal Trees Hypothesis and the Valueless Features Hypothesis fall
somewhere in between: neither UG in its entirety nor the L1 in its entirety
constitute the initial state.
B. Intermediate State
Intermediate state covers all stages of basic language development
including the maturational changes which take place in socalled child grammar,
and the L2 developmental sequence which is known as learner language (also
interlanguage or IL). In this phase, both processes of L1 and L2 development are
10

Murielle Saville-Troike, Introducing Second Language Acquisition, (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 13-14
11
Lydia White, Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar, (Cambrige:
Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 58-98

10

happening. All L2 learners will go through this state before reaching the final
state. There is similarity in the development of both L1 and L2 is largely
systematic, including predictable sequencing of many phenomena within each and
some similarity of sequencing across languages, and in the fact that L1 and L2
learners both play a creative role in their own language development and do not
merely mimic what they have heard or been taught.12
The language ability develops as the age of the learner gets older. Contrast
to this, the development of learner language (or interlanguage) for L2 learners
occurs at an age when cognitive maturity cannot be considered a significant
factor; L2 learners have already reached a level of maturity where they can
understand and produce complex utterances in their L1, and level of maturity is
not language-specific. Processes other than maturation must be involved to
explain development in SLA. In other words, this phase could happen either in
young learners or adults, depending on the language maturity they have
encountered.
There are two possible processes in this intermediate state, namely
positive transfer and negative transfer. The first occurs when structure or rules in
L1 is used correctly in L2, and this supports L2 learning because an L1 structure
or rule that also works for L2 are not needed to be learned. The latter occurs when
the structures or rules in L1 are incorrectly used in L2, thus it impedes the
ongoing process to the final state.
C. Final State
The final state represent the end of the product of language transfer, which
is the outcome of L1 and L2 learning. In the L2 context, L2 final state is native, or
native-like competence (although it might be impossible that one could be native
for his L2). If the intermediate state undergoes positive transfer, some learners
reach near-native or native-like competence in L2 along with native
12

Murielle Saville-Troike, Introducing Second Language Acquisition, (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 18-19

11

competence in L1. Otherwise, if the intermediate state undergoes a negative

transfer, it would cease at some point to make further progress toward the learning
target in response to L2 input, resulting in a final state which still includes
instances of L1 interference or creative structures different from any that would be
produced by a native speaker of the L2 (a frozen state of progress known as
fossilization in SLA).

V. Issues in Interlanguage
During the process of interlanguage or the transitional competence, some
issues emerge as the consequence of a transfer between the first language
acquisition into the target language acquisition. In a smaller context, the issue is
related to the acquirers side or the learners, relating to errors, mistakes, learning
strategies and fossilization. These errors and fossilization are as the influence
from either the first language (mother tongue), the lack of input, or the lack of
reinforcement which in Savoille-Troike13s term is S-R-R (Stimulus Response
Reinforcement). In the broader one, the issue is related to the outer aspects of the
learner himself, namely the new varieties of English, also known as World
Englishes. Each of issue is defined as follows.
a. Interlanguage vs. Errors and Fossilization
Errors are distinguished from Mistake, where errors mean the errors
reflect gaps in a learner's knowledge, occur because the learner does not know
what is correct. Mistakes reflect occasional lapses in performance, occur because
the learner is unable to perform what he or she knows.14 As an example, in past
tense sentences, when a learner consistently used goed as the past verb for go
due to his unknowness that went is the correct past verb from gothis can be
considered as an error. However, when the learner have learnt about the past verb
13

Murielle Saville-Troike, Introducing Second Language Acquisition, (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 35
14
Rod Ellis, Second Language Acquisition, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p.
17

