Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Romanesque
Rornanesque
Arc hitecture Sculpture Painting
Edited by Rolf Tom a n
KONEMANN
Contents
Rolf Toman
Ehrtnfried Kluckert
20
Wolfgang Ka ise r
J2
7'
11 8
120
Bruno Klein
178
H emfried Wischcrmann
2 16
251
25'
U\\'tGtt~
Romanesque sculpture
256
Barbara Dcimling
324- 27
Ehrenfried Kluckert
376
382
Maps
'62
Glosury
'66
Bibliography
' 70
'76
' 77
Acknowledgemems
48 1
~hur,h
RolfTOn1an
Introduction
A Romancsque church in a cemtlery surroundw by roumrysilk - such
peactful placts g"'e us a fttlmg of hlslorlc;al conlinUlIY. ThiS, or something
bke n. one Ihlllks. IS whal II lookw like In the Middle Ages, whm the
church was bUilt. QccaSlormlly one is able to find" vant;age point where
there IS nothmg to rtmmd one of the prC'SCnt. The ;attraction of Ihese
Romanesquc coulllry churches has somethmg to do wllh their human
proportions; Ihey do nO! compel adnnration hy mean~ of their imposing
SI'te. as city cathwrals do. And In add ilion, Ihey arc well aw;ay from Ihe
hurly.burly of everyday existence, and thiS sense of seclu5ion is reassuring.
Many of lhese Romancsque churches used 10 be monaslery churches,
and somt Sllil are. The reason so many Romantsqut monastenes are
surroundw by bellunful counIT)'$Ide 15 Ihal monaSlerlts In the eI"'enth
and twelfth centurits deVOtW themselves 10 their rural surroundings. This
COinCided wllh the IIl1eres[5 ()f the feudal lords under whose protection
monasteriCS were ()ften placed. Preferrtd SlICS for new m()naslCOts "'ert
qUlel valleys - 51111 in plentiful supply at thai lime. as Europe;an coullIries
wert only spar$Cly popu13lw. Around 1200 (followmg a huge leap m
the populallon after I ISO), it is thoughl thaI 12 million people lived III
Fr;mce, 2.2 !1lllholl in England, and 7 10 8 mrllion people in Ihe enormous
(450,000 square mtles ) area [hal WJS [he l'loly Roman Empin.
Monasticism in the high Middle Agcs
'fh<o Import'Jnce ()f monllslic life, bolh In ternls of the culture and Ihe
politics of the high Middle Ages. c;annO! be ()vertSIITlkItw. The cultural
philosopher Hugo Fischer even sub1l11w one of hiS books Ihe ~Blrth of
Weslern ClVlhUllon 0111 ()f the Spirit of Romanesque monasllcism. ~ The
Imparlance of monaSliCism m the Middle Ages can be seen In the brge
number of monks and monastertes that existed: al the height of 115
development, Cluny controlled well over 1,000 monasteries; it pla)'cd an
outslandlng mle amongst Ihe reformed monasleries of Ihe High Middle
Age5. The Cistercian order extended throughoul Europe, and Ihe
momentous work of its mOSI Important figure, !Wrnard of Clairv3ux, has
been declSI\'e III pro\'okmg Judgements of lhe Iwelfth century as the ~ Age
of the Cistcrclans.
Ho"- did Ihe monasteries of Ihls age ach""e their cultural influencc~ To
answer Ihls quesllOn, It IS uscfullo ex;amrne mort closely the Ihrtt l"'els of
social rank that " 'en so Imponant to Ihe way ~ple saw themselvcs on Ihe
Middle Agcs. This sense of social order was JumnlCd up neatly in Ihe
1020s by Adalbero, Ihe Bishop of l:Ion: -The I louse of the Lord IS on three
pans, which some wrungly belteve 10 be one: hert on E:!nh one part prays
(oram), another fighls (puguam). and yet another works (l.iboraut); these
Ihree belong together and will 1I011OIeratc being sel;U variance with each
olher; 10 such a degrtt, Ihalthe functioning (offic",,,,) of one is necessary
10 Ihe work (oper!! } of the olher two, and each will beslOW 1[5 aid on Ihe
OIhers. ~
M
Other lerms used for thiS Ihrcc-part concept are teaching, defendmg
.\IId nunurlng; they rtfer 10 clergymen, knights and farmers respeclively.
Thl5 t",nly of order, which was considerw to be Godgi,en, superseded
Ihe d,viSIon mlO tw() of Church and World, clergy and L.iIII)', [h31 had
characterrzed Itfe un"] the I1Imh cenlu'). The new tnpanlle oroer was 10
hold liS own to the end of lhe Middle Agcs, desplle the fact thalli dId nOI
take acmal varialions withm each rank mto accoum, nor allow for lhe
merchants and middle-class ciliuns Ihal appearw on Ihe social 51age
during Ihe late Middle Ages as a result of Ihe forced developmenl ()f cilies.
Therefore, the trinity of order largely reflecls the ,Igrarian world of Ihe
high MIddle Ages, or for Ihe purposes of this volume the Romane.sque
pertod from 1000 to 1250.
Monks played a special role wrlhln Ihe rank of the o.<I'o.e$, Ihe men
of pu)er. The mwieval hlslollan Hans-Werner Gocn has Ihe followlllg
10 53y: ~While originally qUlle Ikhbcrntcly separatw from the officilll
Church. monastiCism soon became an IIItcgr;a1 parr of the Church, whICh
m any case pla)'w a qUlle different, l1lfluenllal role in the Middle Agcs
comparw 10 Its role today. To an extent. Ihe monks formed a Ih"d rank
belween the clerics and la)'men; Ihelr way of Itfe was also an example for
comonumllcs of clerics :lnd laymen 10 follow.~ In Ihe cady Middle Ages,
monastertes were slill largely commUllllle.c com~d of laymen. h was
not untrllhe nnuh ccnwry Ihal berng ordamed as a priCSI was gener,llIy
conSidered 10 be [he culmination and fulfilmem of religious life. From Ihat
lime, monasteries IOcrt'aslOgly developed IIItO communilies of clerics, and
scarcely a monk was not ordainw.
Monasticism and worldly rule were nOI complelely separate worlds,
least of 1111 whert the rccrurlntent of the rl('XI generaTIon of monks was
concernw. It should be borne in mmd ,hal being accep[ed lllro a medic"al
nlOnaSte') was depcodcm on tWO conditions berng mel: proof of a sprrllual
SUllablillY for life .IS a monk (normally demonstrated during the nOYlIllte),
and a !tlfl. These gtfts, made to galll adnl15510n, and originally described
as ~almsM III Ihe relevant Iknedicune Rule, were laler incr~asingly large
PIeces of land. MonastrClsm almOSI lOok Ihe ownership of land for
granled, and many monastenes gradually fi lled up with members of the
nobility. In turn, of course, thiS affectw Ihelr POSlliOn of po"'er, and
str~nglhened Iheir mdependencc. Cluny springs 10 mind in Ihis respect as
well; II was founded by William of Aqull~ine as hrs family monastery m
910, and was answerable dorC('tly [0 Ihe P~pal Sec. In it$ foundatron
charter, Wilham nOI only ga"e up h'$ ng11.1 10 all Ihe monastery's rncome
and In"esIiIUIl'$, but " 'en laId down [hal no one, whether a bishop or
e"en the pape, should be alloww 10 seIze Ihe property belongmg 10
[he monas[~ry. Followlllg the dealh of !Wrno, th~ abbot Wilham had
appollltW, the monlcs were supposed to elcci a successor from amongsl
their own ranks. As early as 932, Abbot Odo recCived perm ission from
Rome 10 sprtad the Cluniac rdorms by fOllndmg daughter-houses, andevcn more Importantly - 10 rdorm eXlsllng monasteries and make chern
subordinale 10 Cluny. The daughter-houses were nOI governed by [herr
own abbols, bUT by priors answerable 10 the 3bool of Cluny. Thrs created 3
lighlly knn "unm"n,,), nf mnn~ ....n ... , and CI"ny became a SOrt of secular
Tk ~am oIlkn'1i.
ChronICle! of ~~ and John of
WOt('UICt, (. 1 UO.
Oxford.
tOlloon l.
Ms.I51.fnl.J82
f~udallord Itself, rtSponsible for th~ mveSlilUrtS and incomes of its own
enflffed monasrentS. Cluny's powcr was almost unlimited. and it was
IIIcvllabl~ that II should ha\'C to lake political sides - as in the Im'es\l tu~
Contest bcrw~n Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Hcnry IV. So. for many.
monastIC15m was. as Goetz commcmN, the religIOUS eqUIVa lent of hvmg
like a lord. Its en n obl~mCTlt IS an Impon3nt factor Mhmd Its succas and
huge historical Slgnifoclmce.
The cuhur:l.l creative achicvemcnts of thc monastcries a~ not somethlllg that could be expc<:ted of poor. untutored orQ/(}re$. EI'en during the
reign of Cha rlemagne, monks were pioneermg tl'"Chniqucs in the crafts and
trades, and many monasteries we~ even agricultural trade c~mers. In
~ddllion, Charlemagne, and hlJ son LoulJ after hun, aSSigned the modest
but nevertheless impon3nt cultural t.:Isks of hiS empi re to the monastenes:
they were responSible for the latin hturg)' and books, the Classical and
Christian tr:lditions and higher cGlICallon. Scholars wc~ gathered from all
over Europe and brought to Charlemagne'S pabce school; It was their task
to ~visc tl'1lldlllon:;d WOl"ks and create reliable models which Charlemagne
could th~n make compulsory throughout hiS emplrc. The chu rches and
monastenes were mstrucrf"d to bUild schools and choose SUi ta ble teachers.
In add1l10n, monks were ordered not lust to pray, but also carefully to
copy whatever books we~ necessary for tnchlllg. Eu rope has their
diligence to thallk for the foundations of its l i bratl~s and the preserv:ll1on
of the spiritual and sec ular knowlf"dge of the Ancicnt World. Carolingian
M~Jn~
reforms to education were the bas,s upon whIch the culrural flowering of
the Murohngi an Renaiss:;mce M was ~ble to takc place; the poetry of
Thtodulf, and Einhard's \'.tQ Karoll "l3gnt a.e twO outstandmg examples
of th,s process.
As Alben M' rgeler explams, Cluny was connl'"Cted 10 the Ca.oll11gt3n
spmtual world by a number of dltl'"Ct affiliations: through Its fif$t abbot
Berno. who was prC\'iously abbot of &.umc; WIth the model monastery of
In da via the monastery of St. Manl11 111 Aut un; and, through Alger and
Gerhard. wuh the ca th edral schools 111 Liege and Rrgensburg. Finally.
Cluny was connected to Cha rlemagne by the co mmon goals of the CU'/I11$
dc. m the sense of earthly and social fulfilment, <I misunderstanding of St.
Augustl11e's onginal wo.k. 111 lile ~J )e uf the CIU1I13eenslans. the chan geo\"er from ~m pl re to the monastIC commu11lty w~nt hand In hand w1\h a
correspondingly h,gher emphaSIS on ,he monks thelm.cl\es. The almost
:lUtocrattc posmon of the abbots of Cluny, lind their excepllonally long hfe
spans - only three ruled 111 the penod from 958 to 11 09! - facilitated a
radical planning of both splntually cultural and social an.
In Cluny, the cclcbranon of the 11Iurgy was mo"ed into the center of
monastic:: life, In deed cxis'ence In general, In a way unknown unttlthen.
Along with the extenSIon of the cOIII'cnt mass (the sta ndard mo na SIlC
ctlcbratt on of the mass with chan t) hy ~ procession and :I. litany of all the
s,lints, a lllaSS was added in the UlOrtlll1gs. wh ich on days which were 1101
fcast days was celebra ted as a reqUlCnl mass. In add ition, every monk who
1""
had bttn ordained was required 10 read a private mass and to sing the
entire ps.1lter every da). The con"ent masses were attended by 200 monks
dressed in white albs, and on feast days in choir robes, and they were
celebrated with an incredible displa)' of splendor. This developing spkndor
extended 10 the equipment uSt'd in the ceremonies, and even 10 the
chu rches themsch'es, whICh were lavishly decorated to the greater glory of
God. The celebration of mass, which took up most of the day, bame
increasingly extravagant; it required special rooms and spaces in order to
create and maintain ;I. proptr feeling of reverence. The second church in
Cluny. and cenainly the third, ,nus! have complied perfectly with !ht'$C
requirements. As Georges Duby putS it, ~the flowering of sacred art in the
eleventh century was a prodnet of the liturgical functions wh ich the monks
fulfilled for the population in general."
Cluny also adopted the new mass mo,'ement of pllgrnnages III faraway
Santiago. Two of the four great pilgrimage routes to Samiago, Vczelay and
St. Gilles, started at Chmiac abbeys. [n addition, the rOutes were lined with
numerous hostels belongmg 10 Cluniac monasteries~ the church fa,ades of
the latter appealed to pilgrims much more strongly than liturgy was able
to. Pilgrims were carrying Out in concreto man's business on earth, namely
arduous pilgrimages to the distant Christian Promised Land, with all the
temptations 10 efr from the straight and narrow that a devout pilgrim
could exptct to be exposed to on hiS adventurous and sometimes
dangerous journey; m order to appeal 10 these pilgrims, Romanesque an
developed its characteristic iconographic program.
Scmu~n-B"OIlnalS (Saon~.LQ"~J,
BorrOM
~IGHT
Borro.\! J.F.FT
10
An a".,llodullfllho
&I"" of !-kll.
bttn redeemcd and reccl'cd 111 HC;H"cn. and "crc nc"cd as mcdlators
bet,,~n God and mankllld, who could defcnd Ih~ souls aw,lIfing
Judgrn~nt or who h .d bttn lemporaTily punished, bUi IlQI daml1rd for all
mile.
The cult of rdi-cs
I)ue 10 their proxlmllY 10 God and ablluy 10 plead for mcrey on behalf of
anyone who called on them, sall1ts had becomc mcdlatory figurcs who
fired everyone's fantaSies and hopes. Most pIple $Ought 10 ha,c their
illnesses he'lled, and If this happened, u was conSidered 10 be a miracle
whIch that parucular saint had brought about h) obr:lIning mercy. The
proccsses which kd to Ihis happening, and which arc recounted m
numerous repons about miracles. arc 50mc of Ihc mOSI Imprcsswc
WlllltsSCS 10 Ihe medlcval search for l<knmy.
Spontaneous cults. such as Ihe pllgnlllagt 10 St. Elisabeth, were po"crful nun.fcslallons of popular reltgloo. and 50methIlIg 10 "hICh the Church
had 10 reaCi. Uncomrol1rd ,cneraIlOO of a S<lml undcrmmed the Church's
aUlhofll)' as the worldly agent of God's salvJflon. In ordcr to deal wllh
Ih.s, the Chu rch adopted whoevcr was bemg ,cneraled by incorporating
Ihem IntO Ihe canon of samlS. This ga'c thc Church nlUch greatcr comrul
over thc cult. Thc greater Ihe number of people gomg on pilgrimages. Ih c
more important became Ihe cult sue, the gra,c and church dedICaled 10 Ihc
saml - 1101 only Iheologically bUI 011 a polllic'lllevel. 100. It is Iherefore 110
surpfll'(' that ncn secular prin.:es $Ought 10 mvol'e Ihe relics of (u~"ally
IlI1porl"ant) salms m Ihelr deahngs; an example IS Ihe one d'5Cus$Cd III Uwe
Geese's dlssertU!on, aboul the VISit of the ucomllIumated HohenslJufen
emperor Frcdc:rick 1110 lhe gT3'e of St. EliS<lbclh m ~l3rburg. m 1236. The
emperor used lhe occasioo of lhe !r.lI1slallon or mO"mg of Ihe rem3111S of
lhe bndgr.tvmc. who had bttn canontzed lite J'U'IOUS )"ear. to dcmonslt:lle
10 the Pope hiS mdcpendcocc from Ihe Church: he "as suggesllng thai she
was Ihe more aUlhemic II1rerceswr betw~1l hlllll'('lf and God.
The hugc mcreal'(' in the number of sacred bUildings during Ihe
RomanesqllC period created a rapid rlS<: III the demand for relics. Evcry
church, mdccd ~ ..ery ahar, n~ed Ihe reltC$ of a sam t 10 act as its sacred
guarantor of eonsecrallon. I)ue to Ihe large demand for relics, the teachmg
that the bod)" had to re'1l3in coll1plctely InlaCi. whICh had been adhered 10
until lhe tenlh cenlll'), was largely abandoncd. This teaching had
forbidden the removal of md1l1idllal pans of Ihe body as relics, with the
cxccpllon of thmgs Ihal regrew, such u lulr, 1~lh, and finger and toe
nails. Anmher Idea, equally old, now gamed grealer protmncoce - natnel).
Ihal the S<l1l11 was aClually prac:nl 111 every pan of hiS bod)". A small bone
was all that was required 10 have the enllre S<lll!l at hand. This conception
was 10 :aSS<:fI Itsclf over the coursc of Ihe (\llddlc Ages. By lhe high and I:ue
Middle Ages. all nnsg1l1mgs had long bIoen forgott ... n. There are repons
Ihat people who werc dying or h~d lUSt died. and were likely to be
canonl~.ed, were PUt under pressure or e'cn robbed bccalll'(' of thell relics.
Wellknown examples arc St. Fran ... is and SI. Elisabeth. The ,etSlon
1I1,olvll1g Ehsabelhs corpse reads as follows: MWhrle Ihls holy corpse-,
wrapped 111 a gre)' shlTl wllh clolhs around lhe face, wulaymg on Ihe bier.
man) of Ihol'(' prcsc:nt, who wellknew thc holmess of the body and were
mnamed b)" Ihelr ",orship....amc and ... m. even lore. pans of her robes off;
50me "'UI Ihe na.ls off her hands and feel; mhcrs cut off Ihe tips of her
breasls :and :a finger off her hand, III order 10 k~p Ihem as rehcs. ~ In
additIOn, many relics were SIO!t1l ur furged m large quanll,ies. The Church
was quite helpless m the facc of thiS, and dealt w.th IJtcso.o aCl1l'Iues by
saymg Ihal anythmg "3S permiSSible as long as It promOlrd bilh.
Many of Ihese repons, which loday would bccoosldered odd 10 say the
leasl, ca n be found m a work by GUlberl Nugent (d. 1124), enlllied
/'sgnoril s,mctorum (The Rehcs of $allltS). Nugcnt cmicizes thc obsession
wtlh gellmg hold, and disJlOSlIIg. of relici. and uses particularly laughable
examples 10 show Ihe foolishness of slIch a cOllrse of 3Cllon and, above all.
Ihe nltStakc of equating Ihe ~enerable rehes of a saint wilh a favorile
tah~man. 10 whICh one ascribes magICal powers of healll1g. Such CTllICaI
II
'0
large tracts of land, were the main agents of this cult in this period of
European history. for monasteries had developed into the main places
where relics were kept. As Duby putS it, Mosl ~bbeys were built o ver the
tomb of a martyr or preacher of the Gospels, one of the heroes of the bailie
against evil and Hell ... Being the guardians of order 11\ the cult of relics,
which WaS kept lip near Ihe sarcophagi, monks served as mediators
between the Subterranean world of the dead and life on earth. Th is was
their second main funclion, a function which found solemn expression in
artistic form." Duby makes the point that ~Chrislians of the cfeventh
cent ury paid very careful attention to death. ~
It is typical of the5C works of art that they shOuld enable one to forget
their prerequisi tes in the light of the ent irely self-sufficient aesthetic
pe rfection of their formal coherence. But if they are made subject to an
ahistorical interpretation that entirely ignores these prerequisites of ritual
and numinous power in Romanesque art, they will become mere objects
with form and we relinquish the wealth of opportunities they o ffer uS to
help towards a more compkte historical understanding of thelll.
M
12
BerM, Rurgcrbibli01Mk
Cod. 120. fol. 10Sr
diifercn,~
wilh Ihe pope. Within Germany, Ihe empire had divided imo
parties loyal [0 the Chu rch and 10 the emperor, a division thaI was 10 have
10llg-term cOllSequella:s.
Once Henry had gOI over [his low ebb ill his power, he 50011 started
work on rebuilding Sp!'yer Cathedral, [he prestigious building of his Salian
~na:SlOr5, makmg it e"en more maglllficenl. Clearly a demonstral1on of
[he power which he felt he had regained, or indeed Ilever lost. Other
German cities apart from Speyer also developed this imperial af(hiteclure
(see pp. 46 if. ). In this comext, Gumer Sandmann states that ~E.specially
"flcr thc ,truggle over illvcMitu rc, whcll thc [mperor had comc into
,0nilicl wIth the Curia, and soverClgJI SlateS to the west 110 10llger
recognized the universal status of the Empire. the emperors allemp[ed to
construct an imperial metaphysics in which the pope pla)'ed a subordinate
role ... The widelling of thoughts of empire in the Classical mould ollly
occurred gradually under pressure from ils rival party. the Church ... This
probably also explains the fact that after Henry IV's reign, and during Ihe
"""des,
oo:~uu
Roma""~qu"
\3
uf the Hea"enly City. the Kingdom of God, whtch believers were helping
fO fashion." One of the Fathers of the Church, SI. Augustine himself,
stressed this identification in hIS work De CiFllate Dei. A generaltzed
approach in ascribing meanmg ,s of lutle hdp in understandmg par!tcui3r
archileCiural characteris!tcs. Their symbolic nature will remain abstract in
Ihl' fact' of such genera liz:uions. In contraSt, the references to the Ci ty of
God in a painted or sculpted urban shorthand are concrete and obvious: a
castle or a wall conne<;;tl to towers, or in sacred architecture, the fa<;ade
wilh twin fOwers, which - probably for thIS reason - found increasing
favor during the Middle Ages.
The depiCliun uf the earThly jerusalem ts also done usmg a circle, which
is a symbol of The Divine, and a reference to the life hereafter; it appeared
on many pl:ms of Palestine in the customary pallern of a Clrde divided imo
four quarters. On the map of Palestine on p. 14, This idenufic31ion is
emphasized by the text on the bottom Ige of the page: ~An)'onc making
efforts to be one of )'our citizens, jerusalem, and who is looking forward
10 your delights, must exert himself greatly. This City of Jerusalem will
nOI laST for long, bUT will be an image of permanence for all time."
Immediately abo"e Ihe lext, separaled only by the picture frame, are
Chnstian kn,ghts who are pllltmg Muslim mounted warriors 10 flight. The
kn,S)" on the wh"e hor ... i~ St. G>rge, who 10 .Ome e:.-Ient IS v,ewNI ~<
s.1nctifying Ihe crusades by takmg part in them; his success makes plain
Ihat Ihey arc actong wuh God's support. This drawing, made ncarly 100
)'ears afler the Firsl Crusade al a time when II was hoped th~T Jerusalem
(Quid be re-conquered, IS tdeological m characler. It caSIS an ideali1.ing
light on an event Ih~t tn reality was ralher nnhol)", as even some contcmporanes felt at the time. (There was a desire 10 be able 10 view (he Hol y
LlIld as God's coumry on earth bUT, in the view of Bishop Jacob of Vllry, il
was lost because Ihe scum of the earTh had gaThered Ihere. And indttd,
Palestine was Temporartly used as a penal colony.)
The ~armed pilgrimages to jerusalem ~ are sume of the mosl stnlster
aSpe!:ls of medieval ChriSTian fllndamentalism.lbeir cruehy and blondness
are frightening, and are a historical lesson for all, including The Church,
given that by conservati\"eeSlimates they costllpwards of 22 million lives.
Co nstruCl;O" work
An)"one who reads the Bible carefully will nOI;ce thai some of Ihe images
and phrases used are borrowed from Ihe buildtng trade. Architecture
dearly played a I'ery important role from an early stage, as wdl as the
process of building. 1bis changed little during the Middle Ages: .OlIrces,
whether in pIctures or wriling, paint a vivid piclure of the processes at
large building sites. It is nOI iust the manuscripts thaI were produced from
about 1000 onwards that enable uS to picture these construction sites;
there are also scenes from the building trade in glass windows, tapestries,
frescoes, and even relonqu3m:s and altarpi eces. Written .Ources are
scarcely less powerful- lellers, accounts of lives, descriptions of building
processes, such as those concerning the reconstruction of Cantcrbury
Cathedral from 11 74 to 1185, or Abbot SlIger's work De consecratione
ecdes/ae Sanet, DlOn),5". which was produced belween 1144/45 and
14
"ppc:".
15
s......lonJ.
north of the Alps umillhe middle of the fourteenth cenrury. Before thaI.
work was donI." using canl1lever sc<lffolding, and ther. arc thorough
rC'Cords of the various ways In whICh It was constructed. AI tach stage
of work. a Inel working ar.a wu created al the wall copmg, and once
Ihe wall had bttn bUilt hIgher. the .'iCaffoldlng was renw,-ed and att3ched
hIgher up. The construction matenals were probably moved up the wall
uSing ramps, and transponed uSing slrelChers, skips and baskets, The
second half of the ,welfth century saw the use of SIm ple cranes which
at first were nothing more elaborate than a rope with a baskel lied ro II.
lt was nOI "n,il late, thaI pulleys were Inlroductd as the first tC'Chnical aids, The various CIaftsmen got up to tht hIgher 5lions of the
bUIlding by means of ladders or sloping walkways, whICh were normally
WICkerwork.
Buildrn and founders- building 3$ a form of Divine plan for salvalion
It 15 now clear that the large-scale bUlldll1gs of the Middlt Ages were
produced wllh enormous effort and m Ihe face of incalculable risks. And
e\'erybody look pan In Ihe work because budding a place of worship was
part of the plan for salva lion. Whoe"er took pan 111 the conStnlCllon
work. either br giving building materials or physically working on the slfe.
was blessed with the Grace of God -Ions before Indulgenc~ ~1.1ned!O hr
sold for the sa",e purpose. The '-ery act of building a chorch included a
degree of worshIp.
ThiS was especially significanl for those who had churches founded
and bUlh. In hiS second will Bishop Bernward of IIIldesheim has thI S 10
say: MI Ita,'e gi"en much thought 10 lbe quesllon of what commtndable
Arch"cqur~ l dr~"'on,
by G. /lladon&.
~b.
frS. 1016
16
1023.
1)~1l'Ie>.
rolumnsand cap""ls
bUlldrng I could ertel. what I would have to spend ... III order to cam
myself the Grace of God ... [ started .. . 10 found a new church which I
could budd 10 the praisc and glory of the name of thc Lord. Ihereby bolh
fulfillmg my own promlSC and providing for holy Chnslendom. ~ Bishop
Connd of Consla~, who was laler made a s.1ml, hd the s.1me goal m
mind; one of the places he bUIlt was the Church of the Holy Scpukhre,
whICh w;as alt;]ched 10 Ihe mlnSlcr and was intcnded to sa"e the faIthful
from haVing [0 makc Ihc journey 10 Jerusalem, or allematl"ely to makc II
casler for them 10 do so. ThIS addressed the Idea of COpIes. In those days, It
was unnecessary for copIes 10 be duplicates as Ihey tend to be today. All
that was rcqulred was a particular form - round 111 the caSl! of churches of
lhe Holy Scpukhre - to 5c:f\e ;as a remmder of the Importance of Ihe
ongmal, or e,'en 10 replace II. In the end, II "''as no longer important
whelher onc had l'ISlted lhe Iioly Scpukhre In Jerusalem or in ConSt3ncc.
In any case, Bishop Conrad h3d much gnaler Ihmgs m mmd: apart from
Ihe eXISllng mmSter, whICh was dedICated 10 the Mother of God, and Ihe
monaSlery of 5,. Peler In I)clcrshau.scn, he founded three further chu rches
III Constance, those of 51. John, SI. I..... wrence and St. I'Jul. By doing so, he
had recreated the five mam churches of Rome (San Giovanni in Laterano,
San Lorenzo, San Paolo fuon Ie mura, Old 51. I'eler's and Sanl3 "taria
Maggiore ), and ""lIh them the Uoly Cily llself, m ConSlance, Ihe MfdlX
1I1aler Conslantia. ~
ThIs IS also quue re"ealmg as to the relationship of the founder or
bUilder 10 Ihe work Itself. The builder as both Qu/or and Que/or, decided
on the type of bUlldmg and m many cases also I'reSl:ribed a model. To
quole Gunter Bandmann once agal11, Myes, we are qUllc juslLfied in slallng
thai ouly a few, unllnport~nt building contractors m The MIddle Ages
relinqUished Ihe OpportUIllTy 10 make del,ber~tc Imks wilh oumanding
models m order 10 keep 10 Simple cuSloms and Irndlllonal crafts. The
architecTS of larger conlraCiOrs had 10 focus Iheir IIlgenully on the copy,
not on creallng OTlgtn31 fonns. ~
The clients qUIte frequenTly look care of obl:J.lIllllg lhe building ""'Ierials,
Thus, F.inhards Vila Karo" Magill, about Ihe iLfe of Charlemagne.
recounTS Ih31 Ihe emperor personally brought columns and marble sbbs
from Rome and Ral'enna 10 be used m his palaflne chapel in Aachen.
