1

1.0
1.1

CHAPTER I - Introduction

Background
Over the past couple decades; there has been an increasing amount of new Gangs in

Jamaica. These gangs range from the community format, where the members of the Gangs solely
belong to the community in which they live, to the institutions that they attend such as high
school and sometimes even colleges where the associates come from different backgrounds but
end up becoming members of Gangs. Gang membership has been held accountable for many acts
in the Jamaican Society, these acts range from murder to rape, and also includes theft. The issue
of Gang violence is important because there needs to be widespread knowledge to the Jamaican
Society about how these gangs are formed, as well as what are the major factors that influences
and further gang related activities and the implications to having so much gangs in the country.
The ghettos of urban Jamaica have been seen to be the major starting point for gangs and
these gangs are said to flourish on the bad economic conditions (Sheehan, S. 2004). These gangs
are also said to be rivals because they are attached to rival political parties mainly from the
1970s and 1980s. in 1982, the slums of Jamaica went to war when rival gangs and police had a
battle resulting from close to 40,00 persons attending the funeral for a man said to be member of
prominent gang. Almost a dozen persons died that day, and ever since, the government has tried
to implement measures to put a stop to the violence, starting in 2001 where Minister Patterson
sent over 3000 troops into the area to control violence and a more recent being the retrieval of
one of the Dons known as Christopher Dudus Coke, who is said to be involved at the highest
level of gang violence in and around the Kingston area.
Lately things are starting to heat up again, since the arrest of the leader to the Klansman Gang
who are seemingly having some disputes within the gang causing them to kill each other. This

research paper will expound on the details surrounding gang affiliations to political parties and
what influences these gang activities, as well as the negative implications to being in a gang or a
victim of gang violence.
1.2

Purpose of the study

To obtain information and knowledge about the bases upon which gang violence originates, as
well as the influencers and implications of the act.
1.3

Statement of the problem

Gang violence has become a prevalent act in the Jamaican society; the act takes up residence in
both rural and urban Jamaicans causing the infliction of pain on their hearts through murders,
and robberies among other violent crimes that gangs partake in.
1.4

Research Questions

In order to aid in the data collection process, subsequent questions were formulated from the
predominant topic:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.5

What are the implications of Gang violence?

What/who are the influencers in Gang violence?
How is a gang formed?
How is gang membership obtained?
Why is gang membership so important?
Why is a Gang formed?
Significance of the study

This study is aimed at educating the general public about gang violence and the effects it has on
the Jamaican populous, as well as the roots from which gang violence stem. This study will also

serve to inform the general public of the influences of the gang violence so that possible
measures could be put in place to stop gangs from being formed.
1.6

key definitions
Gang - A gang is a group of recurrently associating individuals or close friends or family
with identifiable leadership and internal organization, identifying with or claiming control
over territory in a community, and engaging either individually or collectively in violent or
other forms of illegal behavior.[Some criminal gang members are "jumped in" or have to
prove their loyalty by committing acts such as theft or violence. Although gangs exist
internationally, there is a greater level of study and knowledgeable information of gangs
specifically in the United States. A member of a gang may be called a gangster.

Influencers - Anything or persons with the capacity to have an effect on the character,
development, or behavior of someone or something, or the effect itself.

Implications - The action or state of being involved in something. It also speaks to the
effects resulting from an act.

Society- It is defined as the aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered
community.
2.0

CHAPTER II Literature Review

2.1

Introduction

Returning violence for violence multiples adding deeper darkness to a night already
devoid of stars hate cannot drive out hate: only love can do that.
Martin Luther King Jr.
Gang violence affects all segments of the Jamaican society. This is a fact that is well known
worldwide to the extent that Jamaica is categorized as a criminal pool. (Anthony 2013). It is with
this in mind that this literature review was done to highlight and determine the influences and
implications of gang violence on the Jamaican Society.