12

of go but then sometimes he produced goed in his sentences, it can be

classified as a mistake.
Errors made by learners in language production serve as evidence that
indicates the development of linguistic competence. Errors are not considered to
be an extremely negative side effect of learning, but a manifestation of efforts
invested by the learner in organising the language input. In other words, errors are
natural phenomena in the interlanguage, if the learners are lack of input or prior
knowledge about the target language they are learning or acquiring. In this case,
Corder15 indicated that errors arise because there has not been enough effort on
the part of the learner or enough explanation or practice on the part of teacher.
Besides, they might also be caused by the influence of mother tongue during the
process of the learning, socalled interference.
Rod Ellis mentions five steps to analyze these errors: 16
1) Collection of error sample. This step is to collect samples from a few
learners over a period of weeks, months, or even years in order to
determine patterns of change in error occurrence with increasing L2
exposure and proficiency.
2) Identification of errors. This step is to determine the elements in the
sample of learner language which deviate from the target L2 in some way.
Corder distinguishes between systematic errors (which result from
learners lack of L2 knowledge) and mistakes (the results from some kind
of processing failure such as a lapse in memory). In this case, mistakes are
not included in the analysis.
3) Description of errors. In this step, errors are classified according to
language level (whether an error is phonological, morphological, syntactic,
etc.), general linguistic category (e.g. auxiliary system, passive sentences,

15

S.P. Corder, Error Analysis and Interlanguage, (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1982), p. 65
16
Rod Ellis, Second Language Acquisition, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp.
15-19

13

negative constructions), or more specific linguistic elements (e.g. articles,

prepositions, verb forms).
4) Explanation of errors. The next step to figure out for why an error was
made as the most important step in trying to understand the processes of
SLA. Two of the most likely causes of L2 errors are interlingual
(between languages) factors, resulting from negative transfer or
interference from L1 and intralingual (within language) factors, not
attributable to cross-linguistic influence.
5) Evaluation of errors. This step involves analysis of what effect the error
has on whoever is being addressed: e.g. how serious it is, or to what
extent it affects intelligibility, or social acceptability (such as qualifying
for a job).
Although some linguists see errors in a negative view, there are some
advantages that errors can provide. Zhang17 mentions that the justification of error
analysis could be made for two orientations: first, pedagogical justification, it
provides opportunity for a systematic means of eradication; second, theoretical
justification, it is part of the systematic study of the learners language. Further,
according to Corder18, learners errors are significant in three different ways. First,
for teachers, the learners errors could tell them how far towards the goal the
learner has progressed and, consequently, what remains for him to learn.
Secondly, for researchers the errors provide evidence of how language is learnt or
acquired and what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in his
discovery of language. Thirdly for, learners, committing errors is a way the
learner has of testing his hypotheses about the nature of language he is learning.
In sums, the nature of errors in interlanguage could even be beneficial either for
the learners, the teachers, or the researchers to develop a better learning
circumstances which provide less errors.

17

Zhang, M., Error Analysis and Interlanguage. FOCUS, 2003, pp. 85-94 available at
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/
18
S. Pit. Corder, Error Analysis and Interlanguage, (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1981)

14

Another affecting factor is fossilization. Fossilization, a mechanism . . .

underlies surface linguistic material which speakers will tend to keep in their IL
productive performance, no matter what the age of the learner or the amount of
instruction he receives in the TL.19 Fossilizable linguistic phenomena are
linguistic items, rules, and subsystems which speakers of a particular NL will tend
to keep in their IL relative to a particular TL, no matter what the age of the learner
or amount of explanation and instruction he received in the TL. These fossilizable
items are considered as ' errors'. example: Time-Place-Verb (German) towards
Verb-Time-Place (English).20
Some factors that may cause fossilization coming from both learners
factors and also non learners factors21. Learners age, affective domain (anxiety,
monitor factor, etc), and learners language transfer are the factors coming from
the side of the learner. Researches found that the older the learners are, the more
possible the fossilization occur. Anxiety, affective, and view towards language
also contributes on fossilization. They serve like a filter, when the filter is
opened quite wide, there are more TL achieved, but when the filter is tightened,
less TL will be acquired. On the other hand, the non learners factors include the
pedagogical factors (teaching methods), social and ideological culture factor (how
the learners view and belief towards the TL), and also enviromental factor
(adequate and consistent input of TL).
b. Interlanguage and Learning Strategies
Selinker22, postulated that interlanguage is the product of five central
cognitive processes involved in L2 acquisition: language transfer, transfer of
training, strategies of learning an L2, strategies of communication in L2 and
19