NOller Balbulus, a monk al SI G3l1en. relaln m hiS Gesta Karol wrinen
'" 885, Ihal Ihe emperor brought Together Mmastel'$ and craftsmen of all
such arlS from all rrglons Ihls IudI' of !he lXean. ~ BUT despite thiS, The
names of the anlSIS ha,'c been forgOllen aimOSI everywhere. Bandmann
anemplS TO expbm away Ih,s fact m terms of II belllg part of M!1Ie
charaCter of serving an all-cmbrncmg idea." Meanwhllc, Ihe example of
IIcrnward of Hiideshellll clearly shows !hat the bishop was concerned
about safeguard ing hIS soul's SaIV3110n. Bolh Bishop Conrad of Connance
and Abbot Suger of Samt-Dents werc bur~d al Ihe entnnces of lhe
churches they founded. This IS not so much an exprC$Slon of Ik .. ollon 3$ of
the ho~ Ihal Ihey ....ould bcnefi! from the mnumerable prayers of
gramude of those "lslIIng Ihe churches. For Ihe churches they founded
were not lust the price of God's mercy, but also guaranrors thaI they would
[lever be forgonen.
17
Btsalu. Cualo"'a
RomantSqucc bridge. twtlfth ~tn.ury
Bridges I'I.~-.d.n ImporUnt role
amongs he $ular lu",,"onal bullJlngs
"f the M,JJIt Ag.... Wi.hout .hem, II
would "",,,,,,Iy h.. bc-en possibl o
pro<<<J along th. road. and path. in
many pl.e<c . T..... lers In .he MIddle
mcss.engtrs would
od""lOwns.
~on
.helt way to
OPPOSITE
a'..
"
ROMANESQUE
CJ
Z
S T y L E S
Religious buildings
Types of building
Central planform
aisle-Ieiis church
hall church
church with raised nave
and lower side aisles
circular layout
four-sided layout
(Greek cross)
polygonal layout
4
s
Gree4< Cl'OSS
domed rotunda
(Mantua. San
(Montmajoor.
SaintCroix)
Lorenzo)
I"'~
~n
20
Long alsledlcen\fally
baptIstery
ptanned (Gravtrdona.
5. Mariadel Trglio)
(Milan, San
Lor-enzo Maogror-e)
aI ...
1loiIdinos
-.
View of the _twork WIth at""" and porch (drawing). '1"_ 01 the choir with side apses
and transept IlIrrf\ts (photo),
1 atriumlnarthex
2 pordv'oPIee
3westflm~
1 side aISle
8 central tower
,~-
to transept towers
t t ChOif apses
t2 apse
- 0
JI',I ,
I
, --
,
,
,
I '1. 1 . _I _r
0=
--
, ""
"
'\
"
"
21
potdIat - . _ _ aI . .
- * " and
..
beII_
1IiIIy, \he
Of campanile is oMen
,ree\OO next to tile we$t lront. whereas In
France ttua it not OMen the case.
.....-
-_..
-.--
...no...
1 'IOOmIIOfllCOUrt
2 westt'" ct>oir
3 _18m transapt
an:Worlide
,-
,-
S WHlemcenu.!
iii i iii i
Tower 01 1ha
-.
~1075
Tha
__
01 f'IIdoorbom.
hasno~in1ha
possesseS
two araAar
10 1I"0Il
ongnIIIOf1Jfled d\af8C\ef 0I1ha IlooIding
22
--.
".,ards
,nm two;rone$,
Structural elements
The OOrizontai cornice (I) oIIen occurs in
CO!ljuncbOO with a lrieze 01 blind areading
(2). Horizontal blind arc;tde$ (3) and
II8f1icaIIeseoes (4) are elerMnts Ifequenlly
usOO to articulate towers and 'acades. The
towars .., question are u_l~ massive
wesllowe's.
Romanesque friezes
West front with centra l apse and twin
towers
Trie<. St f'elefs cathedral
InterlaCe frieze
23
by
~ chIpeIs
-.
....
There.,..
_1.
24
ax..
.aen
School.,.
.....,.
~,
St. AuraIius.
protwo1lIy
Hlrsauer Bauschule
(The Hirsau School)
Choir with chapels In echelon
end _
Klosterrelchenbach
Hlrsau f St AureliuB
""""",.
aoo
C.1hedraI) 01 Sehaflhlnl$6t1. ~,
100. was probabty onfIuenoId by $I. Peter
and Paul, ..-.:& at AIpIrsbactI, 100. !hi
a"IIMIn!I was 1rWlSIo<med i-01O ChoI"I.Malo<
Many IadorI
~
thOio.1ankWIg
_ . ._. . . tI\M
pIannad
lor
~ . ....... 1O It'aoe 11 $1.. ...........
and in KIoItoo, eic:heo bech.
y
0
0
Ii
1=1==-~.
- 0) I
"~-t~
Polygonal choir
The MIl'IICi:Ie 01 .... apR II btoI<en 14' info
a number 01 '-!$, The bUll; f'\'IOdIIIll'IMI
lroq\Hlfllly ~
!he octagon Of "'dodecagon wnoae in18f1of opefW Into I ~
choir.... ThiI melhod - * ' lilt c0nstruct"'" ot ~ ,... mina,kln like the
"... in Ihe parilll d\utch 01 Neuengeseke
(lhinMnIh celllUry).
The ~ cIetIgn 01 !hoi CI'IOif II Iieulaled 0I'II)t by lrleze 01 round ~,
Cllt:Ular ~ end ......... plinth
.r.
s.oz,g
r.v
'*'"'",
"*'
Saint-Marlin-de-Londres
or 1riple-apse plan.
""
...,
-.
The
bay is linked
r.v hi _ _
2S
The galilee
The
Of
(_
p;tgt 21 ). The ~ lO!hecor--.t
church 01 Maubonn is also caIed !he
I*IdiM (1210-15). h IS ~ as
UI'lIQIJe and perlecI el<3O'lple of art "om !he
bme 0I1hIt Hohenstaulen dyna$ty (left)
The IOIIuences !rom IkJrgundy .... otMovI
and can be seen in !he special tin,$h of lhe
caplta!s and In !he high pltoths
Each or lhe \IV" bays hal been coo
llruc1ed abo'Ie a SQUare. The portal and
lilt twin arcades open onto !he 1ofecou(I.
The monumenIaI crossribs e)(lend IikI
" . - . artt.s !rom IhIt moghry ( f t.
pot'II'J. whodl . . placed on hogh 1)IInh.
T....... with !he IraIISIIe<Se ribI. lilt ribs
whodl diagonally o;:tOS$ !he cross vaul! loom
.-ni-otdes. The ~ spIS of !he brt
...et.. conIribuIe to !he ~ of Ihe
onIlIrior In spiIe 01 !he ~ ~
UMd lor ots arbCUIebon, and . . . . lilt
aqua! POOPOI1lO115. !he interiDI lias lin
ItmospI'Iet. whrch is any!hong 001 hea")" Of
dark - a ~ty thaI was emphasIZed as
I speeofic dlar8C1erislic of dasarcar
"""'"
n.
Hohenstauteo aretutOClule.
I
,\.;_' '-\1
~
..',..
'
'. ,
'
.I J
tI
'
,L .
I ' ,
111 ~ .~ I'
"
.., F""-'
\
~
Nuns' gallery
...-1$
pariah Church).
.,...,
26
--
The interior
Construction of the
nave
~1IgN~)
01
blind
trIIorIum)
.......
alQ'or I
Oftwo~.
'"*
n.
Singie-lier construction
Double-tier construction
allow lor
a c:IeNoItoty, wtIIC1"I would ...... bNn .".
MCIIon ..... construction does
_"~_TlIlIOrowso/
.......
_
in fWIIIIt\.oentur ~. n.
pocIIQ on .". Ie" shows bey c:on\ari'Ig
an arcadt and dri<asIory """"*,,,",, . . . .
the second .ample illustratet a bey
hous.Ing two
...-.
1 side .....
,,'-.,..,
III
....
5de<H!O<y
--
Three-tier construction
This rype 01 ..... COfISlrudion is likely
00QlII" ..
suet. as
10
ItIrge ~ calhldnoll.
in Worms. The CWIItaI
11"141 _
..-
ft
r
.~
\
I i
I
r I,
Rhythmic alternation
Three-tier construction
oumam
"""'*'
begun
1128.
""""*"'"' ..
Four-tier Construction
The Ioofzone ...... conslfllCtion is 1ayeNod
hom boIIom 10 lOp . . 1oIows: I~ ,
~.
-.
-",..,
27
...."
'-
1 chancel
Choir
and crypt
3 tnumllhal
,,,"
The choir
OOginally 11>9 choir deooled ltl8 place
where !tie sing"'9 in church 1001< place
SOOn it was designatad the liturgical center
arourd whICh the church irnerior or !he
basilica dev&IDped. The simple eally choir
was extended by !he ch;l~ square and
Ihe apse or chevet. From !he thirloonth
ce<llUry onwards. It\e boIef araa betwOOll
the monks' and ltle lay church has I:>wn
marked by the chancel or choir Wee<!
which also servEl'S as a platform for $il'lQ(lrs
or as a lecte<n. The SIze of It\e chotl is
usually diclated by the width and height
dimenslQ(lS of !he
e.cep! wtIefe
partial closure ot the crossing allows a
lIIIn'owing of the choO'.
""lie.
, ,0
...."
'-
1 chancel
.-
3 ambulatory
=-
ki\
The crypt
Hall crypt
The hall crypl 01 Speyer is often called "the
most beautiful Cl)'pIIn the world: Indeed. it
aeatO$ a magnificen1 invession. woth its 8
moghty piers. its massMl walls. and irs t4
COfTI8O'
36 engaged coIumn$ and 20
I,eestar>ding columns (righl).
The groin vault is articulated toy transve<se
8fdIes. Extending Irom the heaVV cushion
capotals CIt' the imposls 01 the piers, they
o:tvide the crypt into 1/>(ee alroost square
spaces lined up alClng the transvef$tl Il)(is.
$0 that three naves a'e formed, each with
three bays. Each 01 the side rooms is
extended in its eastern part toy three altar
recesses. The bases and the cushion
capitals &ugQ8St thai building was ~n
aroond 1(l30.
,.;ers.
Ambulatory crypt
In !he crypt of Flavignysur,CI.le<ain. Sa,nt
Pierre. the ronlessio (2) is surrounded toy a
rectallQUlar ambulalO<y (I) which leads
into the chantry ch~ 0< O<aIOrie$ (3).
An adjoiroing aisled arm {~J k,ads on inlO a
hexagonal lady Chapel (5). This COO'oj)Iex
groond plan was conce;...eel in the 00ItI
-..
28
"
Rectangular choir
chors are often foond in earf)'
churches 01 the lshaped type. ie there is
no chaneel SqUare in lront 01 the apse.
Thera are two ditle<enl typeS: those with a
ftal ceiling (tor example in Goldbach on
L~ COnslanoa, around tOOO). and !hose
with a vaul1 (Soest, SI. Maria zor
Rectangular
The interior
vault and dome
The flat oej~ng taken over f.om the early
Christian bMllica was g'ao..oatly replaced
by a stlTl!)le barrel vau~. The polasters
anached to the front of the aIsle columns
are (:<I"'",ved in the vauf! by trans\lel$(l
arches. The intersecbon of the transept
aOO the nave vaults '9SIIk in grojns !rom
which the groin vauk lak&s its ""me.
These groins were reinforced by means of
ribs which otten sprang !rom the column
capotats. In the COUf$<j of ~me and in
dmerem regions. thIS so..ca.lled II.om vau"
was adapted and developed In a variety of
Groin vault
The inla<saclion 0I1wO bar,eI vauHs al right
angles above a squars results in lhe
formatIOn of arched diagonals Of groins
wil hln the vauK. This i$ hOw lhe vauh
~~.
Twotype-Sol
thrust are
crealed In ..
--...
"au":
the
vertical aOO the
OIItwarl"l thrust
The maIn
OIItwarl"l1lYusl
IS absorbed by
the exterior
waAsofthe
1IIsk! and by the
buttresses.
"aulIj.
Domlcal vault
In many CilSIIS lhare was a deslre 10 "raise"
the
CfO$SIf"Ig
by means of a
vau~
wrthoot
o! ribs
Of
Domed churches
A special fealu .... of the P9rIgord region is
the domed chu.ches. their dorne$ uSlIIIIIy
ris<ng up above pendeotives (Pkigeux. St
~tl8f1ne-dttIaCiT6IStF rom). PartICUlarly
impressive is the domed dlufd> of CheNal
(see photo aOO grouOO plan) dallng hom
the tw&Ifth QlfUvry: he<e, lour dorne$ have
been arranged one i:>eIuOO the other (3
bays in "'" IUIWI And "'" <:hnir)
29
Church doors
and windows
Iconographical program
The 1)'ITlIiInUm shows the cenlrallheme.
in,.. .reniYolb
Church doors
'*""'"
~ ~
IypIIs d _ : I. !he ~
I'CU'Id-an:hId _ ; 2. ... r--.d 01
IMpped por1a/; 3 . ... I'IIOIIMCI por1lII - .
coIlJrrq,. ~ . . . case 01 2 a"Id 3 on perkUar
."... -*Y d ~ deIaiI in
oonarucIion as ...... In ~
Tht QIlUrn$ incU:Ied in IOIrIII d !he
~ enlr.'lllce& aI...." ~ !he
columned portal. T~ (al. eapiIM (b)
!WId an:IY.dIs (e) are ~ lind ant
allen lINd 10 dispIav decooIIM! elements.
n..
_ _ ...:I !he columned porI8II
~ Ihedeslgr1 oIlhe~ ' - - - '
fIn'lIt..IiIo!I por1aI oIlhe GoIhoc: 1*IOd.
_ofIen~aIIegoncIII
.......
...
F'IJUIPOn _
-..ation.
'- _
~"'~I~
Portal and porcI'I ant ~ inlO_ ...........
IotIhe~oIa~
~ k:o"og.oaphocal ~. The
ceotraI ~ os Ihe expec:I31ion 01 SllMitiOn
associaled wIIM Ihe Last Judgment. .1
r...
Arles, St-Trophime
(western portal)
---_-~
hnt81
salYabDn.
, '+-)
. 'I.l"...
-~
il:Lir',t
,..
----
Semur-en-Srlonnals:
on !he IhreshokIIO !he GoIhc: period
!;he
"'Ie<
Se""",...,
lin'"
simplified
~IIN;
,_
.......
3 quatreto;I wniDw
6haHwheelwirKIoW
30
n.
'
Fan-shaped windows,
cinquefoil and stilted
WI
ft
Windows
........'ur.....rsion 01
a....n
wrdOw 01 St.
In Neuu (dallng fn:Im
... ~Ih cenlury) hila a rIoCIaIlguIII,
Ibltong (I*,,) trom wt'IICtI !he IndMdual
ugrnanlS raliat.. !he so-called foIII or
....
......
u.
:rr .....
lriau
Piers
""'"
The
con
strucUon
01 a pier
1IIWts.
Of oompaund poei'
>;
.....
.......
shallotpie<'
The
....
in~The_~
--
Rectangular piers
Tn. ~ rectangular potfS of 51. Cyriakua
in Sulzburg (tIeYen\tl ctnMy) CilIIn01 ~1
be r.rdIId as an indtpencItKl1 archntcl urat ..."",,1. They art par! of Ihe SUWQf1.
ing WIll S1n.lClure and marely Rank !he
rounel-arched .rcades.
Circular pUlars
w.
The respond
1_1IboYe1
T...... NoIr.cam.11lwteendlcenturrl, The
01 the
The capital
The ~c 01 the ~
eapuoI can tit .....0 tram the S1I'I'Ipie
cu:shoon c.prtaI (2) 10 the IigtnI capital (5),
~ of 11M a.shocn capotaI, the 10caIed pyr...... capital (II. ITOghI wei tit
!he ~ "'proIofypII- The lor.::
c:.ptaI with lit 'IOIoM Of spraI $(fCI (3l IS
.... NI1y aiIpIabon. E.m.IIishmenIs such
as I~MlIu_ or sIueIds l1'aoslofm the
cushion gpoIaI ..10 an ~ caplliIl
(4), The door.w. tItmoIm$ $how grea!
Imagination arod IocIude apnal maills and
floral Pf-tI$n'II, Cl'1N\lng ever ' - varia'
tlOIlI. TMM
IoIowed by masks and
rinaI IhapeI and lioal1y by IiQuratiYe
___ . .. ot whtIl cuImonaled ., Ihe
.lIcapitaI.
courses (_~)
I;:CII'IIInUt(I
ane
as
~poIwtor~
_a
,
... Ornamental or decorated
capital
A1.1he1ormtr~~
s.:m.
pi.......
Figural capital
f9Jral eajli1als in !he nave of !he
The
torm.r priory
cl'lurc:h of AnzyIeOue In
Borgundy (twe/tIh century) COfIIbo'Ie o:Ieoo-
fatHamasl<
sn..eswilh~
__.
31
Romanesque architecture
in Germany
32
The arcade opening~ appear as though Clll Olll of the wall. A strong
horizontal string course leads rh~ ~ye from the massively heavy lower
.torey to the light and graceful galleries in the upper level. The large
gallery openings are steeper and higher in proporrion than the arcades.
Within each opening there are twO Ie,els of arches supported by Corinthian
COhllllllS, one level set upon the other. The classical Corinthian columns
are spoil., and were brought from Ravenna to Aachen on the instructions
of Charlemagne himself. It IS not only these spoils that link the tWO cities,
as San Vitale in Ralenna is one of the possible prOtOtypes for the Aachen
Palatine Chapel {photo, p. 77). Built in the sixth centur)" under the
Emperor Justinian, S. Vitale is also an example of an octagonal central
space on thrtt storeys. ringed however by an octagonal ambulatory. This
is nOI the onl)" difference between the early Chrrsttan model and the
Aachen Palatine Chapel. In Ra,enna the piers are much slimmer and
narrower in design, and do not gtve the appearance of being an imegral
pan of th~ walls. The columns in the arcade openings curve back in a semi
circle and give the room a wonderful feeling of breadth. In Aachen, by
contrast, the effect is of a steeply-sided shaft. In his Aachen Palatine
Chapd, Charlemagne strove to create a central structure in the image of
the early Christian imperial chapels such as he had seen at Ravenna. This
architecture was designed to symbolize the role of the klllg as the advocate
of his prople and as the mediator between the secular and the spiritual,
this world and the next. Thus the square as a symbol of the worldly is
comblrled With the ctrcle as the symbol of the divine. The resulting octagon
is regarded in number symbolism as synon)'mous with eternity. S. Vitale in
Ra'enna was nOt the only model for Aachen: also imporram was the
church of SS. $ersius and Bacchus in Constanlinople, which has an
octagonal central room encased in a square, and was built as a palace
chapel under the Emperor Justinian in the third decade of the sixth
cenwry. Particular architectural prominence was g,,en 10 the west gallery
behind the throne of the emperor by means of a tower-like construction,
all four sides of which jut out. This tower, protruding from the fa.;-ade, was
a new development, conceived in the Carolingian period, but not 3t that
lime conslstemly exploited. Facing the former atrium, the entrance fa~ade
with its high round-arched recess draws attention to the Roman mOllf of
the triumphal arch and lends an tmperial mOllumcmalit)" to thc fa~ade. This
entrance recess and the small pilasters with imitation classical capitals are
the few exterior Carolingian forms which remain from the originally
plastered exterior of the I'alarine Chapel. The small pilasters were designed
only as decoration and serve no strllctural function.
The finest presencd example of a Carolingian exterior is the gate house
of the former monaster)" at l orsch (phOIO, p. 34). Erected around 774,
presumably as 3 three-part triumphal g.l1ewa)", il marked the boundary of
the atrium of the church 10 the west.
T he lon;ch gate house looks back histoTlcally to classical antiquity, but
the idea of the triumphal gateway was modified by making the three
archways the same height and size, and nOI emphasil.ing the cemral arch in
Ihe classical manner. Use of the classical idiom IS made III Ihe columns wrrh
the entablature, the pillars with round arches, the fluted pilasters and the
33
form of The bases and (apiTals. On The other hand the facing of the wall
with a (:olorful Text ilc-like surfa(:c is Byzantine in con(:eption. The triangular gables of the upper floor (:ome from the norrh~rn t.adilion. The
(:ombina tion of columns with round ar(:hways is medieval and incon(:elVablc
in dassieal amiquity, in which only a horizontal entablature was possible
above (:olumns. Seen in its totality, the gate-houM: at Lors.:h is nn edifi(:e of
extreme rdinement. Although It stands al Ihe beginning of western
medieval ar(:hiteaure, it is at the same time an exquISite ht,:...::omer, an
almost decadent building.
The St. Gallen monastery plan: instructions for th e ideal monastl:-ry b )'oul
The gate-house at Lors.:h on(:e stood at the enrran(:e to a 13'gf, monaStery
(:omplex which has now disappeared and is known to us only through
excavations and a few remams. All the other Carolingian monasteries havc
suffered the same fate 3S LorS(:h; they ha"e ~en WIWCrted, modified or
eventually destroyed. The only way we have of (:on(:eiving of the layout of
a Carolingian monastery is from a par(:hmem plan which originated on
the island of Reichenau on Lake Constance, and whICh is now kepI in the
library of the St. Gallen monastery. This monastery plan is the ea rliest
architectural plan of the Middle Ages still in existencc. The diSfribution of
the individual buildings is in harmony with monastic life whic:h developed
a(wrding to the ruk of St. Benedict. Around the (hur<:h are grouped a mass
of monastic buildings, small courtyards, gardens and paths. The facilities
which surrounded the church were of vita! importance for the s,urvival of a
34
II IIJ
>Om
S<1'It""Sudt. colonnadtd
b,o"I""" Ground pL.n
The Karch for form - centrally planned buildings. basi licas. one-aisla:l
churches
Included In
small number of ccmrally planned bUlldmgs of Ihe
Carolingian JX'Tlod art' the afor .. ~nlloned Pa!aun,c, Chapd in A.. ehclt. Ihe
circubr MIChael Ch3~1 In Fulda, treat<! by the Abbot EigJl oowttn 820
and 822, and Gtrmlgny-dcs.PTis, bUll! ncar the lOll"(' :!.ccordms 10 the
quadral1c ground plan under Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans. a relative of the
Emperor Charlemagne. and conSTalcd 111 806. Thes.e Isolated c:<amptes
of cemru lly planned buildings apar!. the dominam SlrUCUIrI: which
dc,-eiuped was the ha$ihca wllh a nave and IWO aisles, Iransept. lorho.,
bay, and scmi-circular apse. The surviving Carolingian churches did nOl
follow the clear and priK quadratic SoI:hcmc of construction gin-n in Ihe
SI. Gallen monastery plan. The aIsles were 1ll00dy much narrower than
half Ihe wtdth of the na'e. The lransc:pt W35 nOI )et a balance<! Slructure
which mteTKCIe<! the na,'e al nght angles CTeallng :I sep3rate squa~ area.
Th,s dlSllncl area of inlel"S('("flon, "hH;:h opene<! OUI to all four s,des
through four cqual-si~d arches, pr.-surposi a na,e and transc:pt of l"'Iual
height and breadth. ThIs pailI'm was as reI unknown In CarolingIan
arChl!Kture.ln Ihe Carollngtan slyle the crO$Slng W;lS not fully de"doped,
Ihat IS to 5-3)", Ihe transverse arms were much lower compared 10 Ihe nave
and gave Ihe appearance of h:wlIIS been added bter. The transepls were
acceSSible only from the cro~sing via small openlllgs. These transc:pts
separated from the square by partial walls were, for e"ample, 10 be found
III the b.ls,lica In Steinbach near MlChe1sl~dt 11\ the O<len fOmit budt III
817 by Emhard, the bIographer of Charlenugne. Today only the na,'e with
ItS sc:ml<m:ular apse and the nonhero WillS of Ihe Iransepl remain
slandlng. The basIlica creeled by Emhard In SchgenSIJdl-on-~lam (sec
ground pbn abo,c}. on Ihe othcr hand, had a connnuous tranSC:pl. whH;:h
was sepaUIe<! from Ihc na,'c by a largc scml<ircular arch. Thc
Schgcnstadl church was bowncr no more a rruc fUSion of the na,c and
transept than was Slembaeh. II IS nOI a baSIlica With a n3,'e supponed by
pIers as at Sleinbach or ScligenSladl, bUI a basltH;:a With columns which ha s
been prescn'ed al SI. Justinus in I lochst ncar Frankfurl. The building wllh
liS IlIIprcSSl\'e rC<'ded capitals was built 11\ the first half of the ninth century.
In addillon to the pier and column baSIlicas, CarolingIan architKlure also
produced Simple one-aIsle<! churches wlIh one or thrn' apses al the eastern
end of Ihe buildmg, as, for e"ample, at St. Iknedlet III Mal! or St. Prokulus
In Nalurns III South Tirol. Churches wnh thrcoc apses were a fealure aix)\"e
all of Ihe AlpIIK' regIOn, such as DisentlS, Mttall and MUSlalf 10
Graubunden. The church of the IkncdlcltlK' monaslery at Must.nr
(tllustr.lIe<! Tlghl ) "'as buill around 800 from a foundatIOn of Charlemagne.
With liS cellmg, oTlgmally fbt and vaulled only III the laiC GothiC peTlod,
the church IS Impress,,'e for ItS eastern \TIapsal lernllllalion. Each apse IS
framed With hIgh blind arches, Ihe mIddle one belllg somewhal larger and
thus cm phaSlzed.
Inc
35
ABOVE LEFT
BF.LOW
Con"~nct,
ABOVE RIGHT
STeonbach Mlchd"adtlOd~nwald.
Compkll827.
Tunnel cryp!
CryPIS
Only centully plann~d buildi ngs or crypls were vaulted. The laner had
been erected as lombs since Ihe lare eighth ccntury, mostly undcr Ihe high
altar. The main reason for this was Ihe dcsire [Q crcalC a place for Ihe
venerated ~lics of the saints and 10 make Ihem aCCe$sible to everyone.
Various ground plans were selectcd depending on the architectural
possibilities of the particular building: a ring crypl, a barrel-vaulted, semi
circular passageway such as in Seligensladt, or a crossshaped paSs.1ge or
tunnel crypt as at Steinbach (photo, left). When in the post-Carolingian
JXriod the cult of relics assumoo ever greater importance, the passage or
tunnel crypt was enlarged. Rooms were built with one, four or mo~
supports. Gradually crypts developed into cen ters of cult worship in their
own right. Impre$Sil'e construclions wef(~ created such as Ihe hall crypt of
SJXyer cathedral, a church below a church as It were (photo, p. 46).
The west work - Ecclesia mililan5
One of the most significant developments in the Carolingian JXriod was
the abandonment of the exc!usil'e!y squat, earthbou nd nature of the
extended early Christian basilicas in fa\'or of the increased use of towers.
The abbey church at QntulalSomme, begun by Angilbert, a son-in-law of
Charlemagne, has none of thi s horilOntaltunquility, but is characterized
by groups of {Owers at the east and west ends. The {Ower strUCture of Ihe
westwork was designed either as a means of highlighting a separate
devotional space for 3n additional church patron, or as a part of the
building attached to thc church and rl'Sl'rved for the emperor. An
impressive example from the Carolingian period survives in the monas\('ry
church of Corvey (822-848). This westwork, added between the years 855
and 873, underwent no further alterations and slill conveys the full power
of the Carolingian concept of architttture (photo, p. 37). Rising above the
low, heavy basement, whose groin \<aults are supported by piers with mock
classical capitals, without transverse arches or bays, is the quadrum. T his
is a steep, oJXn, central space surrounded by an ambulatory wllh three
arcades on each side, and each with a gallery above. A scmi-circular arch,
oJXning out onto Ihe center of the western gallery, allowed an
uninlerruptoo view of the emJXror'S throne.