2.2

Implications of Gang Violence

Gangs can be seen as a prevalent situation in many societies and gang members are

predominantly in every community. In cities like Chicago, Boston, Detriot, Los Angeles, St
Louis and Pittsburgh gang violence is related to 20 to 50 percentages of all homicides,
(Papachristos et al. 2013). Correspondingly, members of gangs inflict friends, parents and
relatives great fear of their own safety and well-being and fear for survival of their relatives who
are gang members, (Los Angeles Police Department, 2015). To demonstrate for instance, Larry
Mckay, according to Cruz (2014), a 16 year old teenager whom was troubled in his self by the
effects of gang violence and had later become a victim of it; Mckay would read and watch
documentary about gang violence and make comments on facebook social media that gang
violence are immoral, later on, Mckay died by the actions of a gang member in his community.
Furthermore, exposure of violence can have an impact on adolescents mental health and
being victimized by gang violence means a person is witnessing and being a victim of the
violence, according to Kelly et al. (2012), which is leading to depression, anxiety and
posttraumatic stress. Additionally, Kelly et al. (2012) stated that the outcomes of adolescents

exposure to gang violence consist of some displaying externalizing behaviors that includes the
use of violence, aggression and participation in gang activities and that studies have shown that
violence exposure to adolescents increases the chance of more intent to engage in gang violence
and become a member of gangs, however, a study was done in South Africa on the development
of antisocial behaviors in 78 adolescents that had been exposed to community violence and
discovered no substantial relation between the exposure to violence and the development of
antisocial behaviors.
On the other hand, gangs have a supporting side that serves as a means of protecting and
defending their neighborhoods and ethnic boundaries, but in accomplishing those, gangs also
re-establish larger community conflicts, (Papachristos et al. 2013). In addition, individuals that
became a member of a gang in adolescence were three times more likely between ages 27 and 33
to report committing a crime, to obtain money from illegal sources and more than twice as likely
to have been imprisoned the previous year, (Armstrong, 2014). Similarly, according to a study
that was done by Gilman et al. (2013), it was discovered that in comparison with members of a
gang and their non-gang peers, members of gang who had been matched on 23 confounding risk
variables known to be related to selection into gang membership, those who had joined a gang in
adolescence had poorer outcomes in multiple areas of adult functioning, including higher rates of
self-reported crime, receipt of illegal income, imprisonment, drug abuse or dependence, welfare
receipt, and poor general health and lower rates of high school graduation.
Carlie (2002) and Benedict (2011), describes how gang violence depleted the economic
benefits in a community in Chicago; many grocery stores were closed down, schools faced
serious issues in terms of students safety going and coming from school and the community was
unsafe to simply continue live in. Also, in the United States, many communities are facing
escalating gang violence that increase public health concerns and the impacts it has on healthcare

organizations; it has been reported that annual treatment of gunshot victims caused by gang
violence ranges from US$100 to US$126 billion annually, (DiLuca, 2010).
According to Leslie (2010), gangs have increasingly contributed to crime rates in
Jamaica; particularly, statistics suggested that gang murders increase from three percentages in
t983 to 52 percentages in 2009, however, it is stated by the Jamaica Constabulary Force that
gang violence accounts for approximately 80 percent of violent crimes in Jamaica which is more
than what official statistics have shown. Additionally, the World Health Organization stated that
the direct cost to medical care for gang violence related incidents at public hospitals was USD 29
million which is 12 percent of Jamaicas total health budget; furthermore, the approximately
USD 398 million losses in productivity are due to gang related violence which is also equivalent
to four percent of Jamaicas gross domestic product, (Leslie, 2010). Dramatically, gang violence
in Jamaica caused the educated people to migrate out of the country and the accesses to social
service are reduced along with an overall climate of fear from gang violence, (Leslie, 2010). In
summary, gang violence has major effects on individuals lives, the social, health and economic
aspect of a country.

2.3

Influences of Gang Violence

In the Jamaican society there is a wide spread of gangs and clans in certain parts of the

country. The many different reasons for such actions vary from peer pressure to high exposure of
gang related activities. According to Gang Free (2008), there are six major risk factors that
contribute to gang involvement in urban environments. These include lack of jobs for youth,
poverty compounded by social isolation, domestic violence, negative peer networks, lack of
parental supervision and early academic failure and lack of school attachment.