L. Selinker, Interlanguage. IRAL, 10, (3), 1972, pp. 209-231

L. Selinker, Interlanguage. reprinted from IRAL, Vol. X/3, 1972. in J.C. Richards,
Error Analysis: Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition, (London: Longman, 1974), pp. 3133
21
W. Wangdong, Preventionis More Significant Than the Defossilization On Possible
Causes for Fossilized Errors in The Individuals Interlanguage and Relevance for EFL Education in
China. CELEA Journal Dec. 2005 Vol. 28 No. 6 pp. 68-73
22
In Vinja Pavicic Takac, Vocabulary Learning Strategies and Foreign Language
Acquisition, (New York: Multilingual Matters, 2008). pp. 31-32
20

15

overgeneralisation of linguistic material. Language learning strategies appear to

be central to this theory according to which interlanguage evolves over time as a
result of various strategies that learners use to make sense of the language input
and to control the output. Therefore, on the one hand, some elements of the
interlanguage may be the result of learners specific approach to the language
material to be learnt, i.e. their selection of learning strategies.
Selinker and colleagues23 define learning strategies as cognitive activities
at the conscious or unconscious level that involve the processing of L2 data in the
attempt to express meaning. This primarily refers to grammar learning strategies,
i.e. learning strategies that help learners to develop a mental grammar of the L2. It
is these strategies that support a definite systematicity in the interlanguage. Errors
in production may be caused by the use of strategies such as language transfer,
overgeneralisation of L2 rules or simplification. In sum, interlanguage is a single
system composed of hypothetical rules that have been developed through different
cognitive strategies and are tested and modified by the learner during the process
of comprehension and production.
To support this idea, Oxford who is the pioneer of LLS (Language
Learning Strategies) made her clear stance that learning strategies define the
success of language learning which lead to language acquisition. learning
strategies refers to the actions and behaviours a person uses to learn. All learners
use strategies to help them succeed, but not all are aware of the strategies they
use. As Rebecca Oxford states: the most successful learners tend to use
learning strategies that are appropriate to the material, to the task, and to their own
goals, needs, and stage of learning. Further, she identified six types of language
learning strategies, namely: memory strategies, cognitive strategies, metacognitive
strategies, affective strategies, compensation strategies, and social strategies.
These strategies, when related to interlanguage, are deciding the success of the
process as they help the learner to storage new language points, to manage their
learning process, to activate their cognition, to compensate their lackness during
23

ibid

16

the learning, or to seek help or support from the learning community the learners
are in.
Ellis draws the triangle of correlation among the learning process, learning
strategies, and learning strategies as follows: 24

The scheme of learning process and mechanism

The issues of learning strategies and interlanguage lie on these questions:
1) do different strategies lead to different result of interlanguage? 2) do learners
have to apply all strategies in order to succeed their learning? 3) how the learning
strategies contribute to the TL acquisition?
c. Interlanguage vs New English varieties
Referring back to Selinkers notion about Interlanguage which stated that
productive performance in the target language (TL) by second language learner
which is identical to that produced by the native speaker of that TL., it is now
become quite confusing about who are the natives. The norms of nativeness was
provided and judged as taken for granted, therefore anytime a learner does not
master a particular native variety of English, his/her English should be labelled as

24

Rod Ellis, The Study of Second Language Acquisition, (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1995), p. 473

17

Interlanguage (IL). 25 It is then quite bias on the basis of who deserve to give this
judgement. Who are the natives? Are they the British, the Americans, or the
Australians? In fact, in these English speaking countries themselves, the variaties
of English also happen as the effect of local dialects, accents and other social,
sociolinguistic, and or political factors.
English was spread into a total of four diaspora.