The main function of the westwork was to draw altention to Ihe
emperor or ruler, nen if he was not there in person. The westwork
em bodied the power of the state and the sacrosanct nature of the rul er. The
westwork church encompasses {wo distinct areas of significance within it:
firstly, the actual church to the east dooicated to the saints, the E,deslIl
tfmmph{ms, and, secondly, the bulwark-like we${Work, symbol of the
Ecdesia mililtJns, the place of Ihe rulcr as the protector of the church. T his
explains the large number of westworks in Saxony, which had been
conqueroo by Charlemagne. They proclaimed unambiguously the strength
of the emperor's right to rule this area.
The weSlwork as a structure influenced architecture well beyond the
Carolingian JXriod and underwent many modifications in form. The end
of the tenth century saw the westwork at St. Pantaleon in Cologne with its
group of three towers. In 1090 the westwork of the collegiate church at
36
....OHIUT
10Wtrs
of qllLnr~~nr,ally
w(..!Work
dallng from lhe firsl half of ,he lenlh ct'nillry al lhe: talhl'dral in Minden
was rcbllih tnlO a Saxon traJlStpi. Sumlarly tn Gcrn rode in the Hart ,n tht
first half of IItt Iwdhh century, a wcstblock was e.ttd around lht
e:onsung Ouonl;1n round lowers (ste photO$, pp. 38-39}.
RIGfiT
37
J8
L.,~
S. Cy.iakus.
,h~
Wes,~," ~nd.
,welfTh <~n'UT)"
firs! h.II of
39
'"
111100.... 1111. Sf. MJ(:h3d. N .. C' i00i<'"&
ou"IOL(Io.-]033
40
41
doe Ilot quite jom a, Tlgh' angles to Ihe nave. suggcstlng :t certam
inaccuracy on the part of the builders. Onginally Ihe crossing was nOt
regular in shape. Today's regular shape is Ihe rcsult of a ninetecnrh-cenrury
restoration. Access from Ihe transept is gained via steps 10 the elevated
choir, with liS forechoir bay and semi-circular apse, and to the hall crypt
situated under th e choir. Two small apses in the two east walls of the
transept wing complement the east cholT. Compared with Ihe archiTecTure
of the Carolingian period, ,he interior of 51. Cyriakus is endowed wiTh a
superiority and a greater generosity of shape and proportion (photo
page 40, tOP left). Both forms of support, the column and ,he pier, find
much greater use, and support the arcade arches which open up the nave
to the aisles. By the use of columns and piers a clear rhythm is brought into
the construction of the nave wall. Halfway along the nave a reCiangular
pier divides the arcade into two. On both sides of the pier there are twO
archway openings wilh wlumns. By means of Ihe central rectangular pier
not only the wall but also Ihe whole interior of the na,'e and aisles is
divided into two areas of equal size. The g.ll1ery area, too, mirrors this
division of space, although the openmgs there are smaller.
Each of the double arcades in Ihe gallenes is surmounted by a single
large semi-circular arch, although the gallery Storey has a different rhythm
Ihan the arcade wne. Three double arcades of Ihe galleries correspond to
one double arcade of the arcade floor. What is similar is the strong division
of the wall by means of a central pier. T his system of division is nOI
continued right up into the uppermost storey, Ihe clerestory. Its windows
are set imo the wall without any alignment to the storeys below. The
42
this building even more severely than is the case in Gernrode. Moreover
the edifice experienced the most se"ere destruction in the Second World
War, and today's Structure is the result of the post-war rebuilding, The
basilica. which has a nave and tWO aisles. a double choir and twO
transepts, is attracllve for the balance of its construction, which culminates in towers at ooth its eastern and western ends. Compared with
Gernrode, St. Michael in Hildesheim is much more balanced in its design.
This balance can even be peru:h'ed in the ground plan: transepts are added
to ooth tile eastern and western ends of the na"e. As tile navc and the
transepts are of the 5.1me width. their point of imerseaion, the crossing. is
square in form, The crossing square is repeated three times in the na,'e,
making it the basis of tile proportioning of the bu ilding, This regular
square crossing opens out to all four sides with the same height al1d
breadth. The l1a,'c and transepts with their crossing arches witllalternate
masonry layers thus achie"c a complctelr new spatial relationship one to
another. Although tile essential features of this design conccption wcre
present in tile Carolingian period in the 5[. Gallen monastery plan. It was
only implemented for the first time m St. Michael in Hlldesheim. Nevertheless, the fact tllat the side aisles are considerably broader than half tile
width of the nave sllows that the quadratic concept has not been carried
out in its purest form, The corner points of tile three ground plan squares
in the na,'e are marked by piers. Each pier is conn~ted to the next by thrtt
semi-circular arches resting on two columns. By this arrangement of piers
and columns, an alternation of supportS is achie,ed. wllich in this form.
pler-column-column.pier, is known as Saxon alternallng supports. The
alternation in the form pier-column-pier, on the other hand, is known as
the Rllcnish alternation of supports after tile area where this form 1I1a;l1ly
occurs. The il1scriptions on the imposts. each with the names of the three
5.:Iints, arc intended to com'ey the Idea that the saints, symooliud by the
columns, support the kingdom of heaven, ~ymooltud by the church. This
symoo1ism is also to be found in the Magdeburg cathedral of 0[10 the
Great. By means of the alternation of piers and columns the space is
broken down into regular pallerns alld split into three areas.
Here it is different from Gernrode, where the nave wall is divided III
tWO parts b)' a single pier. In Hildesheim a honwntal reglet runs above the
arcade and aoove this a smooth area of wall ascends up to the clerestory,
who~ windows are also not aligned 10 the arches below. A flat ceiling
closes off the evenly proportioned nave.
The few remaining capitals from the time of Bishop Bernward are so
called cushion capitals in clear simple forms, which no longer hark back 10
classical tradition, but which represcm a new dC"dopment in 01l0nl3n
architecture.
A notable feature of the 01l0nian penod is the predilection for flat
walls. The walls were as uninterrupted as poSSible b)' features such as
Opcnillgs and windows, The spaces were dearlr delineated and lhe surfaces
sparil1gly aT\iculared. The most important decor~tive feature was the
dlfferemla)'ers on all the arches in the church, where the architecture was
accentuated by aiternatlllg red and light-<:olored stones 011 the arch
mtrados.
43
OPPOSITE LEFT
P.dcrOOrn. Cuhedral of
s.. Mafia,
44
ambulatory. In the west there is a singletower front, whilst the CaSt has a
small ,e.::tangular choir with a gallery. Although both buildings, Aachen
and Otunarsheim, have similar interiors, the detail at Ottmarsheim
reflects the ZeitgeIst of the Ollonian, and has abandoned any vestiges of
the classical idiom. The columns have cushion capitals, and the ind ividual
vaulted sections arc clearly separated by transverse arches. The impresSIon
of space has bl-come much more balanced and tranquil. The cenrral space
and ambulatory have bl-en gIven :1 strong interrelationship. Overall, the
building appears much simpler and more cubeshaped.
Towers and groups of towers
Inspired by the Aachen model, the western end of the church at
Ottmarsheim was given greater prominence by means of a tower. It was
not only at Ottmarsheim that towers were built during the Ottoman
period, but also at many other churches such as the small former monas
tery church of St. Cy riak in Sulzburg and the St. Luzius church in Werden.
Under Abbot Berno the west block of RelChenauMiltelzeli was built after
1006, a quadratic tower Structure, which is articulated by long lesenes and
semi-circular arcade friezes. At Trier cathedral under Archbishop Poppo
around 1040, the lOwers and apse were combined to form a west block
(photo. p. 23). T he result was a complex. richly articulated structure witb
four towers and central gable, in which the huge apse is framed by solid four
cornered towers with round staircase turrets attached.
One of the most impressive towers is surely that of the OUOl1lan
cathedral of Bishop Meinwerk III Paderborn Iphoto, p. 45}. According to
the latest research the whole west end was developed around 1220, and
not in the late Ottonian ptriod, as had previously bn assumed. I-I owe,cr,
the tower clcarly reproduces a previous Ottonian lOwer in structure and
outer appearance. DeSigned to draw attention to thc choir and the
cathedral, the powerful tower ascends dramatically witholll a plinth from
the ground up into the sky, flanked on Clther SIde up to half its height by
round stairway turrets. Above all it had 3 symbolic function, advertising
th ... importance of the bishop's church far out into the surrounding
countryside. This mighty edifice dominates the skyline of the town, almost
threaten ingly proclaiming who was the ruler over its inhabitants.
The collegiate church of St. Pat roklus in SacSt was also endowed wi th
JUSt such a mighty single tower shortly bl-fore 1200 (photo, p. 45 ). This
was, however, not ere.::ted by the canons, but by the cirizens who had
grown wealthy by means of trade and built to assert the independence of
the town from the canons. The tower contained the town armoury, and in
its narthex was the court porch and above it the counCIl chamber. Single
tower fronts, constructed particularly at the west end, were characreTlstic
of parish churches in the following centuries . .Bishops' or monastery
churches almost always had frollIs with double towers or west choirs.
The towers, which rose high above their surroundings, were able to
send a powerful and visible message. Dominating their area, they were
considerable statuS symbols, proof of who had rhe greatest influence in a
town. The citizens, by whatever means they had become rich, erected a
tower as a sign of independence from church domination of the land.
OPPOSITE
S~y .., Cathedral of St. MJria and St.
Stephan. V;'w from the northoeait
""
The im perial cath edral at Spe yer - a pio neer of va ulting in Germ any
According to Ordericus Vitalis, Spe)'er under the Salians ha:ame the
~Metropolis Germaniae,~ one of the most important places in the
medieval German Empire. Four Sal ian Empcror1' and two of their consorts
found their last resting places in [he cathedral. The monumen tal SPCrer
Cathedral was begun between 1027 and 1030 under Emperor Conrad I[
and was completed under Henry IV. After the heavy destruction inflicted
in the seventeenth century the building remained a ruin until the end of the
eighteenth century, when Ignaz Michael Neumann reconstructed the west
block in Classlcal-Romanesque style. I-I owe\'er, in 1794 the cathedral was
devastated again, and in the early nineteenth century was even earmarked
for demolition. It was only saved from destruction by a decree from
Napoleon_ In the nineteenth century Heinrich Hubsch carried OUI its
restoration, replaCing the western end with the westblock which still
stands today and which is faithful to the original Salian conception.
New research has established interesting information about the history
of the building of the medteval sections. 1be oldest part of the church,
begun between 1027 and 1030, is the east crypl, to whkh the towers
nankmg the choir and the foundations of an initial transept weTC added.
By around 1035 the above-ground construction was probably underway
with the completion of the sanctuary and transept. Betwccn 1035 and
1040 the piers of the na,e. initia ll y designed to be sho", were erected close
together, and the outer walls of the aisles and the barrel-vaulting of the
chancel were constructed. Only after 1045/47, after the death of Conrad
II, was the na,'e extended to its present length under Henry 111. A[ its
con5ration in I 061 the nave 5tion, the west front and the towers mUSt
46
-f u
I, - I
Sp<y .....a'heJ,.I,
ground
plan
MatIlZealhN .. !,
ground pl3n
48
already have been completed. Until recently it had been assumed that the
original Speyer Cathedral was designed only to have vaulting in the aisles,
but the latest research suggests that the building begun by Conrad II would
have had a huge transversc: barrel vault, spanning almost 45 feet,
if technical problems had not prevented itS execution. The planned
transverse barrel vault with wmdows al ils base was modeled on the
monastery church at Tournus in Burgundy. The reason for the architects'
failure was .he exceSSIve width of the nave. As the execution of the stone
barrel vaulting was unsuccessful, the building is likely to have been
spanned with a wooden vault, for only cross vaulting and relief would
have closed off the interior in a manner which was convincing and
appropriate to the design and construction of the nave walls.
Problems with the unstable underlying ground in such close proximity
to the Rhine must soon have led to damagl' to the building, as Emperor
Henry IV was forced to undertake fundamental renovation of the
cathedral soon after its consecration. The bishops Benno of Osnabriick
and later Otto of Bamberg were appointed to carry out the imperial
commission. In the second phase of building the choir and transept were
rebUIlt, although the original dimensions were entirely preser.'ed. The
major achievement was above all the successful vaulting of the nale.
Snong !estnes weTC attached to the wall projection on every other pier to
carry the barrel arches of the vaults. Broad semicircular w lumns with
Corinthian capitals were in turn placed on th ... lesenes and from these
sprang the transl'... rse arches dividmg the individual va ulted sections. The
na' ... is thus divided into six bays, each na,'e bay corresponding to two
aisl ... bays. T his relationship of the nave to the aisle bays is known in
German as the -gebundenes System.~ To the eastern side of the nave are
allached the transept. the forechoir, flanked by staircase turrets, and the
semi-circular apse, and to the western side is the west block, rebuilt In the
spirit of the Salian design concept.
Compared with SI. Michael's church at Hildesh ... im (photos,
pp. 40-41 ), Speyer Cathedral has walls of unprecedented solidity and
weight, The walls with their strong relief are richly modeled and
powerfully developed in all dimensions. Piers, which are terminated by a
simple cornIce, carry the nave arcading. o\'er which the clerestory windows
are for the first time brought into alignment. Even the windows of the
aisles are 011 the same axis. Such consistent articu lation had been absent in
OttOlliall architecture. The step of bringing into alignment all the windows
from the clerestory to the aisles was of the greatest significance for
subsequent architecture as it was only then that the valliting of a whole
na,'e became possible. This arrangement of windows along att aXIS unplied
a move towards a more vertical form of articulation and a declin ... in the
significance of the horizontal.
The large, flat semi-circular arch resses which surround the arcades
and windows .11$0 emphasi1.e the vertical articulation. TheS!' arch recesses
are repeated thirteen times in the nave. On the piers between the individual
bays there are semicircular projtions which rise from plinths with Attic
bases. T he semicircular pillars terminate in cushion capitals from whose
entablatures spring round arches framing the flat blind recesses of the
~b,n., Calhedr~1
wall. By dint of this system of articubtion the nave walls take on;l relief of
measure<! and sculptured volume. In thIs scheme the bltnd recesses serve to
hIghlIght the steepness of the upwardly strivtllg nave.
Modeling of the walls - blind rcresses and dwarf galleries
Despite the small alterations undertaken, the cast parts of Speyer Cathedral
arc still amongst the most impressive examples of medieval architectu re in
existence today. Res!X>nds which articulate the apse rise above a hIgh
plinth. The res!X>nds sup!X>rt semi-<:ircular arches above which there is a
dwarf gallery, an uninterrupted row of small column arcades which run in
front of a passageway JUSt below the edge of Ihe roof. The dwarf gallery
resumes above the transepts and the nave walls. I-ICTf", however, it is
divided rhythmically by !iections of wall which mark the bay separatIons.
Plinths, res!X>nds, blind arches and dwarf galleries all serve to model the
walls and detract from the heaviness of the upper parts of the building.
Previously a central !X>rtal opened out from Ihe nave into the west block. It
was nOt simply cut OUI of Ihe wall, bUI was recessed and narrowed
towards Ihe center (see p. 30). This recessed !X>rtal segmented Ihe wall into
several layers and 5("rved dearly to emphasize the solidity of the masonry.
This was the first use of such a recessed !X>rtal, but Ih is design sub
sequently appeared on almost all brger churches.
In 108 1 under Emperor Henry IV Ihe e,uhedral ,u Mainz wo" built, 3
.'"
basilica wilh a nave, aisles and groin vaults. The old cathedral, erected by
bIshops Wilhgis and Bardo, had burnt down in 1081. The new structure
was consecrated in 1137. The appearance of Ihe Salian western end of
Mainz Calhedral is not known. It is unclear whether there was ;I simila r
structure on Ihe sile of today's late Hohenstaufen west choir. At the east
end the nave terminates in a semicircular apse, whilst the aisles have flat
ends with flanking stair turrets from the firsl cathedral. In front of the apse
is bUIlt a square bay surmounled by a sail vaull. This appears as a tower on
the exterior of the building. This ground plan arrangement, similar to a
crossing, suggesls a transept, but in faci the twO aisles are continued on
both sides. Each of the five bays in Ihe nave corresponds to twO sligh tly
transverse rectangular bays in the aisles. Groin vaults span the aisl('s.
Originally Ihe nave was similarly vaulted, but Ihe Salian groin Yaults wer('
replaced by Gothic rib vaults. At Mainz vaulting of the nal'e was part of
the plan from Ihe very conception. This is clear from the cI('restory
windows, which are not aligned with the arcades. Instead they are
clustered in pairs and thereby take account of the vaulting. The nave walls
of Mainz Cathedral are articulated by shallow roundarched recesses
which risc above the nave piers and eXlend 10 just below Ihe clerestory
windows. On every other pier there is a semicircular pilaster, which
SUP!X>TlS one of the IranSI'crse arches of the nave vaulting. In comparison
wilh Speyer Calhoo rol Ihe articulation is much fl3tter 3nd relief-like, and 3S
49
~chieve
the tension
~nd
liveliness
50
bya rectangular wall. Later the flat chancel end was to become one of the
characteristic features of the so-called Hirsau School of Architttture. The
side aisles of the monastery church of Limburg-on-the-H aardt were not
vaulted as at SlXyer, but closed by flat ceilings, thereby remainmg truer to
the tradition of the monastery church. T here was a conscious decision not
to adopt the modem architectural form of the vault. The eastern parts of
the church are richly aniculated. Shallow recesses, showing less rdief than
in Speyer, rise above a plimh. Both liS rich exterior artICulation over a
plinth which runs around the buildmg, and the twin-tower front, make the
monastery church of Limburg-on-the-llaardt a typical example of Salian
architecture. T he whole building is given a monumental quality by
expansive aTliculation comparable to Speyer Cathedral. Nothing remains
here of the tranquil prostrate shape of Olton ian architecture, it has made
way for an upward striving for height.
After a catastrophiC fire the monastery church in Hcrsfdd was rebuilt
from 1038 onwards. Destroyed in the eighteenth century, it is amongst the
mOSt impressive monastery ruins in ~rmany (phOIO, left). The basilica
with nave and twO aisles has a projecting Roman transept In the east with
side apses, behind which the na,'e extends to form a long choir with :i
semi-circular apse, The na\'e was separated from the side aisles by nme
round_arche<l column arcades, wh~ ~rche-<: re<w<1 nn heavy ru<h,nn
capitals, In the west all elevated choir rose up, ilS raised apse situated
abo\<e a rectangular entrance hall. The entrance front and west choir were
IXrhaps combined here as a reference to the old concept of the westwork.
The nave of the church had a flat ceiling.
That is only one of several fealures of an older style present in the
Hersfeld church. Features which look back 10 previous ages, such as the
Roman transept, are not JUSt explained by the re-use of pans of the old
walls, but are a conscious borrowing from the paST. JUST as in Hcrsfcld, the
cathedral in Strasbourg had a long projecting transept, which was
reminiscent of the early Christian basilicas. The concept of the colonnaded
basilica is furthermore very much in the early ChriSlian tradition. Even
though many of the features of the Hersfeld monastery church may be
borrowings from the past, it is nevertheless \'ery much a church of its time,
and a creation typical of Salian architecture. Isolated motifs which refer
back to the past do not hide the fact that the essential overall nature of this
architecture is one which ~ddre$ses us in large forms which dearly rdate
to one another.
Rhenish School of Architecture - tn apsal choirs in Cologne a nd th e
Rhinel ~nd
The Rhineland became one of the most important centers for innov3tion
in architecture in the clc"emh century. In particular, the old bishop's
seat of Cologne devel0lXd into a Significant center of architectural
creation with SI. Maria im Kapitol as one of the principal artistic
highpoinls (photo, above). The construCiion of this church stands at the
beginning of what became known as the Rhenish School of Architecture.
The most striking feature of this church, which suffered ht;avy destruction
in the Second World War, is its ground plan which was conceived with an
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51
52
articulated by high, steep blind arcades. Deep windows have been cut into
the stone of the bll1ld recesses. Each layer has been wurked OUi of Ihe wall.
Towards the middle the articulation is accentualed WIth the central
window slightly higher and broader Ihan the laleral windows, producing
the effect of a delicate rhythm. The area above the upper windows is from
the I-Iohcnstaufen period, and dates from as late as the second half of Ihe
twelfth century. The individual parts are fine and created with Ihe greatest
care and attention. Particularly splendid and of monumental effect is the
accurately layered ashlar or square hewn masonr)'. OrigmatlOg in
Burgundy, it is one of Ihe earliest examples of its kind in Germany. In
Alsace this type of mason ry is also to be found at MarmoUlier
(Mauersmiinster), where one of the latest Romanesque western ends has
been preserved (photo, p. 54 left).
53
54
OPPOSITE
Alpir~bach,
S,.lIened""
BELOW
56
hulinzdla. monul~ryc"ur<:".
1I05~llIS. Wesl po"~1
Pau]LI,ull . rmn.of monaST"ychur<:h
from ,h~ ""mh "
57
58
59
here in enlivening the ~urface with ~mal! decoratlH' detail. Each indiVidual
shape or group, whether lesenes, roundarche<! friezes or blind arches, is
integrated into a unit of great streng,h and tension.
Masonry as a plastic material
This fondness for groups of towering structures is taken further in Worms
Cathedral, which was built shortly after J 120-30 {photo, p. 58}. The
whole building must have been complet~-d by J J8 J except for the west
choir. T he smallest and last of the three imperial cathedrals to be
completed, it is the most unified stylistically and the cleare"t example of
the late Staufen concept of architecture. The basilica with a nave and two
aisles is erected using the crossing square as a basis for the proportioning
of the building. that is to say, that there is a ratio of five square nal'e hays
to ten side aisle bays. In the east there IS a transcpt, which contmues ;nlO a
quadratic forechoir hay with a narrower, semi-circular apse. The east apse
is not viSIble on the exterior, because the east choir is closcd off by a
straight wall and flanke<! on the edges by round towers. In the west the
nave ends in a polygonal choir terlnlnation, which is also flan ked by round
towers. The latter lie in the line of ,he side aisles. The poliygonal choir
termination was a new fe;Hure, as until this time there had on Iy been semi
circular apses or fla t termina ted choirs. The polygonal choir is an
archite<:tural feature originating in France which only became widespread
60
P~I"r
an<!
In 1237
61
llal""rst~dl,
L",bfrautnklfcht.
x . . .atiui.
In Ihis ,hurch, galleries hay~ been inserted between the arcade level and
the clerestory. Each gallery has rhree ;lrc;adcs resting on a pair of colonneuts, each contained within a flat round-arched r~ess. Many influences
coincide in Basel, as the upper Rhine tradition here merges with the
influences from France and Italy. In this way something distinctive has
emerged: a heavy, powerful space which is typical of the SI3ufcn
architeCTure of the upper RhllIc. The galleries of Bm;d cathedral indeed
influenced the cathedrals in Slrasoourg and Freiburg. The latter is
indebted to Rasel for its Romanesque east parIs.
Bound by tradit ion - the centre and east of Germany
In 1237 the imposing new Suufen cathedral at Bamberg with its many
towers was consecrated (figure, p. 61 above). The cruciform basilic:l With
an eastern crypt and western transept h:ls a double choir. Whilst in the eaSt
choir lone Romanesque forms arc able to express themselves freely and the
masonry is articulated with typical sculptural richness, the w<'"Stern choir
has adopted forms from the early French (;Qthic. The east apse. nave
pediment and slim eastern towers are built up over a high plinth. Semicircular in its lower area and polygonal above, the richly articulated' apse
has wide windows on each side of the polygon. In the molded window
intudos there are colonnettes with astragals winding around the arches.
The hollow moldings of the window inrr:ldos are filled with spheres and
roseTtes. These small. corporeal forms of decQT:ltion model the walls and
lend great expressive power to the buildmg. The n:lve. whost proportioning is based on the crossmg square module, is vaulted with six or four
part ribbing. The hea"y uniform areas of wall combine with the vaults to
form a space which conveys considerable power and might. The interior
thus has :ltt austere, serious char:lcter compared to the exterior which
projects joyfully upwards.
Around 1140 the Liebfrauen church in Halberstadt was rebuilt, although
the older parIS in front of Ihe nave which resembled a westwork were
preserved (photo, above). The building exhibits some architectural motifs,
which :lre indebted to the I-Ilrsau style of architecture, such as an e:lst choir
with chapels in echelon, or the pier arcades, which do not join directly to
the crossing. bill are separated from the crossing arches by a short strip of
wall. The basilica with nave, sides aisles and transept has a square
forechoir which is accompanied by side choirs. Semi-<:ircular apses are
attached to the main choir, the side choirs and the east walls of the
transepts. The walls of the nave with its flat ceiling rest on piers which
have an almost imperceptible rhythm. Both square and rectangular piers
are used, creating a very subtle alternation of supports. Moreover, there is
very little wall anicul:ltion. Only the east parts of the church are vaulted.
The still persisting traditions of Ottonian :lrchitecture, such :lS the alternation of supports and fl:lt ceilings, are combined with southern German
influences, suc h as, for example, in the eastern parts of the church with the
architecture of the Hirsau School. That this variant of southern German
:lrchitecture should be emulated is significant, since it is this monastic
architecture which kept alive the fbt ceiling basilica. The same applies to
the collegiate church of 51. Servatius in Quedlinburg {figure, opposite,
62
bottom) which used .he same S3Xon alternallon of supportS .secn at St.
M.chael III H. ldeshe.m.
The basilIca of St. Godeha.d in HildeshC lln, built from] ]30 to 1172
WIth a na,'e and twO aisles, also uses the double alternation of supports of
St. M,chael. Of particular arChlteclUra]lInponance IS the chOIr (photo,
p. 25), since ,hIS was the first IInloe m Germany thai an ambulatory with
apSldal chapcls (c~\'et) was buIll surroundmg the chOIr. The sources of
msp.rallon for thIS ambulatory are 10 be found m French architecture,
where the chent had been known smce the tenlh century. 51. Godehard
rem;lIns a umque example of thiS m Germany. It was not unlillhe Gothic
age thaI ambulatonl'S of thIS type were used agam, and then it was under
the d, rect mfluence of French architecture.
I.ale Staufcn Archilec1ure on the Rhine - the inl craction wilh France
A la.e stage of 51'aufeD architecture IS exemphfied by the monastery church
of 51. I'eter and Paul in KOlllgs!uller, bUIlt between 1135 and t~ late twelfth
century by Emperor loIhar (phOlO, ab()\'e len). 1be choir and tr.msept are
grom vaulted. On the one hand, the ground plan with twO lateral chOIrs
flankmg the mam structure follows the pallem of the Hlt$;lu School,lhallS
an anlNmperial concept of bUlldmg. On the Olher hand, [he nch anlcubuon clearly shows the WIll of the Impenal chent rommlSSlOllmg t~
build mg. 1be delailed articulation of lhe mam apse m the eas' IS 'YPlcal of
the late nyle of Smufen archItecture. The amcu lation is generously endowed with responds and round-arched frines, and the walls arc sculp
tured 111 their style. The imperial authority is ex pressed in the cbSSlcal
ornamentation. which, as in Speyer Cathed ral, was created by
Lombardlan SlOne masons.
St. Klemens In Schwan.rhclndQrf near Bonn was orogmally bUIlt by the
Cologne archbIShop Arnold "on WiN as a palatmechapelaround 1150, but
63
lkud-Sch"'~rzrMln.dorf,
pat.1I11C ,huf\'Ch
OPPOSITE
64
wmdows on the uppcr I('\"d of the huildmg has acquired a STyle of ilS own.
The wllldows Me no longer SImply round-ar<:hed, bUT qUire unusual 111 their
form'_ 31m<K1 mann",i" on "yle, ~nd q,,~'refoil or fan-sh~ped.ln ,he la.er
arChllKtUr(' of the Lower Rhone such window shapes arc commonly laken
up agam and vanatlons created.
The extenor art",ulallon of Ihe mlllster at Bolin (photo, p. 66) shows
further development and pcrfecllQII. Its cast cholT wilh semi-circubr apse
was compl('ted III 1166, wh.lst Ihe oonSlrUCtlon of the Transept, na,e and
seml-circular west cholT enclosed III a rectangubr wallloole unl11 1224.
The towers and apse rose from a songle high plinth, whIch togelhcr WIth Ihe
blond arch" of the tWO stor('ys abo,(' I('nd a Ulllly TO Ih(' ustem end. The
tOP of the apse is crowned by a dwarf gallery, In Ih(' IIItenor Ihe eaSI chotT
appcaB low and heavy, wh.lsi Ihe na"e on comrast is graceful and well-iiI.