As it relates to the lack of jobs, it is evident that when one is not earning an income, then
will try to earn money by any means necessary. Gangs may present themselves as a means of
survival to youth who lack basic essentials such as food, clothing and shelter. More and more,
gang members use their affiliation to make a profit through illegal activities, such as selling
drugs and auto theft (Gangfree, 2008). In certain communities there are different social
backgrounds that will prevent youths living in these communities, like Tivoli Gardens, from
being able to receive a job. This is one of the major influences and has been proven to lead to
gang robbery and other such gang related activities. Also not earning an income also shows signs
of poverty which is one of the influential reasons for gang violence.
Kruk underlines the behavioral problems. Fatherless children have more difficulties with
social adjustment, and are more likely to report problems with friendships, and manifest behavior
problems; many develop a swaggering, intimidating persona in an attempt to disguise their
underlying fears, resentments, anxieties and unhappiness. Gangs and violence and the adoration
of the gun as power spring out of this condition (Henry, 2013). The lack of parental supervision
and also the absence of a parent in the lives of many gang members resulted in the violence they
create in the Jamaican society. Not only does the influence lay on the absence of parents but also
it may have been passed down in the family and intensely entrenched in family traditions. It is
really hard to escape from a generational curse especially when it runs in the family and due to
pressure and exposure by family members.
One juvenile detained at the Hilltop Juvenile Correctional Centre from a Kingston inner-city
community said that he and his mother witnessed his father killed by police. His father was a
gunman and most of his brothers, one of whom is in prison, and his cousins are involved in
criminal activity. He said that his father had as many as 20 children, two of whom were with his

mother. Another juvenile detainee and gang member from the Portmore area near Kingston lived
with his father and stepmother. His mother lives overseas. His friends at school are not involved
in gang activity, and he said his role model is his older brother who nuh watch nuh face
[doesnt care about anyone or anything] (Mogensen, 2004).
The political gang violence in Jamaica is prevalent in the society and is well known by
many Jamaicans as the trigger for territorial gang violence. It focuses on one community who is
on one political partys side (for example, the PNP) fighting against another community who is
on the opposing partys side (the JLP). Therefore, these gang related activities are rooted on
political affairs. In an article by Henry (2011), published by The Gleaner, Henry made a quote by
Anthony Harriott, professor of Criminology at the University of the West Indies, which states
This raises the issue of the political parties being criminal organizations. They are, of course,
not criminal organizations in the same sense as organized-crime networks, that is, their raison
d'tre is not criminal engagement. On the contrary, their primary objective is to form the
government of the country, and both major political parties have a record of developmental
achievements. They went on to say that, Nevertheless, the resort to criminal means of gaining
office, and the alliances with criminals that are used for this purpose, give criminal networks
considerable leverage on the parties, and lead to the use of criminal means to systematically
plunder the resources of the state once office is acquired. These events of the political parties in
Jamaica have intense associations in gang violence, so as to make it seem, in the eyes of the
society, that they are able to implement measures that will look good in their speech. However in
recent times, political gang violence has become dormant since there have not been any general
government elections.

Among a number of issues, dancehall music has been known to be a contributing factor
to gang violence in Jamaica. With the violent lyrics that Dancehall artiste portrays in their music,
it resonates in the minds of individuals who are easily influenced or have it hard in life or lives in
poverty. This will then create the idea of turning to violent measures to get what they want.
According to Robinson (2013), in an article he wrote called Dancehall Pushing Crime,
Security Minister Peter Bunting, made a quote from a song by the now incarcerated Vybz Kartel,
and making the point that this contributed to the increased development in lottery scam. As long
as dem naah buy nuh gun, dem naah support nuh war, big up the man dem star from near and far.
Dem call it scam but we call it reparation," quoted the minister This he said used this as
evidence of the social 'dysfunctionality' behind criminality in Jamaica.
However, Tourism State Minister Damion Crawford, in an article by The Gleaner entitled
Anti-Gang Bill May Seriously Impact Music Industry, stated that It starts from the premise that
there is no research, which shows that the consumption of violent media leads to criminal
activities. It is merely an assumption, and it is also an assumption that a reduction of violent
media will reduce criminal activity. Also, in the article, according to Crawford, many people
tune in to media with violent content, yet they are not impacted, which is an indication that
saying violent media leads to violent behavior is illogical (Campbell, 2013). Therefore, it is
evident that there is no one set scientific research that denotes dancehall to be a contributor to
gang violence. Many are the influences of gang violence and the part takers in the ever
unchanging nature of the development of gang violence are widespread.
2.4
Why is involvement in gangs so important?
It is postulated that the roots of organized violence in Jamaica trace back to the heated
electoral disputes of the late 1940s between the founders of Jamaicas two political parties
Norman Manley of the Peoples National Party and Alexander Bustamante of The Jamaica