26

In the first diaspora,

English was spread over the rest of British Isles followed by the second diaspora,
to the North America, Australia, and New Zealand. The third one was to
colonialized countries namely India, Singapore, Phillipines, and Nigeria where
English is institutionalized as the formal second language. The fourth diaspora
was spread to the countries like China, Japan, Korea, Brazil, Germany, Saudi
Arabia, and other countries where English is spoken as the foreign language. Due
to these diaspora of spread of English to the world, it emerges new varieties of
English all around the world. In India, English is spoken in Indian way. The same
thing happens in Philippines, Hongkong, Egypt, Singapore, or Nigeria. Within
this non-native English varieties, deviation of English is inevitable. Therefore,
Interlanguage (IL) in these varieties cannot be compared with the relative ongoing
stability of indigenous varieties of English.27
This diaspora then raise an issue asking which English is native? Is
Indonesian-English is an interlanguage, or just a new variety of English?
VI. Pedagogical Implication of Interlanguage
Some above mentions issues in Interlanguage (errors, fossilizations,
learning strategies, and varieties of English) bring some implications for
pedagogical practice.

25

J. Groves, Error or Feature? The Issue of Interlanguage and Deviations in Non-Native

Varieties of English. HKBU Papers in Applied Language Studies Vol. 14, 2010. pp. 108-127
26
Y. Kachru, and L. E. Smith, Cultures, Context, and World Englishes, (New York:
Routledge, 2008), pp. 1-3
27
Sridhar & Sridhar in J. Groves, Error or Feature? The Issue of Interlanguage and
Deviations in Non-Native Varieties of English. HKBU Papers in Applied Language Studies Vol.
14, 2010. p. 115

18

Saville-Troike provide the following general guidelines for L2 learning and

teaching: 28
a. Consider the goals that individuals and groups have for learning and
additional language.
b. Set priorities for learning/teaching that are compatible with those goals.
c. Approach learning/teaching tasks with an appreciation of the multiple
dimensions that are involved: linguistic, psychological, and social.
d. Understand the potential strengths and limitations of particular learners and
contexts for learning, and make use of them in adapting learning/teaching
procedures.
e. Be cautious in subscribing to any instructional approach which is narrowly
focused or dogmatic. There is no one best way to learn or teach a second
language.
f. Recognize achievement in incremental progress. And be patient. Learning a
language takes time.

Some other implications are discussed as follows:

1. Explicit vs. Implicit Grammar Teaching
The notion of UG by Chomsky implies that without explicit teaching, L2
learners could find the pattern of a language grammar. Krashen argued that
grammar instruction played no role in acquisition, a view based on the conviction
that learners (including classroom learners) would automatically proceed along
their built-in syllabus as long as they had access to comprehensible input and were
sufficiently motivated. Grammar instruction could contribute to learning but this
was of limited value because communicative ability was dependent on

28

M. Saville-Troike, Introducing Second Language Acquisition, (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 2006), p. 180

19

acquisition. In this case, Krashen made a model for foreign language teaching as
follows. 29

Figure of a language teaching program

On the other hand, that teaching grammar was found beneficial but that to
be effective grammar had to be taught in a way that was compatible with the
natural processes of acquisition.30 Since language is different one each other (for
instance, the order of subject, verb, adjective, noun phrase, and so on), the idea of
teaching grammar explicitely emerged. Theoretically, grammar teaching involves
any instructional technique that draws learners' attention to some specific
grammatical form in such a way that it helps them either to understand it
metalinguistically and/or process it in comprehension and/or production so that
they can internalize it.31 Later, she addressed these questions to be considered by
English teachers.
1)

Should we teach grammar, or should we simply create the conditions

by which learners learn naturally?

2)

What grammar should we teach?