ThIs is achl('\'ed by Ihe "dd'IlOIl of a blmd mfonum betWC'CII th(' wide-
66
These archI tectural ideas at tained ,heir full flowering III St. Aposteln
(photo, p. 53) and St. l'. lartin Ihe Great (photo, p. 64) in Cologne. The
archittural origins of these sacred buildings are to be fOllnd in Ihe
Cologne Iradi lion, as is evident in both churches; for example, the idea
of Ihe trichora (doverleaf pattern) from SI. Maria lin Kapital was
laken up again. The former collegiale church of SI. Martin the Great was
built in place of the church burnt down in 1150 and was consecra ted
in 1172.
T he Ihree conch apses wilh their shorl barrel-vaulred forebays are
grouped around the square crossing, over which the massive tower rises
with its four accompanying slim octagonal staircase turrets. Before the
extension of the cathedral towers In Ihe nineTeenth centu ry, Ihis Tower
dominated the skyline of Cologne. T he nave and side aisles appeaT as a
mere annex in comparison to the huge eastern end with ils high towers.
Round-arched blind arcades divide the conch apses in to three storeys.
Dwarf galleries over a plate frieze, which run all around the eastern parts,
unIte the different partS of the building. The flchness of the articulation
increases towards the top of the building. Characteristic of these generously artIculated Cologne churches is their twolayered wall construction,
which shapes both their interior and exterior. The heavy walls are thereby
afforded Iheir necessa ry solidity, but al the same time appear light. T his
efft of lightness is inc reased at the crossing and towards the ceiling
by the use of recesses o r passagewa),s behind "rches. This kind of wall
67
VIew
68
G.,.,.... "~bi).,r.
Maulbronn. former
monastcry arca and galil
"
70
.~:'"'\~-.~~-:-!l'.~
....,:- '":;
____
~"<-.J
..
-~
71
otITER LEFT
site. The cmbossed stone masonry, which lent Ihc bUildings their monumcntal and defensive appearance, is very typical of must Staufen casiles.
The castle at Landsberg in Alsace was constructed around Ihe middle of
the Iwelfth century and is largely walled in embossed stone {photo, left).
The upper floor of Ihe 'paJas' ruin has a series of four small roundarched windows and an oriel wilh a round-arched frieze. The ground plan
aI Ulrichsburg at Rlbeauville has been complelely adapted to the mountainous site. Extended m the twelfth century with the addition of, amongst
other things, a h'Cp, it ranks as one of the best exallipies of Staufen castle
building (photo, opposite).
Town archlle<=rure is juSt as much an imponant featurc of the laic
Romanesque period as castle construction. Until the early twelfth century
there were few towns in Germany. They mostly owed thcir existence to a
bishop's seat or important merchant settlement. These towns had grown
up over long periods of time without any dellberatc pianning. This
changed at the beginning of the twelfth ccntury, whcn for the first time
since antiquity new towns were founded and erecled according to clead)'
designed plans. The most importaut princdy families of the time, the
Staufer, the Guelphs, and the Zahringer, founded new tOwns to consolrdate their territories and endowed them with rich privileges. The most
impressi\'e towns were those founded by rhe Zahringer, which included
72
Freiburg im Breisgau, Villingen, Munen and Fribourg.lt was not umil the
middle of the twelfth century that the Staufer followed their example with
towns such as Schwabich Gmund, RCUIlingen and Haguenau. In their turn
the Guelphs created Uhn, and Henry the Lion founded Lubeck.
The Zahringer towns were planned in the shape of a large oval,
surrounded by Slrong walls wirh gateways and towers. A wide market
streel, o r twO main StreetS intersecting each other :It right angles, determmed the layoul of the IOwn. At the ends of theM' streets stood the town
g.1tes. Parallel or perpendicular to the main srreets were the side STreets,
behind which in turn lay the tradesmen's alleys. The main streets were of
course used to hold large markers. Finally, space was left between the
houses for Ihe church and its graveyard.
Few Romanesque dwelling houses remain preserved, as they were
largely of h3lf-timbered construction. A small number of buildings made
of stone or wood have survived, .1I0wing us at least a small insight into the
house buildmg lechniques of the rime. AnlOngstthe oldest are the so-called
Romanesque house m Bad h'lunstereifel (pholO. left above ), which dates
from 1167/68, and the former hall courtyard in ObcrhhnSletit from
1160170. Also of interest is an imposing SlOne house on Ihe pilgrim roUl~
at Obernai in Alsace, with groups of double windows with trefoil arche~,
which dates from around 1220. Yet anorher example is the so-called
Romanesque house (late twelfth centu ry) al Rosheim in Alsace which is a
tower-like construction wilh embossed corner-SloneS. In some German
towns impressive reSIdential towers from the late RomanC"5que period have
SUTVtI"OO, SIKh as in Rcgensburg where the so-called Baumburg Tower {photo,
left) dales from the th ird quarter of the thirfccnth century. The Yellow
House in Esslingcn, a four-slOrey late Romanesque tower with a square
ground plan, was construcred around t 260. Its embossed Slone fa,~ades
boast WIndows with pointed arches. Finally, cenain half-timbered houses
in Esslingen. Bad Wimpfen and Schwab,sch I-Iall have been shown to date
from Ihe laIC Rotltanesquc period. This was proved by employing SCientific
techniques to determine the age of the wood used in their construction.
RIb<~u,,IIe.
UI,,,ltsburg. E.."lf
,wdhh-lhlt,<"tn,h <"tn,ury
rUIn ofTrlfd., Ann_,ie ,he
,oy.1 fo",f".IIOn of ,h. S.. ufen
.&"~ and for 3 ,,,n. ,h. 1'1"". ",he", the
tm~fI.1 1"_1,
k~p<. Wdl '0_'
('x""",,, leh), ch.pel ofld (Mar Irh)
Cml~
~fintS'
Vi.'"
73
Alick McLean
Romanesque architecture
in Italy
build,ng
Borro.\!
R,,,.nna (Emilia Romagn,, ).
mau""kum ofG.lla !'Iacid,a.
c. 425-450
elements and details that include simple ~olumetTic massing and the open
o. bli"d arch, for i"stance at the Mausolea of T heoderic (photo, lOp left)
and Galla Placidi., and unornamented exterior bll1tressing piers, such as
at San Vital~. Thcir interiors and exteriors are similarly de.::orated with
arcading, such as at the Baptistery of the Orthodox at R",enna (photo,
top right), and with mosaic work. T he latter con tinued to be executed in
Italian Romanesque and even Gothic churches up 10 the thirteenth century
and beyond, dUl' to the lIlf1uence of the mosaic workshop tradition in
JuSllnian's other, and primary, residence, ConSTantinople, and through the
western Byzantine offshOOT of that workshop, the mosaicists of San Marco
in Venice.
The argume"t here is nOt, however, that Ravenna was the exclusive
font of Romanesque halian architecture, but rather that there was a
plurality of re.::ognizable sources from di~erse moments and places in
antiquity. Types originating from the city of Rome itself, whether the
b:lsilical section or cruciform pbn of St. Peters. or elen earlier pagan
temple facades and drcular, Pamheon plans, were often overlaid over one
another. as in Arezzo Cathedral. A third distinct SOurce was also present,
that of :lnother great dty of Christian antiquity,Jerusalem.
The story Ihat follows explores the variety of ways that different
patrons adopted, mixed and trans formed these prototypes over time and
across the diverse landSC:lpe of the halian peninsula. Sicily and Sardinia.
Again, as at Areuo, the fi nal package produced from th is assortment of
heteTOgeneous models appears to have been drive" nOT only by formal or
75
OPPOSITE
SOTIO~t
'W,
s..w
77
Northern Ital y
The area to the north and west of Ravellila proved to be the starting poun
for the revival of Rom an and Ravenesque architecture in Italy. Patrons and
architects adopted and transformed di\'e~ forms over time in response to
divugent patrons and publics. The dty that retained the strong..-st ties of
any halian city with Byzantine cuhure, Ven ice, shows in its archite.:ture
simultaneous tendendes linking it to Justinian and earlier antique
traditions and also of establishing a distinctly local character, nOl only
regarding const ruction and forms, but even ill the programs of its
buildings. lbe primary church of Venice was, and still is, not a cathed ral,
but rather the palatine chapel for the elected secular ruler of the city; the
Doge's chapel of St. Mark's, begun in 1063. Its plan and interior (figure,
p. 76) show a fusion of the clarity of the centralized S(:heme of San Vitale
with the multiple domes of Hagia Sophia and particularly of Justinian 's
five- and six-dome Greek cross designs for the Hol y Apostles in
Constantinople and for SI. John the Evangelist in Eph..-sus. T he significant
difference from any model is the rel ation of the church to its setting, Piazza
San Marco, visible in the 1204 depiction of St. Mark 's the entry portal
mosaic (photo, bottom left ). Not only does it draw a broad S(:rttn of
inviting arches across the east end of the great space, but it then
78
ill
".
communicates its constellation of interior cupobs across the city with the
quincunx of domes projecting high above the rooftops of the adjoin ing
urban fabric. Both inside and out, the church appears as a glistening
reliquary, appropriate for the re.:ently stolen relics of St. Mark, whisked
away from Alexandria in the ninth century by Venice's true source of
power, its merchant adventurers (pirates). The accessibility and visibility of
these relics, around which the new church was built, made them and the
church the common identity of the emire city, not JUSt of its ruler or bishop.
The unique program and open, inviting character of SI. Mark's is a hint
aT the son of the fusion of architectural, social, political and religions
innovations That was 10 be re~ated in institutional architt'cture in haly.
These innovations, together with The funds for Romancsque Italian
building campaigns, can largely be attributed to the growing number and
importance of merchants throughout the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
The early and forceful presence of merchants along the Adriatic coast even
led the region's monasteries to be constructed and admin istered as much
for the laity as for the cloistered monastic brethren, in marked contrast to
contemporary abbeys across the Alps. South of Venice, by the mouth of
the Po, Benedictine monks constructed a settlement at Pomposa (photo,
top}, between the ninth and eleventh centuries. As in the earlier
m.
Northern Spain, the Rhine valley, eastern France and Norm,lIldy, and even
as far afield as Hungary and Dalmatia.
The success of Ravennesque galleries, blind arcades, corbe! tables,
buttresses and brickwork under and after Ih e lombards was based on a
mixture of pragmatic, political and symbolic reasons. Although records or
remains of extensi,'e building programs initiated by Ihe lombard kings
and dukes are scarce, from early on the precocious governillg apparatus of
the lombards out of their capital 3t Pavia showed a d ear respect for, and
willingness to protect. the building profession. In 643 the lombard King
Rotharis regi steroo Ihe privileges of builders. In 714, King liutprand
promulgated a graduJted list of prices to be paid for buildings and
construction work. These legal provisions indicate a support for new
construction and renovalion across the lombard kingdom, which by King
liutprand's reign included nearly all of Italy. Such legislatil'e protection
favoroo the development of what King Rotharis called the ~magistri
comacini," or building masters, as a coherent, trainoo corps of lombard
builders. These master masons would not have been limitoo 10 those
originating from Como, fTOm which the term "comacini" may derive, but
79
(Em,Ii. Romagna ),
church .nd bar"SI~ry of
San Giovan",. Founded in 1008
Vigolo
Marc~
monas(~ry
80
r.1I~r to
81
OPPO.ITF.
82
.o",h "''fit
and 10 be ada pled and varied, even In (he regions of Lombardy, Ermlia
Romagna and (he Venelo, Sant'Abbondlo In Como was reconsecrated as a
Benedicline abbey church In 1095, concluding Ihe construction of an all
stone version of Lombard Romanesque archnecture (phOIO, opposlle). It
was begun as early 35 1027 wllh an ambitious fi,'e'alsle plan and a dp,
precociously rlbva ulted apse. Its twin lOwers anticipale the second lOwer
of SanfAmbrogio by at leastthr decades, Ihough Iheir symmetry shows
Ihat Ihey were nOI looking only TO Rome, but also 10 the great
contemporary Frellch monaslC."ry of Cluny.
I'avia's 5;\11 Michele, bUilt between c. 1100 and 1160, is another van
31ion on Ihe regional an;hitectural vocabulary (photo, opposite), with its
la rge pediment spanning Ihe en lire fa~ade, 35 al SallfAmbrogio" but agam
rend ered in Slone, richly scu lpted on Ihe f3~adc, and wilh dp arcades
following Ihe slope of liS roofline. This same model is follo"'ed at the
lWelnh-cenrury calhedral of Parma. wllh Its octagonaltwelfth./thirtnth
century baplislery deploying an even more plastic rendering of its
elevations and intenor" wllh mull1ple Slories of trabe31ed galleries
surmounted by elegant arcades defining Ihe lermmalion of liS elghl wall
surfaces. The single.bay porch of the cathedral of Parma compresses Ihe
elaoorale sculplUral figurallon of Pa via mto a remarkable representation
of the monlhs of the year. repealed al Ihe bapl1stery. Similar porches and
sculplUral schemes appear as well al l\'lodena's Porta della Peschena and
Ferrara's Porta del l\ lesl, 10 mentIon a few.
The slrongly sculptural nalure of eleventh and twclfth-century
Romanesque churches along Ihe Po "alley should be secn In Ihe same IJght
as their counterparts In the north, such as Hildesheim's St. Michael or
84
BOTTOM
"m
empathetic, with their scenes of the dally actiVIties of both peasant and
village,
The shift in sculptural figuration from th e famastic and even
threatening figures of the elevellth ce1llury to the more empathetic ones in
the twelfth was paralleled by changes in archite<:tural design, The usc of
pilasters and blind arcad~ that had characterized earlier Romanesque in
Italy ba:ame more complex, developing more and more from a structural
system to onc cxpressi\'e of harmonic order, Such a shift was consistent
with chang~ in musical composition at the time and with the cuhure of
trade, no longer barter, bill based on abstract, proportional systems of
major and minor monetary values, such as lire, soldi, and denari.
One a"hite<tural example of this development is Verona's San Zeno,
an urban Benedictine monStery and church built in its current form
between 112] and 1135 (photo, top left), Its hislOriated bronze doors and
nanking marble relief panels comain, subdivide and control figurati\'e
scenes imo narratil'e sequences rela ting SlOries of the Old and New
Testame1ll, Ostragothic kings and Carolingian sagas. The \'ertical pilasters
and piers of the fa~ade, the side elevations and the campanile similarly
subdivide the eXlerior walls, providing three levels of phrasing and
rhythm, from the three bays of the main fa~ade, to the four- and eight.bay
rhythms of the side and central bays, 10 the horizontal Slriation of the side
ele,'alions and campanile, San uno is the logical development of the
Lombard Romanesque structural innovations, now transformed from the
simple readings of planes, gables, roonine arcades, atria and towers into a
complex layering of major and minor themes. like the musical nOfation
developed by Guido d'Arezzo at the ne3rby Benedictine house of Pomposa
100 years earlier, Ihe horizontal and vertical marks of San uno provide an
85
[]
P.rma !F_J'lIlIl> Roonagno l, "'<il fa{;ldo of
and """".,ery
e_ .
t -
o
""",,10.-
86
.-e
._e_. e...
I
~,
OPPOSITE
'$m
~rch"'ohs
Mod~na
88
89
.O"-O.\llll(arr
t.320
BorrO.\lI.f.FT
Rome. San
CI~men!~.
c.
lIOO.ln!~"Of
.,~W
..... ,,'ury.
Ch.ncti
rhythm of Ihrees. which o rg."lnt2es the crypt's cult of S:llnt Gemilli~no. Ihc
city's first bishop. The order, and even classicism, of Moden~ Cathedral
tell of the continuous scnlement of the area and strong connection fO the
Roman p~St- a pas! also prescm al Verona, but less explicidy at San Zeno.
The linkage of Ihe crypt of Modena to ItS elevallons leads the .:hurch to
forge a different relation with liS public from that at San Zeno, less
surprising Ihe laitr with the world of the crrpt than adl'eTfising its enti re
sacred iden-tity fO all the spaces surroundl1lg the church. }\n extraordinarily rich documentation of the cathedral's construction process
suggests why Modena Cathedral may haw had a differem relatllon to the
laIty: from the beginning of its construction process they appea r 10 have
been inl'olvcd_ By shordy after 1115 the lairy had established a free
commune and were voting 111 their consular meetings on malters rt:garding
the construction of the cathedral. The product of their joint efl'OTfS with
the clergy. the architl'Ct Lanfrancus. sculptor Wihgelmo, ilnd their
countess. the famous Mathilda of Canossa. established a new paradIgm
for the region. perhaps on the baSIS of its stylistic innol'ations, bllt more
likely for practical reasons: It appears to have been the only church along
the Po valley, albeit incomplete, to hal'e withstood the great eaTfhquake of
1117. which damaged severely or destroyed the cathedrals of Cremona,
Piacenla, Parma. and most of the other structures thaI we have .examined
in the regIon.
Rome and Tuscany
The use of arches al Modena links it to contemporary and earlier chllrchcs
bllilt across Ihe Apennines. in Tuscan y. before and under Ihe rille of
Mathilda of Canossa. who controlled Tuscany and milch of Emilia
Romagna from 1069 to 1115.llke San Mmiatoal f-Ionte ,n Florence.l'isa
Cathedral, and numerous olher Tuscan churches of the time, Modena
91
92
a""'.
Flor~""'.
Sail
..; L.
M,",~!oall>lon!~. Im~,ior
.~ .
. ...., ,4
' .'
.: r
9J
~I"m~
80'ITOM
94
N",,' Romanq1K
onw;.,.ds. \th. fa{adc
95
~~mp"mlt on ,~Dmpo
106J-1J50
"
presbytery within the nave, this temple door is visible to the faithful, hUI
appears unreachable, hovering above and out of reach. Only the nave of
the church and the crypt remain accessible, providing the intercessionary
powers both of St. Minias attd of the clergy celebrating the EuchariSt in the
presbytery above his altar. The message both within and outside the
church is the same: salva tion is rich and beautiful. but accessible only
through the hierarchy of the church and the veneration of saints.
The imagery of a splendid paradise - of the Celestial Jerusalem rendered in classical arcades and rich pol~'chrome marbles became the
common theme of churches along Tuscany's own ma;or river valley, the
Arno. It also appears in Florence itt the Baptistery. in the Vescnvado, in
Santo Stefano 31 Ponte, and itt the church of 55. Apostoli as well as in the
Badia in Fiesole. As it proceeds along the valley it becomes fused with
other motifs. whether the zebra stripes of San Zen" or the deeply sculptural rendition of surfaces characteristic of l'isan Romanesque architecture_ In each case the effect is to animate the cityscape wi,h ,he same
conflated unages of classical antiqu ity and salvation that had previously
been contained within the apses or crypts of earlier or northern churches.
Even the remote chapel of San Galgano at Monte Siepe, built around
1185, projects its interior sn iping Onto the cylin drical drum of i,s ex terior
(pho'o, p_ 94, lop), constructing the same richness of its marble neighbors
wilh alternating bands of brick and while stone.
The largest-scale expressioll of Tuscan Romanesque is at Pisa's cathe-
97
"lew
Santa M.n.
drIb ri ..c.
Ground pion
98
and Jerusalem's most sac red site on the Temple Mount. The circle and line
composition of Pisa's baptistery and Cathedral ech()(Cs that al the Temple
Mounr"s HaramalSharif, or Noble Sacred Enclosure, where the centrally
planned Dome of the Rock. known to the Pisans and crusaders as the
Temple of the Lord, aligns with the basilical Mosque of AI-Aqsa. then
called the Temple of Solomon. At the time of its completion the Pisan
complex would have even been morc splendid than its Holy Land
prototype, with its pol)'chromatic imarsia, marble and richly sculpted
elevations gleaming like that other Jerusalem of Revelation, the Heavenl y
Jerusalem, which John describes as studded ill precious stone, The other
structures added to the complex onl y amplified the Campo dei Miracoli's
gold presence, transforming an entire area of the city into an outdoor
reliquary with the elldless arches of the J 174 leaning tower, and with
earth, excavated and transported b)' the Pisans from Golgotha, lining the
burial ground of the 1278 Campo Santo.
The power of Tuscan Romanesque churches assured their adoption
beyond the ooundaries of the region. Both Pisan traders and Camaldolese
and Vallombrosian missionaries transported the rich classicizing elevations and polychrome interiors to port cities on the Tyrrhenian sea as far as
Sardillia, whether at 5.111 Pictro Sorres ill Bont1fa or Nostm Signora di
Tergu at Castelsardo (photo, p. 99). San Pietro Sorres in Borutta was
erected between 11 70 and 1190 on the foundations of a1\ earlier church
from the previous century. It fuses Pisan motifs of rotated squares in arches
] 170-90. Apse:
99
6 ... I;ct;ne
mona,.~1')'
of San.' An,imo
OPPOSITE
100
102
the Cistercians were to use, but where the Cistercians and later wlhic
architects were to claborate this la)'ering through "enical SlruCl'ural units
interlaced by ribs and rib vaulting, the architc<:ts of 5ant"Amimo render
Iheir layers as so man)' peeled away skins of smooth stone. The side
elevations are supported With Lombard, even proto-Gothic piers, r~pidly
proceeding bf-tween each window as they move to the apse. As they arrive,
howe\'er, something extraordinary happens: the wall surface breaks free
from Ihe ,trucrural rhythm, supported father by the most fundamental
architectural reinforcement, the curve, T he ground-level radialing chapels
provide the only visible buttressing for the ambul:Hory's vast sensuous are,
above whoS(" terracotta roof tiles rises Ihe sanctuary's exposed S("micyll11drical form.
Sa11l'Antimo is the swan-song of Ihe greal medinal monasteries of
Ihe Benedictine rule in Italy, Though followed in the region by other
masterpieces by Ihe Cistercians themselves, such as San Galg:nno in the
early thirteenth century, none matches the unity, force and s<:ale of its
impact_ Signs of the waning of ils era are already visible al Sam 'A11Iimo's
fa"ade, left incomplete to this day, with one of its elaborate portals p13ced
instead, according to Raspi-Serra, at the nearb)' church of San Quirien
d'Orcia. Despite Ihe subsequent efforts of Ihe Cistercians, the tide of soo:;ial
and religious change was away from the countryside and increasingly
towards Ihe ell)" where many communities of all sius were i.westing the
equtvalem of an abbot'. wealth in the construction of their loo:;al churches
and cathedrals.
Umbria
The churches of Assisi and Spoleto (photo, top) are a few examples of Ihe
d,,'elopme11l of Romanesque architecture in Umbria, to the soulh and cast
of Tuscany, The chronology of San Ruffino at Assisi reflc<:ts the history of
Umbrian RomanC>ue architccture and intimates the eventual displacement of Italian Romanesque by the Gothic. The church dates from a
Mparva basilica ~ from Ihe eigh th centur)" which provided a modest selling
for the remains of the tOwn's patron saim, the third-century mart)'r
Rufino, Around 1028 Bishop Ugone replaced thiS with another structure
and. by 1035, established it as the cathedral of Assisi_ One hundred years
later, around 1134, Bishop Clarissimo hirt'<l Giovanni da Gubbio 10
replace this basilica wi th Ihe far larger one that stands on the sitt today.
The fa~ade of the church regi sters the work of Giovanni da Gubbio at its
lower ponion, with a triple rhythm of larger bays subdivided by a second
uiple rhythm III each bay, The horizolllal and vertical subdivisions of the
fa~ade pbne recall the designs of 501n Zcno, which was begun eleven years
earlier, although Ihe verticals dominate the lancr more dramatically and
103
OPPOSITE
li>","ni.1 (latium), San Pi~[fo. Begun
towards I"" end of Iheelov.mh nlury.
lXI,,,] of '''''
f.,.de
..
wilh a cons is lent rhYlhm. San Rufin o instead has an equivalent bias of
horitontal and vertical divisions, which form a grid that seems to run as a
layer behind the more structural "ertical burtress.cs providing the major
fa~ade subdivisions. This grid is si milar to Ihat employed at San Pietro
fuori Ie Mura at Spoleto, though again Ihe laner is more regular in its
subdivisions, neatly framing its remarkable sculpture (photo, p. 307). At
the lowl""r fa~ade of San Rufino Ihe sculplure is concentrated on the
portals, with thl"" wall surfaces ornamented only by the superunposed grtd.
Rather than serving as frames for figures, the panels of this grid respond to
the si7.e of the portals, whkh push for thems.cl,es a wider space at the
center of each of the three main f.,ade panels. As at Sant'Anllmo,
architecture is the primary expressive medium, nOt sculpture. Instead of
layering skins, San Rufino develops layers of Lombard ooy syStemS,
pushing it beyond the abstract consistency of s'1n uno into a similarly
expressive language as at Modena or San Miniato in Florence. III each of
these churches, a syncopated rhythm of threes reinforces the primary
fUllction of the west fa~ade: the expression of passage.
The dassicism of this rhythmic system is repeated on the laler upper
fa~ade and echoes a similar dacissim wiThin !he earlier church crypt. The
three Gothic ros.c windows vary in sIze from edge to center, and ahgn
precIsely above theIr respective portals, as if to recapitulate the imagery of
passage by penetrating the church with circular arc of lighl. The pointed
arch framed within the tall pediment crowning the fa,ade is again Gothic.
but with broad dimensions that are in character with the spacious
proportions of the reSt of the fa~ade. The TWO dividing corbel tables and
miniature blindarcade galleries restrain any vertical potemial m the
upper-Storey GoThICism and maimain the clear overall Image of a temple
front overlaid with a ground-storey triumphal arch cmry. It tS not
n<xessary to look as far as San Miniato o r Empoli's ColiegiaTa for the
source of this imagery. but raTher to The nearby market piazza, where the
0.lrimhian columns and pediment of the ancil""nt Roman Temple of
Minerva stand to this day as an explicit model for the o"erall form and
absTracted poTl!CO of San Rufino's fa~de.
The earlier crypt of San Rufino is e,'en more explicit in its classicism,
with most of its columns classical spolia, and even the scat of the bishop,
according to traduion the burial place of San Rufino, a Roman sarcophagus. The magic of San Rufino and of so much Umbrian Romal'tsque
architecture is that this classicism in composi tion and in details by no
means exdudes the homunculi of sculptu ral imagination. but rather freely
accommodaTes them. as does the upper Gothic fa~ade. Figurations of the
E~angelists are painted in the early Ugon ian crypt and then repeated in
sculptural form around the central rose window. They confuse any eas)"
notion of progress from figure to abstraction, and rather emphasize that
even at the time of The constrUCTion of The basilica of SI. Francis, when the
upper fa~ade was completed, creatures from the primitive world could
share and even support the International GothIC. A close look at the base
of the central rose window reveals, indeed, one of two famous
Romanesque Umbrian reinterpretations of classical caryatids.
The other caryatids support another rose window at another Umbrian
105
Vitw
cathedral, that of Spolcto, south~ast of Assisi. That these two statues are
framed by carefully carved miniature Corinthian columns and capitals
makes it clear that Umbrian sculptors and 3T(hilecrs wcrc well ~ersed in
their antique models already in the twelfTh and thirteenTh centuries. As at
Assisi, wiTh iTS Temple of Minerva, the patrons and artists of Spoleto we re
blessed with impressive antique modds, the Temple of C lilUnno and the
palco-Christian church of San Sal~atore . The early thirteenrh<entury
mosaic of Christ above th is rose window re,'eals the same inSTinct that
guided The architl'Cts of the last phase of San M iniato 31 Monte in
Florence, who similarly broadcast an image of Christ for the entire town
to see. The diverse sources for the design of the cathedral, from Assisi to
paleo-Christian to Roman and Vemetian mosaicists suggest a rich,
vibT3nt artistic culture in The city du ring the Romanesque period, which
only grew in intensi ty after the sack of the town by Frederick Barbarossa
in I 155. A conTinuous classical building tT3dit ion in the area from distant
antiquitr made such a culture possible. This building tradition was in
!Urn sustained, as at Milan and ['avia, by the active presence of a
powerful Lombard seat in the Duchy of SpolelO. Br the tenth century the
advent of the Carolingians led to the shift of power from the Lombard
dukes to impe rially and papall}' appoimed bishops, who even occupied
the same palaces as their secular Lombard predecessors up to the
thirteemh cenlUry.