10

Labour Party.(Leslie 2010). This is what gave raise to what (Harriot, 2004; Mongenser, 2005)
described as the antecedent, by twenty years, of violent, politically controlled housing divisions
that were labeled garrisons. Jamaica is strongly divided into garrison communities popularly
known as ghettos, and these communities are predominantly gang affiliated as within the
Jamaican society there is and persist to be gangs. Despite the fact that most of these political
crimes have lessened new rationale for the formulation of gangs has emerged. As there are corner
gangs which are more informal gangs that may not be connected to politically motivated
violence, these gangs may have youths and children involved in activities and may exist in
communities dominated by area gangs (Mongenser, 2005).
There are many reasons as to why gangs tend to flourish and proliferate but is must be
noted that without the recruitment of gang members gangs would be as extinct as dinosaurs. It is
asserted that when the fundamental needs of youth are not being met; many youth will seek to
develop their own strategies to meet their basic needs. There is an abundance of gang-specific
literature that have identified key factors in the decision to join a gang, research indicated that
there is usually multiple factors associated in a youths decision to join (Decker & Curry, 2000).
Studies have cited numerous reasons for gang membership, including status and respect (Decker
& Curry, 2000), safety and protection (Decker & Curry, 2000), family connections (Decker &
Curry, 2000), school connectedness (Ezarik, 2002), love and belonging (Ezarik, 2002) and
community factors (Ezarik, 2002).
Other researchers gave credit to the economic situation in Jamaica as a factor for gang
involvement. Jamaica has experienced double digit inflation, financial meltdown , structural
adjustment, the cost associated with structural adjustment, mistrust , low confidence in socipolitical institutions , financial reform and financial crises (PIOJ and Statin, 2007:Powell

11

2007;Atkin, 2005; Kirpatrick and Tennant, 2002). Researchers have shown that these are
amongst reasons why gang membership is important as these create the basis for much gang
related activities in the ghettos such a robbery and other violent crimes as gang members
adhere to a system of survival of the fittest. In support of this theory the Interactional theory
(Thomberry, 1987; Thronberry and Krohn, 2001) posits that gang membership results from a
reciprocal relationship between the individual and; peer groups social structures (i.e poor
neighbourhood, school and family environs).
Other researchers gave support to this theory as it is hypothesized and trends. Researches
reveal that besides economic factors there is the focus on community risk factors. Community
factors associated with gang membership is the most frequently studied risk domain (Esbensen,
2000). Communities that have been identified as high drug trafficking areas show an increased
risk for gang involvement (Howell, 2000). Many researchers have argued that gangs are the
result of a lack of access to resources within particular geographic locations, primarily inner city
neighbourhoods (Klein, 1995; Spergel, 1995). A study conducted by David Eitle, Steven Gunkel
and Karen Van Gundy (2004) explored risk factors associated to gang membership, focussing
specifically on stressful life events. Financial difficulties and hardship, most often created by
blocked opportunity, were deemed significant to adolescent ganging.
Studies in the United States Seattle Social Development project shared similar views as
the interactional theory as they found that learning disabilities, negative labelling by teachers,
low achievement, and lack of commitment were predictive of gang membership (Hill, Howell,
Hawkin, Battin, 1999). Similar research carried out by (Howell, 2000; Huff, 1998) yield the
same results. Though some of these researches are applicable to Jamaica most of the gang
members who are in Jamaica are drop outs or doesnt possess primary education. Other
researches that are similar to those in Jamaica (Rizzo, 2003; Spergel 1995) whose research