29

Stephen Krashen, Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning,

(California: Pergamon Press, 1981), p. 101
30
M. Long, 1988. In Rod Ellis, Current Issues in the Teaching of Grammar: An SLA
Perspectives. TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 40, No.1, March 2006, p. 85
31
Rod Ellis, Current Issues in the Teaching of Grammar: An SLA Perspectives. TESOL
Quarterly, Vol. 40, No.1, March 2006, pp. 83-107

20

3)

When should we teach grammar? Is it best to teach grammar when

learners first start to learn an L2 or to wait until later when learners
have already acquired some linguistic competence?

4)

Should grammar instruction be massed (i.e., the available teaching

time be concentrated into a short period) or distributed (i.e., the
available teaching time spread over a longer period)?

5)

Should grammar instruction be intensive (e.g., cover a single grammatical structure in a single lesson) or extensive (e.g., cover many
grammatical structures in a single lesson)?

6)

Is there any value in teaching explicit grammatical knowledge?

7)

Is there a best way to teach grammar for implicit knowledge?

8)

Should grammar be taught in separate lessons or integrated into

communicative activities?

As implication for grammar teaching, the proposed models are as follows.

1) Provide comprehensible input. Language learners are not merely passive
recipients of stimuli, they have so called innate capacity for analyzing the
blueprint of TL grammar. Teacher should provide adequate exposure to the
TL grammar. For instance, by putting the example of timetable (using simple
present tense), example of diary (in simple past tense), example of trip plan
(using future tense), example of to-do list (in present perfect tense), and so on.
2) Inductive grammar teaching instead of deductive grammar teaching. Inductive
grammar teaching proposed that the learners draw the patterns of grammar
from the samples of sentences given at the beginning. Activating the students
schemata about the context where the grammar is taught would provide better
input rather than deductive grammar teaching.
3) Interactive and communicative grammar teaching. Learners are exposed to
conditions where they use the TL grammar. This could be done by providing
problem solving tasks, dialogue making, role playing, drama, observation,
diary-writing, plan making, etc.

21

4) Provide a friendly corrective teaching. Teacher could give the correction of

students production (oral or written) at the end of the session, not at the same
time the learners is speaking the wrong grammar.
5) Provide a supportive environment for L2 learning. In this environment,
grammar is used in daily basis, integrated in routines, and practiced through
communicative learning. Teacher, of course, is the key actor in forming this
habit. Some routines like, saying Hi, how are you?, How was your day at
school?, What are you doing after the class? , and some other routines could
help the learners grammatical competence better.

2. Error Analysis and Pedagogical Improvement

Language teaching cannot stand away from the findings of error
analysis.32 Students errors have always been of interest and significance to
teachers, syllabus designers and test developers. Basically, error analysis could
provide these findings: 1) error analysis identifies the strategies that language
learners use; 2) it looks for the answer of the question why do learners make
errors? ; 3) it determines the common difficulties in learning and helps teachers
to develop materials for remedial teaching.This may lead educators to devise
appropriate materials and effective teaching techniques, and constructing tests
suitable for different levels and needs of learners. In line with this, Ellis33
maintains that classifying errors in can help teachers to diagnose learners
learning problems at any stage of their development and to plot how changes in
error patterns occur over time. This categorization can be exemplified as follows:
Omission:
Morphological omission *A strange thing happen to me yesterday.
Syntactical omission * Must say also the names?
Addition:
In morphology * The books is here.
In syntax * The London
In lexicon * I stayed there during five years ago.
32

Erdogan, Vacide, Contribution of Error Analysis to Foreign Language Teaching. Mersin

University Journal of the Faculty of Education.Vol. 1, Issue 2, December 2005, pp. 261-270
33
Rod Ellis, Second Language Acquisition, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997)

22

Selection:
In morphology * My friend is oldest than me.
In syntax * I want that he comes here.
Ordering:
In pronunciation * fignisicant for significant; *prulal for plural
In morphology * get upping for getting up
In syntax * He is a dear to me friend.
In lexicon * key car for car key
Some researches on error analysis in teaching are commonly addressed
into these areas. studies regarding errors are carried out in order to (i) identify
strategies which learners use in language teaching, (ii) identify the causes of
learner errors, and (iii) obtain information on common difficulties in language
learning as an aid to teaching or in development of teaching materials.34 The
implication of error analysis to language teaching can be viewed from the aspect
of language teachers and syllabus designers. These are some implications
proposed by Erdogan:35