The Lombard history of Spoleto is best recorded architeclUrally in the
gem-like church of Santa Eufemia (photo, tOp left), Here, in the middle of
Umbria, sta nds a twelfth<enrury church that serves as a text-book
example of Northern Lombard design prinCIples, from the triple apses to
the pilaster strips and corbel tables stiffening the exterior elevations. Its
106
In
10'13.
f.,.dt
well. The reason for such northern influences so far south in Ihe heel of Italy
is simply the ocean, which providl rapid conveyance 10 and from areas far
mOT(" remOle than the 1'0 or Amo valleys. Indeed, Ihe palrOnS of San Nicola
.11 Bari were perhaps the most capable and faNanging seafarers in the
world, namely Norsemen, or Normans. from their recenlly established
Duchy of Normand)'. By 1041 Ihey had arrived 311he shores of Puglia, by
1059 the Nonnan Robert Guiscard was anointed Duke of Puglia and
Glabria, and by 1063, his Normans had extended their territOr) to include
Sicily. Their Norman French origins, howe"er, are less preselnl in their
Apulian and Sicilian architecture than other influences. The first and mOSI
importam inspiralion In the case of Bari was Saint Nicholas him >elf. whose
remains Ihe Normans transported from Asia Minor in 1087. Two years bter
they beg,," his church, applying to Ihe fa~ade a tripk division adopted from
Lombard churches such as San Zcno or Modena. Its vertical proportions,
steep roof and two flanking towers link illo the spires, westwol'ks and tall
narthex entries of Nomlan churches of JUlllleges, Mont,S:lIntt.Iichel, and
Gen, all from Ihe mid eleventh century. It is in the interior Ihat the Tuscan
Influence is t'vldent. with the horizontal arched screens. grouped piers, Iriple
rhythms, ITiforia and c1eresloryechoing 5.1n Miniato and Pis;! Gthedral.
The cathedrals of Trani {begun I098} and Bitolllo (begun :lifter 1175 )
107
the two interior levels, symbolically imerlinks nave and crypt with the
site's traditional 31ld new cults. The transept's large thirteenth-century
Gothic rose windows illuminate the terminus of both the eucharistic
sacrifice and the pilgrim saUlt's journey to death and salvation at the center
of the tall church crossing.
The cathedral of Troia (photo, left ), begun shordy before Trani in 1093
by Bishop Girardo, proclaims clearly its independence from the school of
Rari. Unlike San Nicola or Trani's ca thedral, Troia is designed with brood
proportions and wilh a blind fa~ade arcade punctuated by inlaid da:orati"e motifs within its arches. T hey derive from Tuscan Romanesque
archita:ture, panicularly from the elevations of Pisa's cathedral, dating
from 1063 to approximately 1108. The la tter dare corresponds to th e dare
of Ihe second major building campaign at Troia, between 1106 and 1119,
when Bishop Guglielmo II completed most of the church. The le ll-tale
Pisan inset rotated squares and circles in the blind arcades date from one
of th~ 11'.'0 early building campaigns. The link to late eleventh-, early
twelfth-cenrury Tuscany is due to the political status of Troia, which was
direcdy under the patronage of Sf. Peters in Rome, which, in turn, had its
strongest ally on the Italian penimub in Tuseany's Counuss Ma thilda of
Canossa during these very years. Either direct visits by local architects to
Mathildine archita:ture in Pisa, Florence, I'istoia, Lucca or nen Modena,
or contact with Tuscan builders through pilgrimages or the first crusade,
which dcpaned from the area ill 1096-7, led to the adoption of these
motifs at Troia. The presellce of other Tuscan pbnning ideas in the interior
of Bari's San Nicola suggests the laner. The explicit presentation of distant
Tuscan motifs at Troia, on its main elevation, emphasized how imponant
uniqueness in Apulian religion alld politics was to the bishops constructing
and inhabiting the cathedral seat.
Sicily
The mixtu re of Byzantine, Islamic, Norman and papal ROmall styles
present in Norman I'ug!ia is even more extreme ill the other kingdom
108
established by the Normans, just beyond the tip of haly, on the island of
Sicily. The recent and powerful presence of Islam on the island and the
Normans' tolerant altitude {O it, as well as {O Byzantine and {O Roman
Christianity, led to an extraordinary ra:epti"eness to combini ng Islamic
and BF.antine architectural forms for Latin-rite churches. The simultaneous presence of the Normans in Nonh Africa assured continuous
influences from African Islamic trad itions throughout the Romanesque
period. The Normans arrived in Sicily from France in 106 1, and won
control over the island over the nexi thirty years. As in Normandy, England
and Puglia, t h~ ~NOTlhmen ~ transformed themselves from restless Viking
marauders to permanently settled citizens of a highly organized political
kingdom. One of the primary vehicles for this rad ical change in identity was
their adoption of Latin Christianity, which not only led to a normalization
of relations between the Normans alld the Europeans they once terrorized,
but also provided an ideal means for the Normans to pacify and unite Ihe
areas they conquered and settled. Just as Charlemagne had used a mixture
of palace, cathedral and monastic construction (O stabilize and extend the
Carolingian empire "two and a half centu ries beforehand, the Normans,
beginning wilh William LOllgsword at Jumieges in Normandy, William the
Conqueror at Hastings in England, Robert Guiscard at Venosa in Puglia
and Roger [I at Palermo in Sicil)', engaged enthusiastically in building
campaigns {O establish their presence in each region in stone.
As if {O confirm the parallel between Carolingian and Norman
archi tectural policy, Roger 11 constructed himself a palace and anached
palatine chapel, dedicated {O Sf. Peter, in Palermo. The chapel was
completed between the year of Robert's coronation, 1130, and 1143.
Like its contemporaries in Normandy and the Italian pl'Il insula, it has a
triple apse. Its tWO side aisles are screened from th e nave by marble
columns supporting classiCizing Corinthiancomposite capitals. The taU
pointed arches these capitals sustain are typically Islamic, as is the
stalactite ceiling, while the rich mosaics, dating from 1143 and 1189, are
Byzantine. T he dissolution of the wall and ceiling by mosaics and
110
Oblia
Roge. [I O<lglnall, planned and brogan
cooSlrucllon of another e:uhedral .0 hou..,
.he Tomils of the N<)fman kIngs of SICIly,
nO{ at Pale.mo, bu' '0 ,h. e.~ Cdalia,
The ",n..,p' and I->llCTuary dar. fmm
Rogerl limo. by, h,s .uccc-sso and Tn.
Hohcnllaulens completed Ihe " ..-. and
f.pd . between 1 ]gO and 1240, on a
mo,-c model' scal., fOCUSSing InSlead ml
Palermo Ca.ht<.! l as ,heir P.n,hwn, The
20m
III
MQ1lr~~I~ (Si~ily).
,;;j[htdral.
I [47-82. Pan of th~cooir from.ht
soulh east (lOp (~fT). """"" vi~w to
Iht e~.t hop lIght). doi... r (b.mumj
11 2
Monru l.
The dom,nance of Pal.rmo. and parTicularly of the blShop.t "s cuhtdral. was SQ
strong by 1172 10 lead King William to
.., blish a compctmg church. palace and
mona"ery nearby a. Monreal.. He
fint,hed most of ,he church by 1182 and
.he vaSt t".. nlyfive-b.y "'tuue doister by
1100. Wilham', goal of counterb.lanclng
.he bishop Qf PakrmQ , ....,..wed wnh
I'QPC l ucius )Ws ekvaTlon of MQn .... k to
.n 'piocopal "'ot ,n 1183. L,ke h,s
OPPOStTE
114
from Castel del Monte in Puglia (photo, top) to the Palatium Imperatoris
at I'rato in Tuscany, Both examples fuse the image of impenetrable fortress
with the iconography of Roman imperial pabces by situating classically
pedimemed portals between twin towers, just as at Diodetian's Imperial
palace at Split.
When the growing wealth of Romanesque Italian cities began to attract
rural lords to build near their marketplaces, the nobility imported their
rustic ('astie and tower forms and adapted them to entire blocks or sectors
of towns. The Tuscan [own of San Gimignano (photo, p. 115, top )
provides an example of how most Romanesque Italian cities would have
looked, literally bristling with towers constructed by ooth the nobility and
by powerful merchants emulating them. Even papal Rome had its share of
towers, occupied by its powerful families such as the Caetani at their Torre
delle l\'lilizie (photo, p. 115, right ).
As the civic governments of Italy's cities grew in wealth , population
and military aspirations, they began to compete with th e towerhouse
complexes of the nobility on twO scales. One was by constructing towers
of their own, often grafted Onto more urban public palaces such as those
discussed aoo"e, The other was by encircling their towns with city walls
protected by regularly placed towers and g.1I('5, which in many cases had
previously protecte<l only individual monuments in the cities, such as the
originally fortifie<l eleventh-centur)' cathed ral and palace complex of the
bIshop of Arelzo. In Florence, I'raro and numerous other cities, the
construction of city walls, in mOSt cases by the mid twelfth century,
OPPOSITE
j\.~O\lE
Begun~.
12B
I"LOW
MIGHT
11 5
of,h~
116
~tatue
\17
'0
mon""'"
Th~
mona"ery
orly Clms.ian and med,e,.,.1 ".chnee.u~ and urbamsm den", .he,r ~mo',..e
strength from .he" capacity 10 express
'n rlhly ma"fl.ls .h. pr<.>m'''' and
dur~b,lny of . he huv...,ly ah.rlik n,.
first archi.c<:.uralexpl<ss;on of th ..... orld
.h.r de.,h .... as Sf. John .he Divine,
Inerary ducrip.ion of tl>t Heavenly
Je,u",lem in Revelation. He .ells of a
pl.c hatlS a. 0...... ci.y and nor" city,
hu,h wi.h wall found"ion. and gatrs.
yef fIo.lIng down from Ih. sky. bUll. of
durobk ma.er;al .. yrt of lransl"'rem
g.ms. nOf ol"'que Slone. n.., numl>tr of
gares, .w,h'e, r.vul Ih" .he ,m.ge is as
much a communi.y of apvsliu .nd 'nbc's
of brad as i, is ~ physical pbce. A, ,h.
",n r Joh" trlls u' .here is nOl a .empl.,
bu, Christ ,h. Lomb him",lf. Archu ... , ure IS no lo~r nee.... f)' In .h. cny of
",Iv,"on, and yet .he only ",ay to dcsc"br
Ih .. ci.y is in archnectur.l.erms .
"",,-
.., r
""'''':../
.," ,
.'~"".
118
"'e.
,he"
0"".
Founta,ns Abbey.
ru,ns
A~"31
J.nT
l). .d8-'t.
Monks'd,,,,,
7
N.""".
8
Dorm,IO', ".""
Saw",
10 A""""um_morut"",
ltbr".ry
II Mand:t.um _""",
~
brnd...,forn.d,~
and ,..uh,"I! Krt
12 M""k" &,1<
13 l..y brnd'... &'"
14 Ch>1"1wu ...
Jj
Domt"<><Y "'P'
16 "'ud"<>num
17 M""ksh.>11
18 No"' ....
1~ Monh'I",1II<
20 W'""'''3 ".,....
2' \1;"<11
12 Monk<' .. f,ory
Pulp"
14 "ltd"
2S C<llo""Hon",I,,"I!
lj
26 1 ~,bfO'Itcrs"......,s<
21 Su.Iwu..
28 I... , bo-OI"" .. '
.. I<c,ory
29 I.... , "'0111<,,' lo!tln<
119
Romanesque architecture
in France
The establishm ent of Ihe French Kingd om after Cha rlema gne
After the death of Charlemagne in January 814, Ihe huge empire fell into
the hands of Louis the Pious, only 10 be split up in 843 amongsl his three
sons in Ihe Trealy of Verdun. Louis II received East Francia. Lothar gained
the imperial crown and the Middle Kingdom, which included a broad mip
from Friesland 10 Provence dividing East and West FranCia, Lombardy,
Friuli and haly as far as the Duchy of Benevento. Charles the Bald was
granted West Francia which, with the exception of the easterly areas, and
Normandy and Brinany in the north west, corresponds 10 the France of
today. He also received partS of what a~ today Belgium and the Netherlands.
By 875, howeler, Charles was able nOI only to obtain the imperial crown
for West Francia, but also 10 extend his imperial boundaries as far as the
Rhone, the Duchy of Vienne including the townS of Vienne and Aries, and
pan of the Jura and Burgundy including the towns of Basic, Geneva and
Besan~on.
These boundaries remained stable for a long period, and the young
French kingdom, whose: roots stretched lxack to the preCarolingian period
of Ihe fifth century, was able 10 consolidate its position.
lbe Roman occupation of Gaul had brought Christendom 10 the area
by the second century, and the Frankish kingdom soon had a dose
relationship with the Church. King Clovis I (481-510) converted 10 the
Catholic faith and was baptized during th e Christmas of 497. This alliance
of Church and kingdom was to prove its worth in the followingcemuries.
Sources in the ninth and temh centuries report the founding of numer
ous monasteries, whilst many towns saw the building of the new
cathedrals of the early Christian period. It must be remembered that these
churches were still in the Roman tradition: large baSilicas, naves with flat
ceihngs and transepts with semi--circular apses. The prOtOtype was still O ld
St. Peters in Rome.
The development ofRomanesquc - new spa tial forms in lhe choir and nave
Many of the early Christians of the Frankish Empire were now canonized,
and new saints were conlinually !xing created. Reports ci rculated of
miracles al their graves, which often lay within mona~teries or even led to the
founding of new ones. The faithful made pilgrimages 10 these mona~teries,
and imponant new pilgrimage routcs developed. The growth m pilgrim.
ages, which brought large numbers of pilgrims to the mona,teries, created
a need for lodgings and particularly for devotional objecls of all kinds. It
increased their income considerably, but required an efficient organita
tion. Ways were sought of directing the pilgrims so that those coming in
and out of the church did not cause disturbance detrimenlalto the liturgy
of the monks in the choir. It was below the main allar Ihal the saint's 10mb
would almost always be siwated.
From the middle of the ninth cenwry onwards, rectangular ambula
tories were created in Auxerre and Flavigny surOurain. These led around
the saint's tomb in the crypt, allowing the pilgrims 10 descend the stairs
from one side aisle and return up via the other. In both these churches the
ambulatory was extended to include a round or octagonal lady chapel
!xhind an aisled approach. Before the middle of the nimh century the
10
111
(bolow)
122
were complele up to [he level of Ihe arcades, ;1 was decided to leave the
old outer walls standing, and 10 try to vault a wider nave. The narrower
bays which had JUSt been erected were to be<:ome the narthel<. Because,
however, the very long rc<:tangubr aisle bays were difficult 10 span with
groin vaults, the groin vaulting was used in the square nave bays and the
side aisles were covered with a quarter-circle barrel v3ult. It is possible that
the original nave project was abandoned be<:ause there was greater
confidence that they would be able to vault a wider nave. It is equal1)'
probable that the monks realil,ed that their bay diYlsions with square nave
bays was unsuitable for a barrel vault.
This experience was 10 !x-nefit the small church of Saint-Martin in
Chapaize, a priory which was independem of Tournus (photos, p. 123
below). The ground plan and shape of the piers, as well as the dimensions
of Saint-Martin, are virtually identical to those of the narthex of To urn us.
The bays on the other hand are so constructed Ihal they form transverse
rectangles in the nave and squares in the side aisles. This means that Ihe
powerful piers stand closer together. The elevation is of twO Storeys:
arcades, pointed vaults with small windows which pierce the barrel vault,
and groin yaulting in Ihe side aisles. Semi-circular responds over round
piers articulate the upper wall and carry Ihe transverse arches. In the
twelfth ccntucy the ociginal cound b~HcI collQP&l'd (Ihe uppec WQII$ Me
still remarkably sb ming even now) and waS replaced with the pointed
barrel still e"isting toda y. The Iransept tS as low as the SIde aisles and three
apses, the cenua[ one of which is larger, form the choir. Sainthbrtin is
also articulated on the exte rior by round-arched frie~es, and the high
crossing tower with two bell storeys, one over the OIher, is visible fmm a
great distance. In Saint-Martin in Chapail.C, built around 1030, shortly
afte r the narthex ground floor at Tournus, there is a clear sense of the
greatness and mfluence of a Cluniac church of the eleventh century. Today
it srands empty, except for simple TOWS of benches and a sma ll alt;1T.
The pretty little church of 51. Peter and Paul also has dimensions
incredibly similar to those of Cluny II and the Tournus narthex. This
church is to be found in Ihe upper reaches of the small river NOlOn, in the
area of Bur~und y now in Switzerland.
Gregory of Tours reported [hat St. Romanus and his brother,
Lupicinus, had founded a small monastery which aftcr an even rful hislOry
was made over in a will 10 Cluny in 928. It was not umil a centu ry lalCr,
after t".o smaller preliminary constructions, that a new building was
COIl5{Tllcted in Romainmotier under Abbot Odio of Cluny. With its nave
and two side aisles with round piers under round-arched arcades, it t'Choes
Tournus and Chapai ~e, and probably more direcdy Cluny [I. One e"ample
of an advance in Romanesque architecture is the broad supporting pieces
in the arcades. The aisles support baTl'eI vaulting which is pierced on both
sides by lunettes, whilst the nave has been rib-vaulted since the late
thirteenth ccmury. The lower transept, projecting only slightly, still has the
original vaulting. This explains the features on the upper wall, where there
arc traces of the arches which used to spring from the still existing small
corbels. It is apparent Ihat Ihere was a desire 10 avoid windows which
pierced the barrel vaults, and so the high windows in the transept are
BELOW
place<!
cor~ls
123
arches a.e therefore still rfi:ognizable} and the nave was covered as a
temporary measure with transverS(" barrel vaults. The impression of space
which resulted is extremely unusual, and must ha"e seemed so even to
contemporaries. Although the nave is certainly significantly brighter, as
the transver.;e barrel vaul ts are pierced by large windows, nevertheless the
continui ty of the space, the even progression of identical sections along the
na,"e, is significantly interrupted. Despite all the different anempt$ 10
explain them, the Iransverse barrel vaults at Tournus can really only be seen
as a solution to a particular problem. They found no imitations elsewhere.
Between 1040 and 1050, contemporary with the first na,'e vaulting at
Tournus, another large church was built in this mould; the second abbey
church at Payerne (figure, left). Odilo of Cluny cited Adelheid, the
daughter of Rudolf [] of Burgundy, as the founder of this tenth century
abbey. In her second marriage she married Emperor 0110 the Great and
since 991 had been the regent for her grandson 0110 J[] who was not yel of
age. It cannot be di scounted that it was her parents who founded the
abbey, for the gra"e of Adelheid's mother Bertha was at Payerne, where
one of the monks' duties was to pray for the salvation of her soul. The new
imperial monastery was subordinate to Cluny. The whole royal family of
Burgundy, which spanned the Jura mountains, had long had cloS(" ties 10
Cluny. In the second quarter of the eleventh centu ry and under the
innuence of Cluny, a new west frOIll was constructed for a building which
was initially planned to be narrower. The change in plan must have
happened quickly. A westblock with one bay was erected with the Michael
chapel in the upper storey, and the old tenthcentury na,'e was enclosed.
For this reason the north and south walls of the nave do not follow the
axis of the building. The square nave piers werc then constructed, and
powerful projecting columns added. Stepped responds in the side aisles
echo these projecting columns, Initiall y the crossing was planned for the
sixth bay, but finally it was built in the seventh. The final stage of the
building was the square crossing and the high projecting transept with its
chevet of five chapels. All the previous exam ples of this type of elevation
discusS("d either collapsed or were modified. This is the.efore the oldest
p.ese,,ed example of the barrel vault above high, slender arcades and
windows which pierce the foot of the va ult. As at Tournus, the barrel vault
has transverse arches. However, the transverse arches at Pa yerne are
supported underneath by responds, whilst at Tournus they spring from the
imposts of the round piers. These rectangular responds innuenced the
dccision to uS(" square piers with projecting columns instead of round
piers. This nave elevation is con tinued into the long choir and allowed a
double row of windows in the main apse, which makes the inte rior very
high and bflght compared to other buildings of that period. The exteflor is
reminiscent in its articulation and decoration of the other churches
di scussed, but has been modified by later additions.
The abbey church of I'ayerne is one of the last perfectly preserved
buildings of its type, and synthesi~es the experience of 3lmost a century of
Ihe work of the Cluniac architects. For the first time a consistent rhythm
has been achieved in the nave which, together with the smooth transition
from the responds to the transvcrse arehes, foreshadows the Gothic style,
124
loolullAU'" (righl)
Tournu$IS,,(lnt..,. Lo"~I .
~ hu rch
fo.rut. abbty
.,. canonlud.
~~</
"ir~
. - ..
"1r
.~.-
_.
1 ..
.~
~ .~ .,
"5
I.a-Charil~-su,..Loire
(Nihre), for"",r
priory church omtc-Croix-NotrC'D~m~. ]056-]101. Int("nor VI("W of
Ih. choir nd ground pl.n
..
M
=' ==-=
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126
III. Similar to Cluny 111, La Charite must have had a three-storey elevation
right from the outset, consisting of arcades, blind triforium and clerestory;
it is not, as was mistakenly assumed, the result of a reconStruCllon in Ihe
first half of the twelfth century referred to in the consecration document of
11 3S . [t is surely unlikely that such a recently constructed building would
be rebuilt from the foundation walls upwards.
[t has often been asked why, in contrast to other abbots and bishops,
Abbot H ugo did not start the construction of the nell' church until he had
been in office for forty years. Apparently he wanted to reSI OUI Ihe
architeccural concepts for his great and ambitious new project, and, as we
shall see, in sel'eral places at once, before he finally felt able to show his
contemporaries the greatest and most perfect building in Christendom. [n La
Charite after 1107 it was only the three central apses which were replaced
by an ambulatory and side chapels and consecrated in 113S.
In Nievre, not far from La Charite, the building of the abbey church of
Saint-Etienne (figure, abo~e) started in 1063 and the consecration took
place in 1097. Nievre was also a significant station on the pilgrims' route
to Santiago and was also a priory of Cluny. It is therefore no surprise that
the building constructed in Nievre differed from the traditional type of
Cluny II. A nave and twO side aisles with six bays is attached 10 a
projecting transept with a square crossing, a semi-circular apse on each
side and an ambulatory with three chapels.
One foreba)" is missing. T he elevation once again has three storeys.
Over the comparatively low arcades Ihere are gallery arches of approxi-
'Qw~rj
127
Cluny (S-06ne-<I-Loire),
f.mntr mon3"~ry church
Sainl PitrrC"-<l Paul
(Cluny Ill ). 10H9-1131132
Southern transept
Ground rl~n of wholt mt.
l"n"Con,lru,,"[[on of;ts st.1r
.round 1150
,
,
A
Monastery church
C
0
Lody chap.,]
Infirmary
Rrfr-ctory
1'.nlry
...--
.. -
,
L
"
N
"
Monks' k'ld,.n
LI~ k,,~hen
Cellar
Room..,f Iht~lmOMr
Ctmclery
Bakery
Gu."houst for
women
Gut,lhou,," for men
Slabl. and .tQ1"C t..:.>u$o<
1..o"m"
J2
Old church
OldCalil""
Chapter !>oUst
Parlour
Came ...
J2
.!vl
-"""':._-
___
Calefo~l<M)"
Wdl
.""
""
"
.,"
Cemetery chapel
F.."I.n~lon 10
donnll0ry(? )
Abbot'schapcl
I)Qrmnory
LlI,m ...
Nov"'.'e
,"
--- --
P.I~",,~oun
It" ...,
-- --
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. :';r~;:~lf" !7~'fI
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. j i~I':":" " ~ ;w.$H
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'l
{III
h i I .J
. .'
mately equal height, into whil:h large tympana are set, leaving only narrow
openings. A small window with a steeply sloping sill in each bal' forms the
clerestory. Evidently they did not yet have great faith in their vaulting
techniques. T he piers arc cross-shaped, but on each side of the square
centra! part, engaged columns are fined which In bOlh the nave and the
side aisles link up smoothly to the transverse arches and in the arcades to
the supporring arches. Groin vaulting is used in the side aisles, w-hilst in the
galleries there is quarter barrel vaulting which is supported by the n3'e
walls. The transept wings are separated from each other by a stlrainer arch
wl.idl ;~ lvwe. dl"" ~],e ~ 1v~.i"S "'~],~., A oet ,,( (i~e al.:1,c~ b,.~.. ks through
the wall above, a motif which is reminiS(:ent of Carolingian buildings such
as Germigny-des- Pres and one which was imitated and can st ill ~ seen
today in the Romanesque transept of the cathedral of Saint,CYn"--et-Saintc
Juliette in Nievre. On each side of this strainer an:h two rows of windows
pierce the walls of the uansepts. The choir also has three storeys, but the
high galleries have been replaced by sigificandy lower blimd arches.
Colonnencs highlight the high windows.
The exterior is different to elsewhere. Whilst it is still true Ihal the
composition of the building is predominant, and that was to rernain so for
the whole of the high Middle Ages, it is not the only determining feature in
a building. Small block friezes articulate the building horizontally and
surround the round arches of the ever larger windows. A 5<:t of blind
an:hes on short colonneues, a dwarf gallery, decorates the high wall of the
end of the choir, behind which is the vaulting. The crossing tower is low
128
and OCtagonal, whilst both the west towers were destroyw in the French
Revolution.
Although Nihre is an example of a pcrfe(:1 basilica with a clerestory,
Abbot Hugo chose the elevation with the blind triforium, si nce he wanted
a ceremonial, elegant architecture, and therefore a continuity of space
which was not to be broken by 100 many strong contrasts of light and
Sh'ldow. The wide galleries of Saint-Etienne were to ~ influenlial, on Ihe
other hand, in the churches along the pilgrims" route 10 Santiago.
After vaulting had Ix-en sucressfully eXe(:uted in 1097 in Nievre and by
1107 in La Charite, the monh of Tournu. tricd oul thi. tcchnique in the
upper floor of the three-bayed narthex. The side aisles were completed
with quarter barrel vaults as in Saim-Etienne, where there are twO windows
in each bay and a round barrel vault. The intermediate floor wasdispcnsed
with and the upper floor of the narthex may only have been built towards
the end of the eleventh eenlllry. At the same rime the construction of the
two splendid west towers was completed. T hese rise above the high front
and have become the symbol of the town.
It is more than likely that these two new buildings in Nievre and La
Charile encouraged the Abbot at 5aint-Benoit-sur-Loire to carry out a
moderniUltion of his church which daled from the first half of the tenth or
beginning of the elevenlh century (photos, p. 127). Saint-Benoil had been
founded in 65 I and since around 672 had been in the possession of Ihe
relics of 51. Benedict of Montcrassino. These relics were amongst the
nobleSI treasures in France in this period. Odo of Cluny (927-942 ) had
OunriSaOnt-c1-Loo~I.
formc.r mon.:I"~'"
reformed thiS monastcry during the first half of the unth cmtmy. ~\"eral
buildings. repairs and modcrnitalions had followed upon each other.
before Abbot GUillaume ( 1067-1080) bcpn the conSlTUcuon of new pans
In the (';1st from 1070180 and, attM ume IImt. the erection of:l massio'e
fonlfied tower In the wnl of tM church. An ambulatory wilh only IWO
radial chape'ls and a deep forechOir bay was bUilt oO'er a crypt. This
ambulatory 15 nanked by two ehaptls. each wnh an eaSI apse and crowned
by towers. In front of the long chOir there IS a Proieclln8 transept wnh IWO
apses In the ea51 wall. Above the ~uare crOS'lng IS a dome resllng on
~uinches. As al Sallllttienne. the elel'allon of the choir has three sloreys:
arcades. bluld Irifonum. windows framed by colonl1elles and a round
b.urel vauh. The ambulatory and side alsln of the long choir arc also
barrel vaulled. In ils ground plan and elevallon II sirongly an ticipated the
chOir of Ihe third church at Clun). which had bun under conslrucllon
sirlCe 1089. II .s only Ihe Irans ..erse arches under the barrel of 1M
forccholr. wh.ch strongly aniculale and g,,'e rhythm to tM Inlerior. and
the absolute pe'rfection of that concept thaI art sI1l1lad:lng Mre. For that
reason Ihere can be no doubl that ,t was TK){ only the WIll of Abbot
GUillaume that was Instrumenlal here. Salnt-Benoil IS the third large
building on which Hugo of Cluny was tesllng hiS archncctural <ancepts.
Thc resuh proves the viability of thiS mcthod of pr()(:edure: all the det::uls
and motifs. alilhe shaping of the intcTlor volume are TO be found in the
~test buildings. ~ Yet no other church even approaches the third ,hurch at
Cluny in effect, pe'rfe-ction of execution, or conSistency of conception.
In 11 08 Ihe cast pans of Saini-Benoit were consecrated, whilsi the nave
was nOl com pleted unlil around the middle of [he twelfth cmlury. The
laller differs only slightly from lhe cholf. Tne slope' of tIK- ground was
cOlnpcn~led for by an area of wall between the arcades and blind
trifonum. whICh remained emplY. like the long chOi r barrel o'auITlng, 11Kvauhlng of the naO'e remained unaniculated and had only one transverse
an:h which was nOI complemented by any responds on the nave wall
Immedlalely below. The massive two-slorey west cnd of the .:hurch IS
enormously IIllprcssive. On the ground noor there is 3 hall opening in
Ihree dirCClion5 wilh nine haY5 and massive piers supporting groin v3ullS.