12

asserts that gang members in the US and UK are overwhelmingly young on entry of gang with
12- 18 years old. This makes them more vulnerable to peer pressure as they are easily influenced
and controllable.
Other researches states family factors as reasons for membership in gangs. There are
several family risk factors that have been identified as contributing to delinquency and gang
membership. Li, Stanton, Pack, Harris, Cottrell and Burns (2002) reported that youth who were
exposed to violence and emotional distress in their childhood were more likely to become
involved with gangs. These findings have been supported through earlier studies (Maxson,
Whitlock & Klein, 1998; Eitle, Gunkel & Van Gundy, 2004). Overall, youth with gang
involvement (current to former), compared with non-gang youth showed significantly lower
social problem-solving skills, lower family involvement, lower open family communication, and
diminished parental monitoring (Li et al., 2002, p. 183). The level of parental monitoring and
involvement has also been identified as a significant factor in predicting gang membership.
Thornberry, Huizinga and Loeber (2004) reported that low levels of parental monitoring and
supervision are factors contributing to gang membership. These findings have been supported in
previous research (Lahey et al., 1999).
2.5

How is Gang membership obtained?

The onset of gangs in Jamaica began as early as the 1970s; its formation of gangs began

in the ghettos of Kingston. Since the 1970s era, it has stemmed into a big tree, branching off into
other parishes and was no longer limited to just grown men or adults. As time went by, the
violent gang activities were beginning to branch off to the younger minority of the Jamaican
populous. School children, more so, teenagers who were attempting to mimic those actions of the
gang members that they deemed as role models. Moreover, joining a gang was not as easy as it

13

was assumed to be, there were rules and legislations, sort of like a mini community where
membership in the gang relied on certain key aspects or actions.
According to Duffy (2004), gang membership has been obtained through mainly political
affiliation in the Jamaican society. She states that since the early 1970s both political parties,
them being the Peoples National Party (PNP) and the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). These parties
were seen as the base for gang operations back in the early days, and up to now in this current
decade. The political parties, according to Duffy, hired gangs of armed street youths to intimidate
their opponents. Therefore, political ties to a specific party guaranteed that a side was taken and
hence leading to gang formation. Manwaring (2006), while agreeing with Duffy (2010) on the
instance that political ties have played a major effect on gang membership, which leads to some
level of immunity for gangs towards the law, had a different perspective on how gang
membership is obtained, he states that membership can be obtained through recruitment. This is
where lower members in the gangs hierarchy hire outsiders as opposed to their own, to operate
as mules and street-level dealers. African Americans, Trinidadians, Guyanese, and even Chinese
immigrants are given tasks at the worker-level. They are kept ignorant of gang structure and
members identities. If outsiders are caught, the posse is not compromised; if they are not, the
revenue continues to come in.
Arguing from a positive standpoint, Hazen (2010) believes that rather than labeling all
groups as gangs, they should base them on how they structure. She argues that persons view
gangs based on two characteristics, one of which revolves around motivational characteristics,
purpose, strength and contribution to society. The other involves key aspects like membership
(recruitment) and logistics (food and weapons). She also states that how a group is viewed is
based on its relation to the government and its capacity to perpetrate wide scale violence. She
also mentioned that gangs or armed groups membership could be formed through friendship and