A. Error Analysis Implication for Language Teachers

Error analysis could provide language teachers rich information about
their learners progress in the L2 learning process. Errors tell the teacher how far
towards the goal the learner has progressed and what remains for him to learn.36
Following the students progress, the teacher is able to carry on his studies in
accordance with what the learner needs to know and what part of the teaching
strategy should be reconstructed. At the same way, errors are a means of feedback
for the teacher reflecting how effective he is in his teaching style and what
changes he has to make to get higher performance from his students. Furthermore,
errors indicate the teacher the points that needs further attention. Additionally,
errors show the way to be treated when their sources are identified correctly.

34

J.C. Richards, et al., Dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics, (Essex :
Longman, 1992)
35
Vacide Erdogan, Contribution of Error Analysis to Foreign Language Teaching. Mersin
University Journal of the Faculty of Education.Vol. 1, Issue 2, December 2005, pp. 261-270
36
S.P. Corder, Error analysis and interlanguage, (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1987)

23

B. Error Analysis Implication for Syllabus Designers

As an important part in English teaching course, syllabus should be
designed as such that it fits all aspects succeding L2 learning process. There are
many factors to be considered to decide on what to teach to what level and age
group. At this point, errors are significant data for syllabus designers as they show
what items are important to be included or which items needs to be recycled in the
syllabus. Keshavarz maintains that an error-based analysis can give reliable
results upon which remedial materials can be constructed.

37

In other words,

analysis of second language learners errors can help identify learners linguistic
difficulties and needs at a particular stage of language learning. It is essential for a
syllabus to provide with the needs for learning appropriately and errors are
important evidence for that.
Reconsidering de Sausures principle that language is a self-contained
system in which each part is systematically related to another part, it requires that
learning of some new item requires the learning of all items that are already
studied. Consequently, this requires the necessity for a cyclical syllabus in
language learning.

37

M.H. Keshavars, Contrastive analysis and error analysis, (Tehran: Rahmana Pub,

1997)

24

References

Chomsky, Noam, On Nature and Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1976
Ellis, Rod, Second Language Acquisition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997
Ellis, Rod, Current Issues in the Teaching of Grammar: An SLA Perspectives,
TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 40, No.1, March 2006
Groves, J, Error or Feature? The Issue of Interlanguage and Deviations in NonNative Varieties of English, HKBU Papers in Applied Language Studies
Vol. 14, 2010
Han, Z, Fossilization in Adult Second Language Acquisition, Ontario:
Multilingual Matters Ltd, 2004
Kachru, Y., and L. E. Smith, Cultures, Context, and World Englishes, New York:
Routledge, 2008
Krashen, Stephen, Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning,
California: Pergamon Press, 1981
Saville-Troike, M, Introducing Second Language Acquisition, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2006
Selinker, L, Interlanguage reprinted from IRAL, Vol. X/3, 1972 in Richards, J.C.,
Error Analysis: Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition, London:
Longman, 1974
Tarone, E., Interlanguage as Chameleon. Language Learning Vol. 29, No. 1, 1979

Vinja Pavicic Takac, Vocabulary Learning Strategies and Foreign Language

Acquisition, New York: Multilingual Matters, 2008

25

Wangdong, W, Preventionis More Significant Than the Defossilization On

Possible Causes for Fossilized Errors in The Individuals Interlanguage and
Relevance for EFL Education in China, CELEA Journal Dec. 2005 Vol. 28
No. 6
White, L., On the Nature of Interlanguage Representation: Universal Grammar in
the Second Language, in Doughty, C.J and Long, M.H., The Handbook of
Second Language Acquisition, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003

26