The church is above all famous for its c;lpilals and small relids on the
exterior. The uppe'r noor is similarly antClilaled, but is closed and has
three apses Slink into Ihe cast wall.
In 1089 Abbot Hugo (1049-1109) finally began the bUlldll\g of lhe
third church at Cluny. Already In 1095 POpe' Urban II was able to
consecrale Ihe main altar and three funher chapel altars. The final
consecrallon was completed by 1131 /32. The nanhex wllh liS nao'e and
two SIde aisles was nOI completed unlll 1225. However. by 1258 thc once
powerful monaslery was convened 11110 a SlI1ccure. In 1790 this was
dissolved and III 1798 the building was sold for demolition. This began in
181 1 and left only [he sou th arm of the transept. the choir capil als and a
few o ther indiVidual pam still slanding.
There was a naO'e and four aisles (IOtal length 6 14 feet, length 10
Iransept 242 fccl. transept 237 feet, height of nao'e 97 feet. width of nave
49 fttt ). eleven bays, a lransept wllh the same Width as the naO'e and wllh
IWO eastern apses 10 each arm, a long chOir. also wllh four aisles, and an
ambulalory wllh five radiating chape'b. whICh was nanked by a second
lower transept, also with IWO entem a~ to each arm. We know what
the church must ha"e looked loke from extensI\e excavations, a large
number of p,cture sources and. 1101 leasl. from both the churches Ihat
antiCIpated !1 and the chu rches [hat were 10 emulate II subsequently. Th~
det(ll ls. however. arc srillvery much a ma iler of debate.
T he elevution of the nave h.l d [hree storeys: 51;m arcades wi th poinled
arches. a blind triforium wllh three arches III each bay, and u clerestory
wllh a sitllliar pallcm. In the cas.c of Ihe laller. the arcades formed Ihe
frame for Ihe arches of the outer aisles and for Ihe windows of the inner
aISles. Rc:cesscd piers wilh selnl<1.n:ular or nuted responds supponed Ihe
trans,'erse arches of the pointed lunnelvaull and aniculated the mterior
o'olume e,'enly and harmomously. The square crossing was crowned by a
small blind gallery with a cupola. This In turn was surmounted by a ~uare
crOSSing tower. The steep tranS"erse arms. whICh extend m'er IIlne bays.
were each surmounted In the second and eighth bays by two towers over
domes on ~ulllches. l be elcvation of the two outer bays was Similar 10
thai of Ihe nave. Only Ihe tower of the southern transepl and the adjoining
southerly bay escaped demolilion (figures, p. 128 ). Towards the cast. and
adjOining the fil"$t transept. wert two choir bays which repe'ated the
panern of the naO'e elevation. AdjOIning Ih lS In [Urn was Ihe sond
transept w'lh anOlher ~uare crossing and a further octagonal lower above
129
P3",~-k--Mondial
(SaQne-et-l"ue),
former mon'5fery church of No",'Dame. Fi.. l half of dc~t,,,h ",,".ury.
nonh~a"
0. 0-
I I :t ~
,-- = -=tI-
1 \.,
~: -.-.- ~
-=.~
o 5 10 m
a dom(' resting on squinches. In the ~ond transept ;t was only Ihe central
three bays which wcre as high as the nave or the large transep!. The two
adjoining bays on either side were low and must have had Ihe appearance
of chapels. The eaSlern Terminalion of the church was formed by a further
bay with the same elevation as the nave and the ambulatory, and wilh an
annu13r barrel vault and luncnes. Only flat fllIII responds decorated Ihe
wall between the arcades and the clerestory and there was no blind
triforium.
This church could therefore be divided into (\\.'0 zones: on the one hand,
the nave which bordered on the gigantic, but which was clearly Structured,
and on the other hand, the eastern parts With their incre<libly complex
iuxtaposition of a whole variety of spaces and structures. II was, of course,
the eastern parts which were reserved for the use of the monks. Both zones
were held together concepmally by the uniform elevaTion throughout.
The decoration must have been of a truly magnificent splendor. Apan
from the utterly beautiful capitals, which everywhere attracted the eye, all
the arches, windows and cornices were surrounded by sculptured orna
mental strips and all the responds were Auted. In addition there would
certainly ha"e been murals, carpets, colouring of all the architecture, huge
radial chandeliers which shed a mystic light, figures of 5:lints, incense,
golden hturgical v~StlT1ent., ~nd &It'~tn,"g golden Or ~ilver ornaments set
With precious stones. Above all there was the singing which must have been
such an essential p.~rt of the liturgy, e,'en at the time of Cluny 11, but cenainly
during Cluny lit.
II is necessary to have some idea of how the people lived in the early
and late Middle Ages in order to underst:lt1d the intoxicating effect of such
a multifaceted 1I"0rk of art which would have appealed to all the human
senses. light and warmth only came from the sun, as fi rewood and candles
were expensive and only available to the few. Music was unknown, save
for the shepherd's Aute and the Sllnplest songs, and pictures of any kind
only e",isted in monasteries. Colorful clothing was not permilted to the
ordinary people, and their living quarters were dark and gloomy. NO! even
the lower nob,lity on their country estates lived a much more privileged or
comfortable way of life. It is therefore nOI surprising that The faithful saw
in Cluny an image of the heavenly Jerusalem, and considered it all to be a
miracle.
No secular building of the period could even bear comparison with
Cluny. On the one hand, secular rulers were constantly obliged 10 im'est
large sums of money in soldiers and military equipment, and on the other
hand, the Church forbade the faithful from accumulating wealth or splendor. As 3 result, large and generous donations were made to the Church
and monasteries.
The third church at Cluny, much as it impressed its contemporaries, was
not em ulated by many. One reason for this was the founding of the
Cistercian Order which scorned pomp and ornamentation and returned to
simplicity and work. AnOlher reason was that although the question of
barrel "aulting had been solved and the form perf.-c:tcd, the future
belonged to the rib vault and the Gothic style. Already before the
consecration of Cluny 111, the perfect se"'panite vault had been built in
130
Anzyar..OIM; ts..6nHtIoo", I,
s..,n'f,CI'Ol"-n-S;.'n'e-~b ....
2nd I\.;Ilf of"~fmh lorarly ",..,Inh
em,uf)'.
Nayr wITh erouln~ lowrr tbdow).
"""r "'all trlSh, )
Caen, and belwten 1140 and 1144 AhbOi Sugcr H1 Sall\lDcnis ereeled
Ihe firs! GOIhic building. Nelenhcless. wllh liS Sirici slruCiuring of all the
p."ts and wuh liS constant re~I1I1011 of Ihe IxaSIC UIllI of measure, thl>
Ihmj monasl~ church al Cluny already possessed onf of lhe essenl1al
pro~nies of the GoIhlC.
The successors 10 Cluny III
NotreDame In Paray.lr.Mondia] (photos, p. 130) IS a minIature verSIon
of Clun y Ill, and 11 will come as no surpnse 10 learn thaI ils archllcct was
none other than Abbot Hugo of Cluny. Founded '" 973. the monaster)' at
Para y.lc-Mondlal came into the hands of Cluny 111 999, and Abbol Od,lo
consecnned a small church here in 1004, possibly the sallie ty~ as Clun)
II. In the first half of the ele\'emh century the su rvlVlIlg nanhe" wilh ItS
IWIIl tower frolll was added. In 1090 Abbol Hugo began the exisling
bUlldmg, a nave and two aisles wllh Ihrte bays. a prolcclll1g transepl with
apses. a ~U3Te crossing with a dome resting on ~ulnches, fo.ebay and
ambulalor)' wl,h radlaling eha~ls. The elevation of NOire-Dame prO\'es
liS descent from Cluny III, el'en if the laller was complelC:d considerably
eJriTer. Here also are to be: found arcades wllh POlllted arches on step~d
piers, thrte.pan blind Infonum and clerestory, POinted barrel vaulung with
,r;lnS"e'se archt'S. fluled r..-sponds, orn:llnelltal bands, a Sltep transept and
the absence of a triforfum m Ihe chancel. Nc"ertheless the silnilarity IS
restricted to the formal. The building has not been able to rm ulate to 3ny
"real extcnt Ihe tremendous sense of space and finely articulated elegance
of Cluny II I.
heer III II details, yel much cl~r m ItS effcct to Ihe prOtoly~ is 5ai1lll..:nare 111 Autun (pholo, p. 132). BIshop ~llCllne de Boige. who ""as an
enthUSIastic suppo rter of the Clunla~ reform and lilurgy, began thIS
building around 1120 to replace a canollIeal foundat ion from the ni1llh
cenlUry. 011 the occasIon of a VI$1t by Ihe po~ a dedicallon was transferred. although the relics of St. Laurus could IIOt be: brought 10 the
church u"ul 1146, when the naTihex was slill unlkr constTUClion. The
nanhex has a naye and twO aIsles and both 11$ hays correspond III Wldlh
and heIght to th~ of Ihe nave, whose seven bays eXlend eastwards. The
crossmg IS square, as are the transepTS. The lalter .squares are dll'ided III
1""0 by supporting arch<'"S which are extenSIons of Ihe outer na,'e walls.
Two forebays make the IranSlilon to the choir with thrte apses. 5allll'
Lnare therefore dispenses not only wilh an ambulato ry, bU! also with
transepts. DespIte the disturbing chapcl extcnsions. the i1llerior COllles
over as festive and full of vilailly. The rccessed p,crs support arcadcs of
poll1ted arches. On all four sides of the piers there arc fluted responds
allached, which in Ihe nave reach up 10 lUSt under Ihe tranSI'erse barrel
vaults. In the: blind triforium the mIddle of the thr arches is o~n, and III
Ihe ckrestory there is only one wmdow in each bay in contrast to the Ihree
al Cluny. Ab(l\"e eacb bay thrrr IS lxarrd \-aull1ng. AUTun slIll has very
Impona1ll Roman remalllS.SOIi IS not surpnslllg that Ihe claSSIcal
decoration of the responds and courses 15 very sculplured and calculated to
exploll Ihe effccls of light and shade, and that the ~pltals are mcredlbly
fi ne lind realistic. This clegant fesllveness of the interior yolume and Ihe
calculated abs<'ncc of the transepts 111 favor of a continuity of spacr arc the
aspeCIS of 5l11nt-La1.3ire which bllld II more closely wilh Cluny III than any
Olher bUlldll1g.
131
132
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136
The eastern parts are a real re\"elation. The aisles with their galleries
continue along the west side, and previously also along the front of the
,ery slim protecting transepts. On the eastern side there arc five
interconnecting chapels, four of which have stmi<ircular terminations.
This must be an adaptation of the Cluniac choir with radiating chapels,
which evidently must have been necessary as the galleries continued over
these chapels. In this wayan interior was created which was clear and yet
subtle in its impact. The end of the chancel formed a large semi<ircular
apse with a foreooy. A similar ground plan, although with a nave and four
aisles, was to be found at Orleans cathedral, the forerunner of Ihis
building and also dat ing from around 1000.
The church at Vignory, too, belonged to this category. [n the deed of
gift of 1050 it is described as having just been completed. but this must
only refer to a repair or a partial rebuilding, as nearly all the parts of the
unvaulted church would already have been finished in the first quarter of
the eleventh century.
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The na,"e Itads directly imo the choir, only a strainer arch marking Ihe
boundary betWeen fht two. The windows arrallgl'd m twO wnes in the
gable over Ihe sirainer arch are an unusual feature.
The church consists of ... na'"e and tWO aisles, extending over nine bays.
Arcades of differing heights, and withoUT the under arches, rest orr unomamemed square piers. Above each of ti>ese is a p.lmlle1 opening WIth a sirong
column in the middle and square piers on Iht sides. The arches are not
grouped, resulting in a conlmuOU5 row of arches with alternating supports.
The clerestory consists of a large simple window in each bay beneath an
open roof framework. The architfi:ture is all reduced 10 thl: tension
between Ihe wall and opening. The almost complele absence of s<:ulptured
ornament and articulation causes the nave 10 aplXar archaic ancl aUSlere.
Atthe same time, however, the interior is surprisingly well illuminated.
The choir consists of tWO forebays wilhoul galleries or windows, a
semi-(;ircular colu mn capItal and a vaulted ambulatory with Ihree radialing chapels.
137
138
[n Bernay there are only small openings ill the dark roof strUClUre
complementillg the piers and arches below. Next to each window is a blind
recess. Above this is the clerestory and a flat ceiling, which was soon
replaced by a wooden barrel vault. The barrel vaul! was certainly regarded
as the finest type of ceiling. At Bernay it was chosen for the projecting
transept and for the almost exact copy of C[uny's chevet with five
radiating chapels. The small galleries in the tranSept walls and the choir
were used, but the windows were dispensed with for the time being. A
tower crowned the crossing. but its collapse between 1080 and !090 also
resulted in the renewal of the choir and transept. [n the choir the barrel
vaulting was abandoned in favor of a clerestory. The transept was also
gIVen windows and the barrel ,'aulting of the ceiling renewed ,
A significant advance in the design of the na,'e walls was achieve<! in
the abbey church of Notre-Dame III Jumieges {figures, p, [38}, whICh was
begun some time after [040 and cousecrated in ]067, Today it is an impressl"e and picturesque ruin surrounded by meadows, The richly articulated twin
towers, which so.1I steeply into the sky, are one of the earliest surviving examples of a twin tower fa"ade with a central gable, It was here that a
particular scheme of proportioning was used for the first time, in which
one square na"e bay was equivalent to two :lisle bays, and in which the
aisles were half the width of the na,'e. This scheme had been aln,ady used
at Saint-Remi in Rheims, but in that church there were originally no
responds which would ha,'e grouped pai rs of arches together to form a
square. In Jumieges t he~ responds were present, reaching from floor level
virtually up to the window sills of the clerestory, and at one tim.! supportmg the strainer arches. Also for the first time we find an alternation of
supports. The ~strong~ piers are square with four rngage<! columns, whilst
t~ ~weak~ supports are simple oolumns, Each arcade corresponds to a set of
three arches, groupe<! together in an arch-shape<! re<:ess til the second sto rey
~nd a single window in the clerestory. Abo"e this was the flat ceilmg,
The whole appearance of the in tenor space ,hanged wi th the introduction of responds, The na,'e no longer appeared so box-lik( alld the
openings were ~anchored~ more .securely. The responds forthermore
~reated a vertical counterweight to what had previously a[wars been a
~ery horizontal articulation. They brought the space together an,d divide<!
II tnto sections, each r~mbling the next, and reproducible tn an)' number,
Ibey also emphasized the vertical, a deliberate effect at Jumieges. for the
11;I,'e was mcreased to an unprecedented height of 78 feet (Cluny II I was
only 18 feet higher),
This building also had a proje<:ting transept and an ambul:lI:ory with
ud,atmg chapels, In the fourteenth ,emury the bller unfortunatdy had to
IlUke way for" new bUIlding which was allached directly to the west walls
oi the transept. T he ground plan of the first choir was excava ted and
Wlwn to have twO forebays with capitals, an ambulatory and th ree
r~d,atmg chapels, By all appearances, the elevation of the l1ave was
~-onunued in the choir, albeit with a reduced height, and its na"e and
Ioilleries had barre] vaulting, In the transept a sort of bridge o\'er tWO
rLiles linked the ganeries of the na,'e with those of the choir. 'This is a clear
kilC3tion that these areas were used.
13'
140
supported by the responds. are absent here. Two different concepts of the
interior space meet here unintentionally; the older concept found in
Nivel1es and Rheims, and the newer one whose impact reSIS on powerful
vertical divisions.
The perfection of Norman archi ttttu ral ideas
Only a few years after Jumicges and Mont-Saint-Michel, the building of
the twO abhey churches of Saint-l::tienne and Sainte-Trinite in Caen was
begun. The architectural rivalry between these twO ehurches over decades
saw Ihe perfection of Ihe Norman style (figures, pp. 141 ff_ )_ The benefactors were William the Conqueror and his wife Malhilde. William was
laid to rest in Saint-l::t,enne in \087. It is possible that the monaSlery had
always been conceived of as his place of final rest, but Ihe immediate
reason for the endowment was that the marriage of William and Malhilde
was disputed by Rome_
The construction of both churches began hem'een 1060 and 1065.
Both have a powerful twin -towered west front, a nave and twO aisles with
a three-storey elevation, and an aisleless transept. The orig;Ilal chancel in
Saim-Etielln. had to mak~ way for a Gothic ambulatory_ Although
excavations have given no firm evidence. allalogous struCtures at Cerisyla-Foret (inspired by Saint-Etienne) and Sainte-Trinite strongly suggest
that it was a chancel with chapels III echelon of the Bernay type.
Saint-Vigor in Cerisy (photo, p. 143) also gil'es us clues about the
elevation of fhe chancel. Because the clerestory was su pposed to be m'olayered and include a passageway, as at Jumieges, there was no vaulting !II
the eastern parts. Above the arcades of the forechoir there must ha\'e J:,e.en
a double-arched opening ill each bay. III the main apse. which had no
articulation on the grou nd floor. these double arches were offset from t~
wall allowing room for a narrow passageway bem!een themseln::s alld the wall.
Both Wiles of ,he apse were illununated by windows. The forechoir. which
simIlar to the Ilave had a three-storey elevation. may have had sets of two
or three arches in front uf the passageway and willdows. More likely
would have beell a simple arch. which framed the willdow and pierced the
wall in front of the passageway.
The transept, also with a passageway in front of the willdows. has
survived intact. The conSlruClion of the nal'e began ill the years after 1070.
With the subsequent addition of a sexpartite rib vault, the original
appearance of the clerestory has been modified. The arcades have been
retained. however, together with Ihe almost equally large gallery openings
above. The piers in the nave are complex. consistillg of responds alld
ellgaged culunllls, and forming an alternatiun of ~strong~ and ~weak~
supports. The responds. which used to reach to just under the flat ceilillS.
also aiternate. but today now only extend upwards as far as the edge of the
vaulting_ The wide gallery openings may have had tympana above a
eoJonnene.
Tracery baluslTades would certainly Ilot hal'e beell used here. It is knuwn
that selS of three arches weT(' constructed in frol\l of the passageway.
The articulation of the wall, not only in the gallery area, but also ill the
clerestory, had, on the olle hand, made barrel vaulting impossible, but. on
Ihe other hand, had lent Ihe interior a whole new qualilY. The wall did nO!
have the ethereal quality of the bter Gothic, yet the articubtion in Ihe
clerestory is a clear step in this direction. The na\"e and the end of Ihe
chancel were now well-illuminated, generous spaces, whilst the arches,
whose nurn!J<,r increased in the upper parts of the cathedral, rested on
delicate colonnelles and were backlit by the IIlcTea~d strength of the light.
The story of the construction of its sister church of Saint-Etienne, Ihe
convent of Sainte-Trinite, is very stmi br. SainteTrinite also originally had
a chancel with chapels in a:helon, which was raised slightly because of Ihe
underlying crypt. As the nuns had to be kept from view, the main apse wllh
tiS two forcbays was do~d to the side chancels. Of the original structure
only the ground floor of th e long chancel with the blind arc-ading remains.
There must hal'c been JUSt such a row of arches in the main apse tOO, and
abo"e it simple windows and a barrel vault, whose cenlral transverse arch
tS st ill in place today. The transept may have been low, as is snggeste<! by
the northerly and somberly crossing arcbes.
Next came the na,'e (figure, p. 142J. In COI1lrast to Sall1t-EticIIM there is no
ahern ation of supports and it has a blmd trifOlium inSlead of galleries.
This significantly change<! the spatial propomons of the inlerior. The
present clerestory has been modified in tiS form, as the original althe tillle
of building ( 1075-85) must have been lower, perhaps Ihe same height as the
laleral arches of today's triple arcalures, which probably belong to the
origmal structure. The central arch, which frame<! the deeper-lying window,
Ca~n
(Caivados). forlM.
141
11 20
They group tWO bays together and span them diagonally in what is
approximately the form of a round arch. A third arch, similar to a trans'
"erse arch, spans the nave and imersects the other two at a crossing point
in the cemer. The alteration of suppons in Saint-~ti~nne suit~d this Iype of
vaulting. indeed seemed almost designed for II. Sainte-Trin!le on Ihe other
hand had no alternation of supports.
The height of the clerestory at Sainl - ~ticnne, which was determined by
the height of the galleries, caused difficulties with the vaulting. The
transverse ribs intersected the OUler arches in each double bay. The whole
inner layer of wall was taken down right to the base of the clerestory zone
and a new triple arcalllre was plamJ!, thiS time with low and narrower arches
al the sides. Apparently they were still tOO high in the area of the transverse ribs, as subsequently bOlh the OUler arches in each double bay had to be
filled in with masonry. The result was the well-known asymmetrical clerestory.
AI Sainte-Trinite the initial silllation was more favorable. The
clercstory was significantly lower be<:auSl' of the blind triforium and could
remaifl the same apart from the windows which were altered. The
clerestory was extended upwards by the height of today's windows and the
nave was covered with sexpartite vaulting as at Saint-~tienne.
With the introduction of rib vaulting, the Norman architects had made
the great breakthrough which allowed them to vault their naves so that
142
they were wid e, well IiI afld presented an elevation with a variety of
articulation and openings right up to the ceiling. For decades they had
made do wilh wooden barrel vaults, linmed Ihemseh'cs to "aulting of the
eastern parts, or even abandoned vaulting altogether in order to break up
and lighten the uniformity of a plain wall. The dimensions of the na,'es gi"e
a clear indication of their intentions. All of them are oc'1ween 29 and 36 fcct
in breadth. far in excess of wh~t could be successfully spanned up until
1100 with :1 barrel vault. Cluny III was Ihe first 10 hr~ak thi s barrier wilh
the construction of a pointed barrel vaul! wilh a wid!h of about 36 clear
f~t.
143
Tourn~i 1~lgiuml,ca,hc<lral.
From
1130. Nave and group of e3,r ,owe"
clerestory stai rs. The strong piers carry strainer arches, whilst the weak
piers serve only to articulate the imerior space.
144
Thc transept aisles with their four chapels in the east are only the logical
cominuation of the ambulatory. They offered not only more space for
further chapels, in which devotional images could be displayed, but also
the possibility of an uninterrupTed procession which did nm '"terfere with
the closed-off area for the clergy in the sanctuary and in the central aisles
of the transep! and nave. Such a la)'out must have been highly welcomed
by the monasteries along the pilgrim roads.
The fil'$t beginnings of an ambulatory around the end of the chancel are
found in the monastery church of Saint-Philbert-de-Grandlieu dating
from the first half of the ninth century. About half a century later, the
monks from Saint-Philbert appear to have applied this chancel layout in
the monaStery church of Tournus. A fully-developed ambulatory with
radIating chapels. albeit recungular ones, was built thcre just aftcr the
ycar 1000 and has survil'ed until today.
There appears to have been a parallel development with regard to the
three-aisled transept and the nave in Tournus and at Saint-Remi in
Rheims. Since building work started almost at the s.~me time, it cannot be
established which was the model for the other. It would therefore be of
great interest to see the elevation. The early building date makes it highly
unlikely thaI the forechoir, the nave and the transept aisles would have had
vaulted ceilings. The church is most likely to ha\"e been a basilica with
galleries and a flat ceili ng, ' imilar to that of Saint-Rem;.
Around the ycar 1050, half a Century after work had begun at Tours.
the construction of a new church was startcd in Conques (figure, alxI\"e).
The church took o\"er eIghty )'ears to complete and is dedicated to Saint
Fides whose statue made frolll gold and jewels and dating from around
1000 is still an object of veneration (photo, p. 361]. The statue is one of
the earliest examples of largescale sculptu re in the western world. The
oldest p<lrt of the church is th e chancel area, and both its interior and
exterior constitute a highly complex and impressive work of art. A groinvaulted ambulatory with three semi-c;rcular chapels leads around the
three-storey chancel end. There is room for one window between each of
the chapels. The gallery has no sou"e of daylight and, seen from the outside, appears as a low, closed, semi-circular structure with a lcanto roof.
Above it. and below the calolle, is the clerestory which projects beyond
the wide lower storey and is articulated by blind arches outside.
Looking at the ground plan, however, it looks as if the initial intention
had been 10 build a chancel with seven semi-circular apses in echelon,
similar to those built in La Charite-su r-Loi re after 1056. But at Conques,
thi s plan must have been ,hanged ncn during the building work, for, in
order to deal with large numbers of pilgrims, an ambulatory provided a
much bettcr solution than a choir wilh chapels in echelon which were,
after all, intended to provide places of quiet contemplation for the monks.
The transept, tOO, muSt have bc<:n altered and nOw had the appearance of
145
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148
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CltrmonT-F~mlnd ( Puy-d~Domd.
/orm~r
an aisled pseudo-basilica, with the roof supportS of its wide side aisles
nearly reaching up to the eaves of the nave roof, The two-Storey elevation
of [he transept consists of arcades and high galleries divided into twO
st'Ctions. The clerestory was omined to make room for the bar,relvaulted
ceiling of the na'-e. The room is lit b)' the windows of the side aisles and
the galleries. The eastern side aisle makes a right-angle turn and continues
into the bay of the forechOir where it blocks out the clerestory.
The semi-i:lrcular responds of the cruciformbased piers support the
m:essed arches of the arcades and the vaults respectively. Thl: nave has
only four ba)'s and has the same ground plan and elevation as the transept.
Only the shape of the supports varies in e"ery st'Cond bay. A spacious
crypt, more or less echoing the ground plan of the chancel area, was
II1tended to house the relics and to display the monastery's considerable
treasures whICh has been preserved a[ Conques.
The experience gained at Tours and Conques was comhined and
perfected in the pilgrimage church of Saint-Sernin in Toulouse (photos,
p. 148). Building work Started in 1080 and was not completed until th e
middle of the twelfth century. The ground plan is consistentl) based on
one unit of measurement eve n down to the last detail. The side aisles
cOlltinue in the same shape around the nave and transept and continue
around the choir in the form of the ambulatory. The piers at the crossing
are breathtaking, carrying a bold tower conSisting of five storeys of
arcades, tapering towards the top, and finishing with a high balustrade.
The fivc-aisled nave comprised eleven bays, compared to the ten of SaintMartin. Viewed from the divided entrance bay between the towers, it
appears to continue into infinity.
The three-storey choir area is very similar [0 that of Con.gues, consiSling of arcades, gallery, and clerestory, and supported in thl' ex tended
bay by the side aisles that ex tend up as far as the beginning of the ceiling.
Additional features are the oculi which are se:t between the roofs of the
ambulatory chapels and illuminate the gallery above (he (;hoir. The
decoration, (00. is in a much mure lively vein, the elements articulating the
wall vary in shape from section to st'Ction, the windows have multiple
recessed ;ntrados aJld colonnel1cs, and the outlines of arches and imposls
are emphasized by ornamental friezes. Saint-Sernin, too, has a vast crypt, a
m)'sterious complex of spaces on different levels housing an immeasurable
wealth of relics. It is therefore all the more regrettable that tlie whole crypt
appears more like a museum than a place of devotion.
Between Saint-Nectairc and Issoi re - the mon asteries of Ihe Au,,:rge
Between the Via Lcmo~icensis and the Via Podensis lies the mc.untainous
region of the Au'ergne. There a group of monastery churche!; began to
emerge from the late eleventh century onwards that were inspin:d both by
the pilgrimage churches and hy the church of Saint-f:tienne in Ne,ers. The
most famous amongst this group of buildings are Saint-Nectai re, staned
probably around 1080, Notre-Dlme-dll-Pon in Clermont-Ferrand, dating
from around 1100. Saint-Austremoine in Orcival, also begun in (he earl)'
twelfth century, and Saint-Paul in Issoire, built around 1130 (photos,
pp.ISOff.).
149
S.in, P.ul.
SI"I~d
T here ;lrc Slriking similarities between the four churches. They all have
low ambu latory with fOllr radiating chapds and a d~p extended bay.
Above the stilted arcades of the chan<:cl bay is a clerestory, The ex tended
bay is formed by a wide arch and is probably windowless because of the
support of the barrel vault. The aisle less transept consists of five parts and
has two apses in the eastern wal1. It increases in height from the projecting
transept arms which correspond to the choir, via the two steep, diagonally
placed intermediate bays, towards the central dOUle. The effect of this
increase in height is, however, considerably reduced by the two strainer
arches framing the crossi ng at the le\"eI of the chancel arch. The upper
scrtion of the choir wall is broken up by a triple arcature. There IS no
doubt that this motif was inspired by Saint Etienne where the arms of the
transept, also in five sections, are separated by similar strainer arches.