14

were seen as harmless in earlier years as they dissolved as the members aged. Another way in
which gang membership was obtained was through criminal acts. Densely (2012) mentioned the
fact that gangs began as social groups through which friends from communities hang out, but
over time it evolved into a much bigger thing, where violence and drugs got involved. According
to densely boys, who represent the majority of gang members, were doing petty crimes such as
stealing and smoking to gain membership into a gang, but a rapidly evolving cycle saw entry into
a gang as prospective members killing and raping persons in order to enter, especially in
Jamaica.
Dancehall music and artistes also play a very key role in obtaining gang membership.
Jackman (2012) provided some information that gave insight into the fact that dancehall artistes
have an impact on gang membership. In 2009, the famed artistes, David Brooks (Movado) and
Adijah Palmer (Vybz Kartel) had a musical dispute which escalated from the music industry into
the Jamaican populous causing rival gangs of the two artistes to be in conflict. Jackman noted
that this feud between the two artistes allowed for a turf war and borderlines between two sides.
The Gully posse which belonged to Movado and the Gaza belonging to Kartel often did not
have any problems outside of musical confrontation with each other but fans of both parties as
far away as even Trinidad and Tobago labelling themselves on behalf of both artistes. Meaning
any student that identified themselves as a Gully fan was seen as the enemy to Gaza fans and
vice versa. In agreement with Hazen (2010), Rogers (2010) believes that gangs are sometimes
misunderstood; he believes gangs are not always violent groups but are sometimes just a group
of friends that hang out and keep themselves out of trouble. He however acknowledges that there
is also a certain level of dangerousness associated with gangs, and with the various contents of
youth, it makes leaving the gang inevitable.
2.6
Conclusion

15

In summation gangs continue to flourish in Jamaica and wider parts of the world, gang
membership has become somewhat of a subculture in todays society of Jamaica and is deemed
to be taking over as a result of the numerous reasons presented in this review. This review
amongst previous literatures has brought these reasons to the fore front. These factors range from
internal such as a sense of belongingness, protection and love to external factors such as the
wider community, parents involvement, school and the economic situation of the country in
which these gangs and gangs activities take place in most instances the economic situation tend
to have a spin off effect on their immediate communities, in Jamaica these communities are
popularly known as ghettos. However based on the review as the writer it is suggested that
future researchers that embark on literature reviews of similar content focus more on in- depth
reasons rather than just economic, community, school, and family but get more familiar with the
youths as new reason, more personal may have emerged. This review topic have generated much
literatures however they are not current hence my suggestion for new reviews which may yield
additional and different finding in 2015.

16

3.0 CHAPTERIII Methodology

3.1 Overview
This section presents an overview of the methods to be used in the study.
3.2 Study Design

References
Armstrong, D. (2014). Negative effects of joining a gang last long after gang membership ends.
Retrieved from: http://www.washington.edu/news/2014/03/13/negative-effects-ofjoining-a-gang-last-long-after-gang-membership-ends/
Benedict, J., and Keteyian, A. (2011). Straight outta compton. (Cover story). Sports Illustrated,
115(22), 82-90
Campbell, C. (2013, December 1). Anti-Gang Bill May Seriously Impact Music Industry Artistes Should Lobby Against Its Passing, Says Crawford. Retrieved from The Gleaner:
http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20131201/ent/ent1.html
Carlie, M. K. (2002). Gangs, economic opportunity and the inner-city. Retrieved from: http
://people.missouristate.edu/michaelcarlie/what_i_learned_about/gangs/whyform/economi
c_deprivation.htm

17

Cruz, N. S. (2014). Teen, troubled by effects of gang violence became a victim of it. Retrieved
from: http://homicide.latimes.com/post/teen-troubled-effects-gang-violence-becamevictim-it/
Decker, S., & Curry, G. (2000). Addressing key features of gang membership: Measuring the
involvement of young members. Journal of Criminal Justice, 28, 473-482.
Densley, J. A. (2012). The organisation of london's street gangs. Global Crime, 13(1), 42-64.
doi:10.1080/17440572.2011.632497
Diluca, K. (2010). The economic impact of gang violence prevention on healthcare. Retrieved
from: http://www.resourcenter.net/images/SNRS/Files/2010/AnnMtg/AbstractProcee
dings/data/papers/155.pdf
Duffy, M.P., Gillig, S.E. (2004). Teen Gangs: A Global View. Westport Conn: Greenwood Press.
Dukes, R., Martinez, R., & Stein, J. (1997). Precursors and consequences of membership in
youth gangs. Youth & Society, 29(2), 139-166.
Eitle, D., Gunkel, S., & Van Gundy, K. (2004). Cumulative exposure to stressful life events and
male gang membership. Journal of Criminal Justice, 32, 95-111.
Esbensen, F. (2000). Preventing adolescent gang involvement. Washington, DC: Office of
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Issue Brief No. NCJ 182210.
Esbensensen, F., Winfree, T., He, N., & Taylor, T. (2001) Youth gangs and definitional issues:
When is a gang a gang, and why does it matter? Crime and Delinquency, 47(1), 105-130.
Ezarik, M. (2002). How to avoid gangs: Money, powergang life may have its perks, but its
price tag is high. Heres what you can do to keep your life on tracks. Current Health
28(7), 20-22

18

Gangfree. (2008). Retrieved from Gangs Alternative Program:

http://www.gangfree.org/gangs_why.html
Gilman, A. B., Hill, K. G., and Hawkins, J. D. (2013). Long-term consequences of adolescent
gang membership for adult functioning. Retrieved from: http://ajph.aphapublications
.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301821
Hazen, J. M. (2010). Understanding gangs as armed groups. International Review of the Red
Cross, 92(878), 369-386. doi:10.1017/S1816383110000378
Henry, M. (2011, April 10). The Gleaner. Retrieved from Political Parties As 'Gangs':
http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20110410/focus/focus1.html

Henry, M. (2013, May 26). The Cost of Absent Fathers. Retrieved from The Gleaner:
http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20130526/focus/focus3.html
Hill, K., Howell, J., Hawkins, D., & Battin-Pearson, C. (1999). Childhood risk factors for
adolescent gang membership: Results from the Seattle social development project.
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 36(3), 300-322.
Howell, J. (2000). Youth gang programs and strategies. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile
Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Huff, C. (1998). Comparing the criminal behaviour of youth gangs and at-risk youths.
Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice Research in Brief. 1-7.
Interview with Dennis Rodgers. (2010). International Review of the Red Cross, 92(878), 313328. doi:10.1017/S1816383110000433

19

Jackman, W. M. (2010). Dancehall and hip-hop: Youth perceptions of sexuality and

violence. Caribbean Dialogue, 15(1), 27-40.
Kelly, S., Anderson, D., Hall, L., Peden, A., and Cerel, J. (2012). The effects of exposure to gang
violence on adolescent boys mental health. Issuses in Mental Health Nursing, 33(2), 8088. Doi:10.3109/01612840.2011.623217
Klein, M. W. (1995). The American street gang. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Leslie, G. (2010). Confronting the don: the political economy of gang violence in Jamaica.
Switzerland: Small Arms Survey
Li, X., Stanton, B., Pack, R., Harris, C., Cottrell, L. & Burns, J. (2002). Risk and protective
factors associated with gang involvement among urban African American adolescents.
Youth and Society, 34(2), 172-194
Los Angeles Police Department, (2015). Effects of gang involvement. Retrieved from: http://
www.lapdonline.org/get_informed/content_basic_view/23474
Manwaring, M. G. (2006). Gangs and coups D' streets in the new world disorder: Protean
insurgents in post-modern war. Global Crime, 7(3), 505-543.
doi:10.1080/17440570601073251
Maxon, C., Whitlock, M., & Klein, M. (1998). Vulnerability to street gang membership:
Implications for practice. Social Justice Review, 72(1), 70-79.

Mogensen, M. (2004). Children in Organised Armed Violence. Retrieved from

http://www.helpjamaica.org/downloads/reports/COAV_report.pdf

20

Papachristos, A. V., Hureau, D. M., and Braga, A. A. (2013). The corner and the crew: The
influence of geography and social networks on gang violence. American Sociological
Review, 78(3), 417-447. Doi:10.1177/0003122413486800
Robinson, C. (2013, January 13). Dancehall Pushing Crime. Retrieved from Jamaica Observer:
http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Dancehall-pushing-crime---Bunting_13362231