Another such arch is used to separate the higher nave from the crossing.
T his nave has two storeys, with arca d~'S surmounted by galleries and a
barrel valilt, as in the pilgrimage churches. The proportions are different,
of course, and the triple gallery openings are low, SImilar to those of Saint
Etienne. Nevertheless, none of the bUIlders of the four monaStery churches
risked including a clerestory.
What is most surp rising, howel'er, is that there is no vertical wall
articulation. It had been a wellknown fcature in Normandy since 1040, in
Ne\"ers since 1065, and in Conques since the 1080s at the latest. In Saint
Nectai re, the oldest church of Ihe group, the absence of any I'ertical wall
articulation could Mill be explained by the fact that circular pie rs were
used. In NotreDame in Clermont Ferrand, however, there arc already
square piers with three semi . .::ircular responds, but none (acing the nave.
The responds are atTached only to the scrond pair of pie rs from the west
and end at Ihe gallery. A similar Si tuaTion exists in SaintAustremoine and
also in SainlPaul: in bolh churches, the pair of piers with the responds is
placed in the cemre of the nave, but ndther has a rranSI'erse arch under the
barrel vault. h appea rs that in all t hr~ churches a deliberate decision had
been made not to use any vertical articul at ion in thei r nal'eS, despite the
fact Ihal it exists in the side aisles. T he reason for this might be an aHempt
10 achieve a particulnr spatial effect, which caused Ihe monks to draw 011
IWO different sources and freely adapt them to their purpose.
The ideas underly ing tht construction of the monastery churches of the
Auvergne are very indiv idual and can be appreci ated more by analyzing
the ex terior rather than the interior, The chancel apse rises only a lillIe
above the roofs of th e ambulatory and the chapels and therefore appears
squal and earthbound. T he roofs of the Iransept arms are the same height
as the roof of the choir apse; but the effecl of the intersecting roofs o( the
eastcrn scrtion is imerrupted by the projecting cemral transept bays which
form a powerful. block like mass, from whICh the tower rises. This block
stands solidly betwcen the choir and the na l'e, and domin atcs the whole
eastern view, hs stepped arrangement, culminating in the central towe r, is
further emphasized by Ihe leantoroofs. This motif is shared by all four
churches. as is Ihal of the fOllr radialing chapels Ihal leave OUI lhe ct..'11tral axis.
Durmg the course of the cemury it was only the ornamentation that becMne
richer. The original Strllcture and articulation was, however, retained,
;I
150
Sa'"t-Neeta,,~
(l'uy-ok-OOme)_ form~r
lSI
152
Cun~ult
lMame-cl-um<), NotreOom .
F"~,,dt.
T he west of Fu nce
In the west of the Frankish empire, the region betWeen the lOIre and the
Dordogne, we find Romanesquc bUlldmgs of very differing characters. Two
main groups can bcdlsnnguished: lhe hal! churches and the domfflchurches.
The hal! churches
Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe (p hotos, p. 1521 appeaT$ 10 be Ihe oldest hall
church of the I'oltou regIon, with the choir and transepl daling back to
between 1060 and J085 and the nave to belween 1095 and 1115. The
church has a narrow, groin-vaulted ambulatory with columns, which is
adjoined by fhe, almosl completely circular, ambulatory chapels of
differing sizes, Ihe ones clo!il:st to the Lady Chapel being the largest ones.
T he two-storey ele'alion shows arcades on the lower level, with the
clerestory and the calone above them. Set in front of the choir area is a
three-part transept with a square crossing and an eastern apse on each
arm. In these features the building type differs Jinle from the monastery
churches of the Au,ergne. Entering the nave, however, the visitor is in for a
surprise: the groin-vaulted side aisles are just as wide and allnost as high as
the central nave with its high colonnades spanned by a barrel vault. Th is
barrel yauh is smooth as It extends from the east over the first six bays. [n
the [ast three bays, the vaul! is articu[ated by supporting arches which
made 11 necess,uy for Ihe ground pbn of the piers 10 be altered. T he SIxth
pair of piers from the east consists of " square core with semi-circular
attached columns, while the twO last pairs of pie rs ha,e a trefoil ground
plan. And whilst the responds on the nave side of the fi rst pair of supportS
extend as far up as the beginning of the barrel vault, the responds of the
two following pairs have their capitals all at the s;lme height. In the nave,
the capitals and the slarTing point of the vaulting arches are conne<;:ted by
means of a short vertical elemenT attached to the wall. Thus a wid e, wellilluminated space is created whose separa tion into individual aisles is hardly
noticeable, thanks to the width of the side aisles and the slenderness of the
supports. The extensive remnan ts of the nriginal painting on Ihe piers and
the vaul t give a dear idea of the lively chataCter of Romanesque churches.
The deyelopment begun at Saint-Savin is continued at the church of
Notre-Dame-Ia-Grande in I'oitie~ which was built probably during the
sond q uaner of the twelfth century. The ambulatory has three radiating
chapels along iTS polygonal exterior wall. Because " is only one storey high
it is fairly dark. Darkness also charaCterizes the narrow, proiccting
transept, wIth its crossing crowned by ;1 central tower. The na'e is
governed by different proporllons to the aisles in boTh width and height.
The cen tral nave is now nOTiceably WIder Than the SIde aisles and, owing to
an eXira secllon of wall above the arcades, distillCTly higher. T he barrel
vault no longer rccei"es its light from high SIde windows as in Saint-Sayin.
Instead, there is an atmosphere of subdued semidarkness. The supportS
are modeled on the sixth pair of piers in Sairlt-Savin: the square core has
hccn adorned WiTh semi-circuiar responds, with those in the ceOlral na'e
extending as far as the beginnl1lg of the barrel vault and carrying a
supporting arch. The nave of Notre- Dal1le-ia-Grande is governed by
different proporllons and thus illuminated differently. The more pro-
nounced rhythm makes its hall chaf<Kter far less obvious and emphasises
the central nave as opposed to the side aisles. This development is already
seen in the last few bays of Saint-Savin and the changes of the piers and the
introduction of the supports under the arches. It was to continue in the
churches of Chauvigny and Aulnay.
The exrrayagalll joy 111 ornamentaTion thaI marked the Romanesque
style of wesTern France left a funher exampk in Poiliers - namely Ihe
fa~ade (photo, p. 269). The whole wall surface IS a virtual pallern book of
architectural sculpture. Hardly a stone in the whole fa~ade has not
recei,ed of ornamenTallreatmenl. On the ground level There is Ihe mam
enrrance accompanIed by Three archiyohs and framed by IWO wide blllld
recesses WIth a Iwin arcade sct in each. The spandrels above are taken up
by figuratIVe scenes bordcred 3t the top by blind arcadlllg. Along two
zones the high central window is flanked by niches WiTh inset figures,
followed by a second frieu of blind areading which continues beyond the
higher central window. T he tympanum features ornalllental stonework
and a large oval afea containing a figurative scene set within an ornamental
framework. The fa~ade is framed by tWO round turrets surrounded by
compound responds. These terminate in a series of windows beneath a
high, conical roof. The re are fa~ades with similar anicula{ion in the Poitou
region, for instance in Civray (photo, p. 267) or 111 Echillais, bUT none
equals the richness in o rnamentation and figu rative sculpture of NotreDame-la-Grande.
153
I<'''''ardj; .a~1
One of the lightest and. at the saml' time. most Imposing hall churches
IS Notre-Dame in Cunault, situated very close to the Loire (figu res,
p. 153 and above). Notre-Dame was founded in the Carolingian period,
wh ile the present church was built during tlte first half of the twelfth
century in response to a pilgrimage that attracted ever more pilgrims.
Cunault was the SIte of the relics of Samt Maxenllolus, the '~ngagement
ring of Mary and dust from the birthplace of Christ m Beth lehem. The
immense complexity of Ihe layoUl of the building suggeSIS Ih", irs design
changed more than once. Building work started around 110011 110 with
the constrnction of the ambulatory with thr~ unusually large radiating
chapels. While the ground plan and decoration recall the choil" area of the
nearby monastery of Fontevrault. in Cunauh the clerestory in the choir
area was omitted, and the barrel vault of Ihe chel'et was supported by the
groin vaults of the side aisles and the ambulatory respectiveny. The first
change of plan seems 10 have occurred after Ihe conSlrucrion of rhe third
forechoir bay, and Ihe choir was completed with a fourth and deeper bay.
Adjoining thi s is a four-aisled nave with side aisles all of the same height.
154
The tWO outermost aisles terminate in tWO semi-circular apses. Had this
project been completed. the result would have been the 1110St unusual
Romanesque church imaginable. with a four-aisled hall of a height and
lightness otherwise encountered only in the late Gothic period.
However, this plan, too, was abandoned after a further two bays had
bef-n built, and the nave now possessed just two aisles. Up to this time,
between 1160 and 1170. the idea of a barrel-vaulted central nave had bef-n
considered essemial, so it followed thaI Ihe side aisles were lower than the
nave. But now the IaSI Ihree nal'e bays were rib-vaulted and Iherefore of
the same height as the side-aisles. These so-called Angevin vaults. built in a
dome-shape and articulated by eight very slender columns, relieve the
interior of all weight and sen.,.. of dirtion.
There are a small number of places in the church interior where the
remains of painted decoration from the Gothic IXriod can be seen. l'aTi of
the original decoration is represented by the strikingly beautiful capilals
which ha"c fortunately su rvived (he last few centuries with very little
damage and little need for restoration.
1S5
156
aisleless church with four square bays spanne<l bj' domes resting on
pendentives. They are supporte<l by relatively low transverse and lateral
trans,'erse arches, respectively attached 10 the outside walls, and their height
remains IJ<,I0w the ape" of the tunnel vaul t of the choi r. The resulting na,'e
space is wide and sotl1ewhat oppressi,e. The dark pointing of the very regu lar
stonework appears clumsy, whilst the capi tals. on the other hand, are of a
vcry high quality. The side walls of the gro und floor are articulated by bli nd
areading, and abo,e that each wall has two windows flanked by
colonneltes.
The na,e of the cathe<lral of Angoulime (figures, p. 156} whICh was
begun around 1120/30 appears to be a faithful imitation of the convent
church of Fontevrauh. In contrast to the !aner. there is no ambulatory at
Angouleme, th e choir consisting only of another apse with three semicircul ar chapels. The tra nsept consists of five parts. The square crossing is
covered by an octagonal dome resting on a tambour. Extending outwards
from the crossing, there is a narrow intermediate bay with an eastern apse
on each side, the last feature reminiscent of the traditional transepts_ On
each side of the transept, this intermediate bay is followed by a square bay
covered bl' a smaller dome. Both transept arllls were intende<l to carry a
tower, but only the north tower was aClUall y bUilt: four storeys high. It
exceeds even the height of the dome.
T he cathedral's remarkable featllre is the fa~ade. Similar to the westfrom of Notre- Dame-Ia-Grande in Poiticrs, it is almost completely cO"ered
with decorati"e elements. The fa~acle consists of three storeys of differing
heights and is subdivided into five sections by means of half-columns.
These are linked by semi-.circular arches which in IUrn span smaller Side
recesses with figures. In no storey docs the height of the side arcbes
correspond with that of the central arch; this is a fa~ade wtth no hori:wmal
01.""
157
"OTfOM IlIGHT
,...
lid
IT
Sam,-Front,ground pion.
From around 1120
15 8
....
"t.
II'
.
o
5 10m
. ,... -
,-I-
I.
-\
159
OPPOSITF. rAGE
Saln.-Ju~.HIt- VAlc:obr~..., ( H~u.~
G~tunnc).
u .e~Ifth ",nrut)'. V_
161
S.inl-Guilhem-I~I>esen (I-Ierault).
fo,,,,,,r COflVem church ..,f SaontGullhem,
T.nth century, third quaner of the
d.,.nth century, around 1100. View..,f
the apses (bu;lt dUring dlffe.ent ",ages of
construction),the nave (cOfl>cc,aled In
the ,.",hcenlllry) .nd the "-csllo"'e'
,
162
OPPOSITE PAGE
Sa.nt-Manm-duc..nlgou (f'yrc..e.s
Ori.nt.I.,.). Supponed by oold "'IJllllllg
wall.,lhe moun"", monastery I. Sl\U"ed
in . picturesque 1"".I;on below Ihe
summit of the Call1W>U '" ,he 5Iern
f'y,en~.
SalnlMan",-due:.nlgou, ISOrI>ctry of
the ",.... ,Io",y church
SaimGuilhem\t.l)6(n IHerault),
fo,me' convent church of Sa,,,,Gujlh~on.
Tenlh antury.lh"d Quarte, oflh~
elevenlh ",ntury, around ] ]00. Cloo>le,
and na,'e from Ihe SQUlh
164
cenrer and three identical apses, Originally the supportS had three pairs of
granite columns which were enca.scd during the construCtion of the upper
church. Tooay, only the eastern pair SUrviVes. The lower church is
connected neither to the trapezoid.shaped narthex in the west section, nor
to the upper church of SaintMartin,
Saint Martin also has a nave and tWO aisles, all barrelvaulted, Two
bays of the lower church correspond to one bay of the upper church, but
the lattn is displaced more towards the east relative to the lower church:
the building begins above the second naVl" bay and projects at its eastern
end o"er the lower church by OIle and a half bays, The strikingly high and
broad arches under the barrel vaults are supporte<! by thick column shafts
with clumsily decorated cushion capitals, The interior is divide<! into half
by a pair of C1uciformbased piers with transverse arches. The space is
terminated in the cast by three semi-circular apses, the central one of
which is wider because of the broader central nave. There is no clerestory at
the base of the barrel vault as at Cluny II. It is conceivable that the omission
of windows was deliberate after the experience gained in the lower church,
A mass;"e bell tower is situated in the north-east, articulated by
beautiful blind arches similar to the ones in the ap.scs of the upper church,
[n the soulhwest there is the trapewid'shaped cloister which has been
greally altered by restorarion work,
The monaStery church of Cluny must have innuenced developments in
the soUlh quitl" carlyon and also encoUTage<! builders to experiml"nt with
barrel vaulting, A whole century before such a style had gained ground in
the west of France, a barrelvaulted hall church of the same type as SaintSavin.surGartempe or Cunault was bUilt on the Canigou. In the region
west of the Rhone, three further barre1-vaulte<! hall.type naves were built
during the first half of the twelfth century: in CorncilladeConnenr,
Carcassonne, and Marcevo1. East of the Rhone, this style had already been
taken up around the middle of the eleventh century, first in SaintDonal,
and later in SaintRfmydeI'rovence, Embrun, and Hyere.
The development of tbe reJtgious architecture of Burgundy took place
almost exclusively under the patronage of Cluny, That it ne,'enheless
provided the main impetus for developments in the soUlh throughoLli the
eleventh century is testified to by the churches of Quaranle and the former
Bene<!ictine abbey of SaintGuilhemleDCsert (photos, pp, 162-4). The
church of Quarante was consecrate<! in 1153 and, as in Cluny II, has a
bolTrdvaulted centra) nave with windows in the barrel ba.sc. Saint
Guilhem is situated in the Gorge of Verdus 3ud was established b)' Count
Guillaume of Toulouse, a comradeinarms of Charlemagne,
Between 1962 and 1970 a square erypl was excavared which presum
ably dates back 10 the late temh cemury, It might have btlonge<!to the aisle'
less church from which the first bay of the existing church and the twO tiny
a~s in the transept originate, It is likely that even the foundations of the
na"e su pports and parts of the transept are of the same origin,
Today the church of SaintGuilhem, consecrated in 1076, has an aisled
na,'e comprising four bays, and a I'ery prominent aisled transepl with
three: apses from around 1100. The na,'e has twO storers; broad
rectangular piers with responds on the sides facing the na,'e, and the side
aisles cany Ihe arcades wilh Iheir m:essed supporting arches. Abole the
arcades and under the barrel vault there are large windows. The responds
initiate the supporting arches of Ihe barrel Iaults and also serv~ as vertical
elements of articulation. The e:<terior of the nave is articulated by 3
rhYlhmicalarrangemenl of blind elements.
The windows uf the slIlgle-stOrey choir area are placed below a row of
wide blind arcades. The buitding work mUSI hale extended over a
prolonged period: whilst the southern aps<' slil! shows the Iypical blind
arches between Ihe lcsenes, the northern apse is articu lated by a low blind
arcade underneath the eaves into whICh small Windows are lIl:iCned. The
wide cenlral apse, su pponed by unusually strong pier bunresses, even has
large windows with flanking colonnelles. Below Ihe eaves is a ':ol1linuOII$
row of arcades through which one can .see the calolle. A similar blind
arcade is found in Saint Etienne in Nevers. The basilica-type elevation of
the nave wilh Ihe clueslory underneath a barrel va ull is also .-ecalls that
bllliding. There is, of cou rse, no gallery.
Burgundy was not the only influence, howeler: Ihe pilgrim churches,
100, occasionally left their mark on Ihe Roussillon region. When the
Benedietine abbey of Sa in Ie-Mane in Alel-les-B."lins received a new church in
Ihe firSI half of Ihe twelfth century, the Abbot Raymond decided Ihat the
!;Cven-bay nale should be built in the style of the pilgrim church, wh ilslthe
eastern Stion consiSIS only of one apse as wide as the central nave. The
building is now a ruin (photos, above). The piers, now largely altered, are
likely 10 have had cruciform bases, and between Ihem arcades and g.111eries
of more or less equal siu were sel underneath a barrel vault. The gallenes
must have been covered by barrels wilh a quarter...:ircle profile and had
brge wmdQws framed on Ihe ol1lside by colon nelles and ornamental
friclCS; ,here might also have been somc oculi. Apart from the double
entrance in the west, a recessed portal still exiSls in Ihe sol1lh. Allhe level
of the fifth holY from the west, high, slender slair turrets were 3nached 10 the
outside of the nave. These may also have been bell towers, since Ihe tOp
StOrey of the norrh mrrel shows traces of arcades to release the sound.
Ibe central apse has five rocesses Aanked with columns and three calotle
windows. The polygonal, triangular exterior is supported on the corners
of the lower storey by pier bunrcsscs. Between Ihem, Ihe broad,
rectangular forms of the recesses projCCt and carry a slender, tripartile
blind arcade o'er a smooth plinth area. The upper storey, behind which
Ihe calotte is siluated, is furnished wilh corner columns and a three-part
architru,e endowed wilh lUIish ornamentation.
In addition 10 Ihe "imported~ styles, the Roussillon region developed ils
olYn: the longitudinal nave. T his emerged during the eleventh century and
later spread widely throughout Ihe soulh, Ihe longitudinal nale. At first, il
did not ha,c a vaulted ceiling; e~amples are the churches of MonastirdelCamp (1064/87), Serrabone (end of the eleventh century), CauncsMinervo,s {after mid twelfth century~ and Sainl-Gcnis-des-FOlliaines
(consecrated in 1 I 53).
165
166
'''''''IIICt por~b
BOTTO M
Saln.tsl.l.rlts<k I~ Mer
(Bouchcs-du
ROOne). 1>llgnmagrchurch of lhe Holy
M.nts. Around 1170180. around 1200.
View from soulh. wesl
scmi--circular on !he inside and polygonal on .he ou.side, opens onto the
oblong crossing. Flat nbs in Ihe shape of a solid stone band articulale the
renoyated caloTle. The arms of the transept are lower than the nave and
the apse. They arc barrelvaulted and, as in the lower storey, have apses III
the east. T he building of the nave began around 1160, and only two of the
five planned bays were built. The bays arc articulated by strongly recessed
transverse arches which support the pointed b.1Trc1 vault that starts above
a narrow cornice. Aboye it, the recessed niches open up. Even the uppcr
church is marked hy an almost CiSlercian austeri!y; the apse alone is
decorated by a pair of columns with simple crocket capitals. Between I 19Q
and 1200 part of the building collapsed, so that the east stion had to be
rebuilt and the crossing vault modernized. The dois!er, which dates from
the last quarter of the twelfth century, used to house Important works of
Romanesque sculpture, most of which are today kept in museums. Some
beautiful tombstones can stili be Sttn in the galleries of the church.
The pilgrim church of the Holy Maries in LcsSaintesMariesde)a
Mer was built in the decade after 1170 and is one of the most famous
monuments of Provence. It, too, is a alsleless church wilh fiye bays and
wilh recessed blind arches af\icu latlllg Ihe e:<lerior walls (phOIO,
p. (67). A si:<th bay in the shape of a Ira pelOid leads over inlO the serni
circular apse. As early as 12()() Ihe building was extended 10 form a
fortified church. Battlemems were added abol'e the rnachicolation, and the
chancel area was crowned wilh a polygonal lOwer. The apSl' windows
were dosed so Ihat the already dimly IiI interior bc<:ame even darker.
Apart from the flat blind arches on the apse wall, the exterior of the
pilgrim church '5 completely deyoid of ornamentation. As a result, the
parapets, wilh Iheir banlemenls rising above the row of semi--circular
arches on the machicolation, and the closed Mkeep ~ abo\'e the apse appear
:III the more threatening. The apse and the twO adjoining bays had 10 be
raised so that the crypt, donated by Rene d'Anjou, could be accommodated.
Not far from Tar:lscon is the delightful chapel of SaintGabriel (photo,
p. 167). Built around 12()(), il is one of the most imponant Romanesque
buildings in Provence. h tOO has no aIsles and a poinled barrel vault. Its
interior is notable for its recesSI'd blind arches and lack of ornamentation.
The nave has three bays, short, chapel.like extensions in the east, and a
low, semicircular apSl'. The westfrOIll is remmlscent of a Roman
triumphal arch. The fa"ade is divided into 11'.'0 sections which correspond
10 the wall section and the vault se<:tion of the interior. The pointed arch
on the gable has an oculus sel in a framework of orna"'enlal bands
unitating classical forms. Around it at the four points of Ihe compass are
the Evangelists' symbols. A wide semi-ci rcular arch framed by an egg and
dart pallern opcns up underneath, frammg a slightly recessed portal
flanked by two columns and with a triangular pediment with a small relief
plaque. lbe apex is crowned by a lamb. lbe enlrance between the
columns also has columns, a tym panum with carved figures, and
archi\'olts; the door lintel no longer exists. A centrally placed flight of
stone steps leads to a platform supported br a wall. T his feature adds
further to the enchantment of Ihis beautiful west front.
167
168
'"'fnot "
CO_t'w
'm
,n.
I"".
w".=
I.
,hot" ....
.n.
cu."" "" ..
00
\lJ,
~,
...
--i
.,..l
~
RlC'ux M""rvoo' 1A udeJ, rounod church of
Arounod
1150-75. ln"''-- ~ocw and grounod pl.n
t:A~.umpcoon-<leNolr"CDa ......
169
A",ong~ he
mos.
sp.~,ula'
buildll1g5
in h a"'c
a, h. C;".rcian mOll3~,.ri~ in ,he
fOOlhills of .he Alp. and .h. P}'r""otS.
They ..... ",. bo,l! in .he se<:ond half of ,he
.....dhh ""'o'y. S,m;[ .. ' 0 .h, .l'ghlly
olde, chu",h of Font.nay (phOl"', pp.
134-5). .he C... ercian chorehes of
P,ov.",,' arc "mplc:, clc:a,ly ..."".u,.d
'p3Ces made fmn> "onew."k of .h.
highest qualITY. Again a. a. Fontenay.
~ ,.ty f(lf .h....ff"",, largely on .heit
,dyllic ","ing .nd on ,h. ~"'. and
...,eni.y of .h. natute surrounding . hcm.
f,om
from] ]50.
[as! .ICW
Sinanq""
Th. mona~ .. ry of Sinanq"" w;os es bhshed In ,he ,emote v.ll.y of SOnancol. by
lhe 6>shop of Dv.,llon In 1148. The
con~"uoion of lhe chuh "",If began
a'Qund 1 ]50. and ". eaS!ern se<:"on is ,n
,he 'yplCal CiStercian l'ad'I;',". ,Ibe" in
,he .,yl. more popular ,n .he sou,h. The
''angular ch.1I1 .rea IS replaced by.n
.pse whICh IS a. w,de a he n.., and
,'luated beh",d , l"'nSv....... ,ch. Th
arch has a functIOn .,m,l .. 10 ,hal of an
c~'.nded bay. The SIde chapel. have
denloped "'10 apses ...."h "" " ,ngul .. ,
Silv.cone
Silva",nc (a .ilva c.nnorun>, ,...I wood)
is fi .., .... n.i.;>ned in .h~ yur ]030 ,n
cOIIn,ion wi,h a ",,,Icm,,,,. of lItrm,lS.
Morc .han a nlO.y passed, howevc"
before .h. Cistercian mOllaSlery W31
."abli.hed 'n .h~ v.lky of .he 1)urall.
The monaStery enloyt"d .he highe ..
p.O.""IIon and had Ono half-bro'h ..
of .he cn>~'or Konrad III . as 'ts first
abbot. The monkscam(C f'om Morimund_
Th. chorch wa, finally boil, aroond 1]60
and has .urvi,ed .Imoo. unahered. The
bu,]d,ng work laSled ....... al dad .... and
,he square cha""el wnh a",ompallying
'tangular chapels waS no, comple.ed
un,il 1191/92. n.e .ransep. arms wnh
h.ir po,n,ed barre]-vaulted cClhng ....cre
h.n bo,l!. follo ..... ed by ,he cross"'g
.panned by "b v301 . The na,'. muS!
'nlt,ally h..,. betn planned a h, ..
.,sled hasillCa with potn.ed bar,el
... ulllng ", nave and .,sles; ,hi, is
sugges.ed by ,b~ vauillng ,n . bc eaS'ern
bay of the nonhc,n .id. ai.l. and by.he
window in .h. upper w.ll of ,h. na ....
!lut the plalls We'" al.ered . ... ulring ,n
deeper Imoot squarc naw bay. wi.h
barrel "auhing 0.... r.....t trans--ef'Sl'
arches. Th. "de aISles were fitted wnh
po,med botrel vaults of va,ying dimcn
170
f omcfroidc
S'I".. I In the foolhliis of Ihe I\.entt.
"'mh-....e" of Na.bonne, lhe monaslery
of Fontefroilk w~s fOllndl 'o,,'~rds ,he
end of Ihe ele'~mh cenlury by Aym.ry 1.
Vicom'e de N .. bonne. In 1146 " joinl
,h, ,h'n young Cis".,i.n O.lkr. The
money for ,he huildmg of .he be,uliful
mon~"uy church was d"",a,I by
Ermengarde. lhe granddaughle, of ,he
founder, In 1157. An ...11 p..,udobaslhu wlfh five h.),s and a ".n"'pl
con$ls"ng of .hree $/juarcs we~ bUlh.
OpenIng on.o ,he .un",p' are a poly_
gon.1 central apse wilh 3n utended b.y.
IWo sm.ller chapels. and Iwo ,ide ~pses.
also of polygon.1 shape. A POIn.I barrel
.aull spans ,he 1\3,'e .nd is flankl by lhe
qll."e ... llcie barrd V~UI'5 of ,he SIde
..sics, The Ihrtt tran"'pl bays and Ihe
Utrn(il bay of lhe apse, on lhe olher
hand, .Iready h.ve quadripartite fib
vaul"ng, ,ince ,hey were no, mmp!etcd
unlll ,he early ,h'1lttn,h century. By ,ht
second h~lf of Ihe Ih,,,ttn,h cenlll'Y. ,ht
dOlster 8"1I."cs, the ch.pter h.lland lhe
do,m"O<f were hUIIt, )S well OS lhe
buildlllg for Ihe lay brothers ,n , he we ..
alld Ihe eleganl .bbot's chapel III .M
<ou.h..,aslem pa" of Ihe .huh. The
row of chapds on the $Outh s,1k 1$ 311
adduion from 1M I.te Gothic pe,iod.
As In all CtsIC"ian churches. lhe apse
and 'M e""ndl bay are considerably
low... h." ,he na,e. ThIs opened up the
J'OS,ibil"y of p,o"d,ng additional lighl_
ing f,om .he cas. for ,he$( n.,'cs w,re
rd.uvdy dark on account of ,he" qua,;b .,hc. dev.uons_ In , he c....." wall of
l e Thoronn
Ix.p; Ihc f:lo .h.1 buildmg wo.k on
.he founh
monu"ry in sou.h.,n F",nc. bq;all I."r. u Thor.,....
wa, actually com pined .~rlicr .han
FontfrOld . 1M church and mon~st.ry
bUlld,ngs ar.
,mburd wIth .hc
.nd,nonal Cos.e ... an "mpl",,,y and
d,S""Y' Founded In 1136 by Raymond de
S,un.-Cilks. Com d. Toulouse, ,hc
mOlla".ry was fi'" ."u."d nur
Tounour and mol'ed
present
between 1150 and 1160. \'('ork on .hc
church and monastery bu,ld,ng mul'
h.,-. btgUII ,mmc.;l,",dy "ftcr ,he mov.,
and was <om pined around 'M t.at
1200. Sy 1514. only ",.n monks w ...,
IclI al I..: Thoron ... N...nMks., .h.
chOIr waS .. bu,h '" .h. b...oq"" .. yle a.
Ih. btgln"'1lg of .h ,gh'ttnth century.
The p<eScn. Slale of Ihe bu,ld1llg" durlO
Ih. r<SIora""''' w",.k by Rev",,!.
Ci",,,;,,"
..,II
.0 U,
Ol"
a.
nalc.
enough hghl ,~n ...... 'h,ough
,h. wind"w. ,n ,hc main ~pse bo
sou,h.,,, 'ide ai,I . Ihe "o'e... wall, and
alx,..,.n. ~pse.
173
Secular buildings
O~roS'TE
' ... GE
'<IT
G, ...... lEu",), c=it. Shdl-kp from the
o ly """Ifrh ",n'"I). kerpa ...... nd 1170
""nod.
.Iu-oud>ou.
domn,,,,
u.m1C
.h.
'0
PO"'''
"'M' "'''''''l''
."adct
"bou.
""",SC$,
,h.
176
mos.
,h. '. .
.,ood
"1,,
I.
,n
177
Bruno Klein
Romanesque architecture in
Spain and Portugal
~hgud
<k
Oviedo,
MOnl~
Naronco.
P.I"c~
Of course this does not necessanly mean that archit.-.::ture 111 twelfthcentury Spain lost any originality by following foreIgn trends" bUI that
Spain became increasingly integrated into a broader European context
whilst not losing its own identity.
The conflict between the variolls Muslim rulers in the south, whose
basc was at C6rdoba, and the Christian rulers in the north, brought about
a cultural division of the Iberian Peninsula into two parts: evidence of
Romanesque architecture is therefore found only mthe north, w:hile m the
sOUlh Muslim architecture continued to be cultIvated, in some parts until
well into the fifteenth cenlllry. Whilst it is true that the fiercely contested
borders gradually moved further soUlh. the starting point of Romanesque
architecture, however. must always be looked for in the extreme north of
Spam.
I're-Romanesque architecture
Only fragments have survived of the earher Christian archirecrure in
nonhern Spain from the time of Ihe kingdom of the Asturias. The most
significant monuments are found near the old capital of Ovi('do: here,
King Ramiro I (842-850) built a palace complex with audience chamber
at the MonIC Naranco (photo, top, right), which was extend<ed by his
successor Ordoiio J with the construction of:l church, San Migu>!l de Lilio
(photo, tOp, left), Buth buildings feature a remarkable wealth of architectural articulating elements, such as pilaster strips. blind ardes, and
corntces, and many ornament;\1 shapes in relief, While the palace audience
chamber is unique for its period, the church - only pariS of which ha'-e
survived - can more easily be connected in typological terms with other
contemporary churches. The maUl space is subdivided into several shon
aIsles. The tr:lnseph. which hardly prOI"t beyond the width of side aisles,
is adjoined by rectangular, cell-like chambers used as side chapels and 10
house Ihe altars.
Before long this building style underwent 3 decisive change, triggered
by the emigration of the Christian ~MozarablC~ population in the
Moorish pan of Spain. comin!; under increasing pressure and movin!;
northwards, where their innuence brought about the development of a
new architectural style. This was characterized by the fusion of older local
tradiTions with Moorish clemenTS which, in turn, still contained traces of
Roman and Byzantine style. This type of ~Mozarabic~ archtleclllre had
existed at an tacher date in Al-Andalus. Presumably. the most impona111
examples were situated in Toledo: none of the works there have, however.
survivcd. Instead. there is a whole series of buildings extant in the
Christian north of Spain in which the earlier Asturian style is mixed with
novel elements. While the churches tend 10 be ba<;cd on a snopler layout,
Ihey are endowed with arcades and apses with horseshOt arches and central
domes. Thc older Iype of the square-ended apse often remains IIltact. but
only as an OUler wall-<:asing surrounding a horseshoe-shaped interior
cham ber, and there is an increasing wea1th of architectural ornament.
Suon afterwards, this building style followed in the Christian areas of
the Iberian Peninsula was replaced by Roman csque architecture.
179
kingdom of C6rdoba. During the tenth centur)" the counts probably had
pay dues 10 Cordoba. After the Moorrsh IIlvasion at the end of the
Centur)", however, which was soon followed b)' the decline of the Moorish
empire, the situation was reversed, and the counts of Rarcelona were able
to demand allegiance and tribme from the small Moorish principaliti~.
The abbot Count Oliva Cabreta of Bedah' and Cerdaiia p[a)'ed an
important political role, which was also to ha'"e great impact on architecture, at that stage of Catalonia's economic development. Like several
others of his official colleagues, the aristocratic prelate had traveled 10
Ital)' where he had encoun tered the new reforms. He was abbot of twO
monasteries in Catalonia: Saint Michel de CUX3 situated in the French
Roussillon region, and Santa Maria in RipolL Adaptations following the
new style were carried out on both churches. From the year 1018, Oliva
Cabrcta was also bishop of Vic.
Toda)' no more than a ruin, Saint Michel de Cuxa was one of the most
important building complexes in the Motarabi, style datmg from the
tenth centur),. Oliva Cabreta commissioned major extensions both eastwards by the addItIon of a new chancel area, and also at the west end by a
new fa~ade with two towers. At Ripoll, there was anoth.er church built in
the older style which had been consecrated in the !ate ninth century. In the
course of the tenth centur)", that building had been extended twicc and had
finally ended up featuring a fj"e"aisled hall layout with a matching number
of apses. Even when he was alread)' BIshop of Vic, Oliva Cabrera had this
building altered again, Ihis tnne arranging for the construction of a broad
transept that would termina te the nave and aisles. The apses - whose
number had now risen to se,'en - were joined to the east wall of the transept (photo, below). T he re-consecration of the church finally took place
in 1032, the S.1me year as the diswlution of the caliphate of COrdoba.
[t nllght appear as if the shape of the church of Ripoll was arrived al
more or less by chance and graduall)', by the series of alterations and
to
,ons""rd
ISO
San,
p~",
.bb.,y,u,n$
aOTIOM
San! Pert de Rodts: onteroo'f)f the
monastery church con5e(:r.'ed in 1022,
prOI",,""gcolumns moun'cd on hlg!>
plin'hs
extensions described. Nevenhelcss, we can assume that the work <lone In the
ele\'enth century was largely the construction of a new buo1din~: in which
only a few foundations. :I few pans of wall. or a few capitals wt:re rcuSl.-d.
The layout of the new church is remm'SCCnI of Ihe Roman-carly Christian
style: the five-aisled hall layout, unusual in itself, and the addition of the
prominent transept had brought the church in line with the Constantlnian
basilica pattern of Old St. reier's in Rome which had the s.1mc ch~lfactcristic
fc;uur.-s. These were repeatedly copied throughol1l the whole of the ~ I iddle
Ages. though" should be noted that their o\"Crall number is so small that in
evcry single instance one must assume a special dircct relationship to thc
church of Old St. Peter's in Rome. I" Ripoll. thai relalionship was embodied
In the person of the dient who had traveled to Italy. What is, how,:ver, of far
gR"ater imponance to the history of architecture is the facllhal Santa Maria
In Ripoll was :I building which represented a dear move away from the
traditional regional models in the Iberian Peninsula.
After Ripoll, very few Mozarabic elements were integrated into the
new type of architecture which was now dominated by Roman forms - or
lSI
;0,
.orrOM
Sc...,~ {frarl<;f, EaSlfM
Pyrmcnl,
at least such forms as were then aSSOCiated wuh thmgs Roman in tm:
widest sense. [n other words, with the work In Rlpoll, Spanish architecture
reioined the mainstream of European style from which it had become
more and more Isolated oWlllg to the special status and political
development of the [benan Peninsula. Given the great SignifICance of the
church at Rlpoll. It IS all the more deplorable that today - after repealed
acts of destruction, particularly durmjl: the nineteenth century - the
blllldlllg remallls no more th .... a halfhearted. poor quality pastiche.
This IS not the case vo'IIh the monastery of Sant Perc de Rodes {photo,
p. 181 ) situate<! III an IIl1preSSlVe SCtling high abo,'(' Ihe sca. Consecrated in
\022. this building is also m a Slate of rum today. Nevertheless, it has
retainl-d much more uf liS original character than Ripon, the ,ietim of O>'erresturatlon. Beyund us prolectmg tr.lnsept arms, the threeaisled church has
an ambulatory fbnked b)' chapels. The \'ery high side aisles with their
barrel vaults prop the VJlIlt of the ccntr.tl nav<' which IS supported on strong
1r.lns\erS(' arches. Th~, III turn, sprong from pro]C'Ctmg columns loc;llW
one ab..we the otner in double rows on "ery high plinths. Further projC'CTIng
columns on tne square pler-renals support the arches of the arcades, the
overalll"C'$ult belllg a 'cr) Ihrcc-dlmcnSlOIlal structural form. IXspl1e thi ....
the upper wall sections ~n.d tm: chancel arca {whose arcades arc carncd not
by columns bill by p,[aSieTS whICh apptar 10 ha"c been COt OUI of Ihe sohd
wal1l arc domUlated by flat wall surface.
The vanel)" of allthcsc elemcms is also reflccled in their stylistic origm.
Thc columns placed one on top of the other demollStr<lIe Ihatthc builder
of Sam Perc de Rodes was famlhar wllh the Moorish architccture found in
the south of the counu). where Ih.s mOllf could be siudied abo"e all in Ihc
mosque of Cordoba. The br.I!.;!nl K u[pllng of Ihe capitals also pomts III
that d,rC'CTIon. The :l!nbu[;lIory, on the other hand, is an element1argely
unknown Jnd vcry rarely cmplo)'ed m Spamsh Rumanesque arch,teclure,
and ItS OTlgm must defimtcl) be regarded as I'rench. The SJme is Ilkcl)' 10
apply 10 Ihe shape of Ihe p'ers with thClr diagunally placed pro]C'Cting
shafts, The basllocall spallal construction, on Ihe other hand, as well as
aligning conlpartm~nt~ uf different height along the central aXIS, IS a
feature typical of MOl.lrabic ~rchitecture, IUter all. the barrel vault with
Irans'erse arches h.ld already been known 1Il AstUrian architecture of the
mmhcenturr
We can Iherdore appreciate that 5;lIIt I'ere de Kodes docs not folluw
Ihe Roman panern anywhere ncar as closel)' as the slightl)" earlier bUilding
of Rlpoll. [t becomes ob ...ous, ne"cnhelC'Ss, that Ihe Cataloman clienls no
longer looked for msplr.tllon only from loo:al sources, bUI Ihat Ihey self
confidently tned to amalgamate highly demandmg clc~ms from very
differenl regions. E,'en III ItS vaSI Kale, Ihls church bUl[dmg far surpasses
an)"lhmg Ihat had been bUlh beforc an thc coumry, and competes ","h
olher bUlldangs an soutm:rn Europe.
AI that lime, Catalonia e>:perienced an e>(uemel) fecund period of
arch"ectural aCII'"). JIICSted by a number of extant buildings which,
hoW('ver, cannot all be dliCusscd here. The cathedrals of Girona, and
espec13 l1y thaI of Vic. nl USI huwever be menlloned. The laller was
consecrated in 1038. while Bishop Oliva who, as we know, had a great
IS)
[=
,-.~
rT:--~
--
II - : - . ~
184
OPI'OStU
Cardona. San V;~.no;. Nav. wllh ~h.",,01
(topkfl ).
wa(( of ""m,. ( n.. (rop ,ighll.
cro"",& (oono", Idl l.
"d. 31>1. 100110," nghl )
'85
u Stu d'UrgellllieidalUrid~),
cathedral. From 1175. Vitw from the
east. Ground plan
its ornate group of windows above are also reminiscent of the same Italian
bUIlding. and maybe even of S. Abbondio iu Como dating from the late
eleventh century (photo. p. 84). it is unlikcl). on the other hand. that the
unusual layout with two massive towers on the extended transept arms
was modeled on the Italian cath~-dral of Aosta. It proves, rather, that e'-en
at the end of the twelfth century the Catalonian church of Saint-MicheldeCuxa (photo, p. 182) on the other side of the Pyrenees was regarded as
the aspirationalmodcl for the cathedral of La Seu d'Urgci, since they both
share the same piau. To thIS extent it is out of the questIon to suggest that
Catalonian architecture in the eleventh and twelfth centuries conSTituted
all Moffshoot~ of the so-called Lombardic architecture. After all, despite
any connections with Ital)' which can be proved, Ca talonian architecture
remained independent in the form of its buildings, while any corresponding feJtures apply almOSt exclusively to surface de(t)ration. Another
typical example is {he church of Tahul! (phOIO, p. 183 ) which was
consecrated in 1123. All Ihis goes to show clearly that Catalonian
architeCTure took iTS inspiration not merely from tradiTional regional
models, but was also capable of integrating other elements.
There was no comparable wide-ranging architectural devclopmCIlf in
the proviuce of Navarre situated further to the WCSt although there, tOO,
SOllie new buildings wcre constructed.
The most significant amongSt them is probably the mOu3Stery church of
San Salv<ldor de Leyre (figures, p. 186) which was also used as the burial
chamber for the kings of Navarre. The kings of Aragon had a corresponding
burial sitl."" in the Monastery of San Juan de 13 I'etia (photo, right ) with its
impress,,c SClling beneath a large It-dgc of rock which provided effecTive
protection from the Moorish troops. All that is left of San Juan de la Pena
are a few ruius, and the building had uever been on a particularly large o r
ambitious scale. It was different in Leyre: the building there has a uave with
single aisles dalmg from the thirteeuth century, with au adjoining three-
much largcr than the small apse WIndows that seem like sli t windows by
comparison. Seen from outside. the transept gives the impression of
lighting a pabce-like upper storey of the church. The design of the large
main apse is also unusual. The princtpal o~ning has the usual recessed
arch articulation, but at the far end is an o~ning into a three-quarter
circular cha~1 sel within the solid wall, which features an arrangement of
niches and a domed vault. T his is hardly noticeable when viewed from the
outside ~ause the cent ral chapel can be recognized only by one tiny
window_ Above it, a much larger one with deeply recessed re"eals provides
light for the main ap!oe. By looking at the exterior wall structure of that
apse WI' can clearly see that the master builder, Raimllndus Lambardlls,
was familiar with the architecture of Lombardy: the minor articulation of
the wall cylinder by means of several pilasters endmg at a cornice
surmoun ted by a dwarf gallery strongly calls 10 mind the correspouding
~tions of S. ~'Iichele in Pavia, Italy (photo, p. 85), which was probably
built in the second quarter of the twelfth century. The west front of La Sue
d'Urgell with its three deeply recessed entrances abated at ei ther side, and
186
,he mo"""cry
187
188
.....
C . o i020 M
0': ~~ .. u.u . ...
S
..~.. :: r
'-GUc:
: = =:.~:: .......
c:.: :
.....
and the malll arcades, .... hilst the fourth onc rISes up as far:ls the base of
the vault, Intcrrupted onl)' by a narrow cornICe. The 1:111 main arcades are
echoed al hIgher level b)' the g.ll1ery arcade: paired columns placed one
bthmd the other are used to subd .. ide them inTO twin openings SCI wlIhm
a sll1gle blind arch.
Ltgilt IS admmed onl)' \Ia the Windows of the side aIsles and the
gallenes ;lIld VIa rhe centraIIO"er. wh"h means that II docs not dircctly
illuminate the mIghty na\'e of th .. l'hurch. The: space therefore lies m a
diffused semidarknrs~ whIch prOVides an C\'en morc effcclil'e almosphere
for rhe comrolled architectural artlculallon. The chel'CI alone has liS own
rmg of Windows, .... h"h must hal'c made a ma10r cOlltribution TO the
almost my~I1~:l1 IlIu"lInallon of the sanctuary and of the shnne of Ihe
martyr. &cause of tater alteral10ns the origm:ll dayhghllng afTangemenlS
can, unfortunately, nu longer be reconstructed completely.
The eXlerior of the cathedral has :llso been sublCClroto a series of changes.
lIere lhe rebulldll1g of the towers 111 the eIghteenth cenlury should be
mentioned, and the contemporaneous rearrangemeot of the forecourl.
Except for lhe transept gables, all [he nther parts of the cathedral ha\'c
been almost completcl)' obstruCll-d by latcr additions. The moderll visitor
fO fhe building IS therefore all the more impressed and surprised by fhe
powerful 1I11Cnor. Ongmally. fhe skillful overall de~agn had been visible
also from the oUlslde. Thc walls of Ihe north and south fa~dcs with fhe.r
hlgh.le\eI galleries arc aTliculated by robust blind arcades nOI unlike plain
aquedoci construcllon. whdst Ihe cast r-nd wllh Ihe chancel appears Tlcher
and more delalled. AI low IC\'d Ihe chapels arc domm3ted by frequem
r~ponds IIIlerspersed wuh deep. molded wllldow openings, whilc fhe twO
upper SlOre)'5 or the chancel arca are enclosed by blind arcading. 10
contrast, the eastern walls of the wide: transepts gi\'e more of a flat
1II1prcsslon, apart fronl Ihe chapels. Thr- large wmdows at the upper lel'c:1
suggrst Ih:lt " mlghl hal'e served as the model for the: cathedral of La Seu
d'Urgcll which was not built until the late twelfth century.
Thanks to the dl\'ersu)' of 115 exterior dccorauon, the pllgrtm to
Sanl1ago W:lS able to comprehend e\'cn from afar the individual signifi
189
OPPOSITE
s;'nnagt.>deComl""'td. (Galicia).
Jac~
the flal central dome similar to Ihe one we h,wt already seen at Cardona_
At the 5.1me time. the e"terior articulation of these elements already ~hows
many similarities 10 the cathedral of Santiago. In contrast, the nave
arcades alternate between robust piers stepped on plan (li ke the ones
known from Cardona} and slender columns with exquisitely carved
capItals. Such an arrangement was unusual in Spain at that limc. Owing to
the rather uncertain hiSlOry of the building. it mUSI remaUl the subject of
Spulation as to whether this kind of arcade should be interpreted as an
allu sion 10 the much less pronounced one in the cathedra! of Satlliago lin
both buildings there are also circular plitllhs), or whether it was the other
way round. wilh Santiago adapling the model of jaca. It is perhaps more
likely that the large-scale building should have sen'ed as a source of
inspiration for the smaller one.
The comparison between jaca and Cardona. which was built about half a
century previously (photos, pp. 184-5 ), provides ;I good opportuniry to
191
If-l'T
l"cnth,hinttn,h
ttn'u"~
O"I'O~ 'TE
~Iartfn.
illustrate the entrenched building trndition of the ehllrch of Aragon, and also
highlights more clearl)' the innovations. To start with, the pil:rs in both
churchl'S al'f" so similar thai on Ihe Sides facing the centrol na\'elhey even have
the same killd of redundant projecTing pilasters which simply stc'p part-way
up the wall. The question remains open as (0 whether or not Jaca was at one
time meant 10 ha\'e a harrel vault similar (0 the one at Cardona or at Sant Pere
de Rodes. It is, howe,-er, important to remember that, in contmst to those
older buildings, the piers of Jaca have additional, very slender proje<;;ting
columns. These contribute to the unity of the building's architectural design
and do not appear to be ~added on, ~ again in contrast to Sant Pert~de Rodes.
It IS no longer known what the rnalll apse of Ihe cathedral of Jaca,
reconstructed III the eightttnth century. looked like in its original state.
What is fairly certalll is that II would ha"e been the m(lSI lavishly
decorated part of the church. lis design was probably similar to that of the
fortified chapel of Loarre. This chapel forms part of a castlt: bUilt in a
commanding position high up on rocks between Jaca and Huesc;!, whence
it overlooks the plain .. xtending towards the south (photo, above ). The
olde&! part of the complex is perched precariously on a Stcc'P rocHace
dropping awa)' towards the west. In the thirteenth Century an outer ring,
consisting of walls with ten towers, was added to the castle, defending il
from the sourh-easl.
The nalUraltopography made any strong fonification on the western
side appear supernuous, while, seen from the east where the ground rises
more gradually, its high walls gi"e the castle an even more powerful and
massive appearance. Integrated into that part of the complex, the chapel
takes up the south-eastern corner of th .. castle. Steps unde'meath the
'92
ch~pellead
+.
... .,.,
'"'"
-..
Oi - S---;; m.
If you tTJ"d from Jaca along the pilgrims' roUie further towards the
south for !iCv~ral da)'S, you come 10 the church of S;an Martin in FronllS'il
(phOIO, p. 1931. The building is said to ha ..e been started before 1066 by
Dona Ma)or. the widow of the kmg of Navarre- Sancho Garces 111 el
Ma)or. There ;ne, howC\"er, so many strlistlC fealUI"C$ bOlh in the
architecture and. partlcularl). In the KulplI.lre which corrt'Spond wllh
th o!iC found III later churchl'lo - for example Jaca. Leon and Santiago Ih at 11 !iCems hard 10 helle."e San ,"' Iartin could have bttll compleled
before Ihe turn of [he cemury. Of course the problem of liS datillg has no
bearing 011 [he eV;llu3tioll of Its quality. Built 10 a symmetrical plan, six
bars risc under three barrel-vaults. Adjollllllg them flush.gabled transepts
lead to Ih~ Irlple.apsed east cnd. The arcade elevallons could almOSI be
reg.lrdcd as a reduced wrsion of ,hal III the carht"dral of Sanriago: the
shapes of the pillars and thc ",lUll Arc Identlt.Cal. but the considerably
small er church of Fr6mista dOt'$ nOI ha"c an upper le"el gallery. It would,
howe"er, be wrong 10 consider Ihls churt.Ch onl) ,n the conlext of the large
cathedral that reprcsc:nted the pilgrims' desllnal1on. and thiS view IS
supported by a comparISon with San! Pere de Rodt'S. There we already
have a '"ery Similar arcade deSign. al lcast III essence, excepl Ihal two
projecllng colulllns are placed above one anOlher. where in Fromista a
slllgie respond is carried up as far as th e tran ~verse arch. The ex terior
massing is handled in a ve ry harmonious manner: small round turrets
terml1lale the wt'St f::urade. while Ihe crossmg IS surmounted by an
octagonal lOwer adjOllled by th e group of apses wnh their richl y worktd
su rface reliefs.
'94
All the buildings along Ihe p,]gruns' roule we ha ..e looked al so far
were royal foundalions. or al leasl the king was mvoh'ed in the ceremonial
laymg of the foundation Slone. whICh gl\cs us some idea of Ihe Ii ..ely
mterest which Ihe rulers of the variou~ klllgdoms of nonhern Spam took in
'hem. After all, nOI only did they hope 10 gam economIC prospertly (rom
Ihe "ast stream of pilgrims. but ob"iously rhey mUSI also ha,'e expected
dividends, both dynastic and splr1lllal. Ihrough Iheir promillent church
foundauons. This can be secn most clearly at S.~n Isidoro III LeOn, the lasl
malor bUlldl1lg before one reaches Santiago.
The Romanesque church (p hoto. lOp left ) was erected on a site where
SCI'eral o ther churches had sivod before il. The last of these h.ld been bUilt
during Ihe reign of Fernando I, the first king of Leon and Casule, and hl$
wife Dona Sancha, Ihe daughter of King Alfonso V of Leon. Its purpose
WJS 10 house the relics of St. ISIdore of SeVille which Fernando I arranged
to be broughl from there. I'Jnly excavated foundalions suggcst that Ihe
church "as origmalll' a pbin thrtt';lIsled bUilding wllhoUI ,ransepIS.
[mmedlately ane-r its consecration, m [063, the kmg died. In the followmg
)'ears [)ona Sancha had the so-called ~PantcOn de los Re)"cs- bUilt 10 Ihe
west of the church siu (photo. p. 195). The Pamc6n. Ihe burial monument
of the kmgs. IS toda)' the oldcst part of the bUlldmg complex. B.1sed upon a
3 x 3 ba) ground plan. the supporllng colurnn~ 111 the Pantffin h~\'e free~t;l1ldl1lg colulllns 10 Ihe east and clustered shafts 10 the west. T he bUlldlllg
C;lp"vates Ihe visilor not only by liS findy articulated wa lls and .. aul ll1lg.
bill also thanks to its exquisitely ca rved COlplials. The VaUlTS and lunCHes
arc also decorated with frescoes.
The PantcOn, III liS capacity as royal and dynastic bunal site. proves
Ihal Ihe rulers of Caslile hoped for the ~Ivli"on of thelT souls by choosmg
to be buned so close to Ihe greal Spalllsh ruler. Another import~nl
considerauon must have bt:cn the IIllercessiolls Ihey expected fronl
pilgrims on their way to S;anllago. This "'as presumably the reason why
soon after the complellon of the PantcOn the actual church. too. was
rebUilt from Kratch by belOg transformed 11110 a large, completely .auhcd,
alsled basilica with transepts. terminafl1lg 111 3 triple 3pSe. In 1149 the
chu rch was consecrated in the prcscllce of King Alfonso VII and several
bishops. amongst them the archbishop of Santiago. We know the n~me of
the m3Sler bUilder rt'Sponslble for the last stage of constructIOn because we
ha"e hiS ep itaph on the southwestern corner of the church where Alfonso
and hiS SISler S;ancha had him buned.
The new building of the church of San ISldoro IS wider Ihan the older
Pantc6n which had to 1,Ike mto account Ihe dllnensions of the narrow
buildmg which had prcccdt"d the new ch urch. It cannOt be cstablished wllh
absolut .. c"rlaint)" whether the central nave W.IS imendt"d 10 have a flat
celhng. This possibility, at any rate. Sttms 10 be md icated by Ihe arcade
design in the nal'e, where there is a su pporung wall respond only for
alternate transversc arches of the barrel vault, whil,l the IIlIerllledl3te piers
present a Aush face 10 the nave. With this arcade design, it could be s':lId
that in uSC'nce S;an Isidoro follo .... ed the example of Ihe already familiar
cathedral of Jaca. el'en though Ihe sequence of mdi"ldu3l columns IS
different. In any case. the projecting transepts and Ihe distincti"e apsldal
SQu,h
19'
197
front with {\IIO towers. is adjoined by an aisled nave with galleries above
the side-aisles and a barrel-vaulted cemral "al'C. Situated further eaSI is the
aislelcss transept with a (en{Tallow., and a group of three apses arranged
in echelon. The cathedrals of Braga and Porro have also survive<!, bUI they
hal"c been so extensively altered by restoration or rebuilding work thaI
they no longer rcflecllhe original design.
After a prolonged construction period, the old cathedral of the former
Portuguese capital of Coimbra, ~St' Vetha, ~ was finally completed in 1180
(photos p. 198, sec also ground pbn on p. 199). Although it $terns natural
to assume that th~ construction of the church began around 1140. that is,
immediately after the coronation of the fi rst l'ortuguese king, there is no
evidence to supp<->rt this view. Seen from the ou tside, its compact
appearance and the ring of battlements surmounting the nave walls give
the building the character of a fonified church. At the same time, the choir
area is richly decorated with aflached semi-circular resp<->nds along the
walls and a number of carved figurative corbels like those commonly
found in the architecture of buildings along the pilgrims' roure. There
might also be a connection with buildings found in the Auvergnc region 111
France, for example with the church of lssoire: the high walls of the
transept cominue on their eastern side underneath the (entnl tower where
they are imerstcted by a gallery, a typical fearnre of Auvergne regional
style. The centre of the fa"ade at Coimbra is dominated by :1 mighty, two
storey entrance p<->rch with the deeply recesse<! main entrance on the
ground kvel and a window of similar des1gn above It. The interior shows
clearly how close the connection is between the cathednl of Coimbra and
the churches along the pilgrims route: It seems like a copy, on a reduced
scale, of the cathedral of Santiago.
Very similar in construction and design is th e cathedral of Lisbon
{figures, p. 1991. Its construction had begun as early as 1147, the year in
which the city was reconquered from the Moors. and it was built instead
of a mosque. The cathedral was, however, not completed unti l the thi rteenth century. The master builders Tesp<->nsible for the construction arc
thought to have been Robenus and &rnardus. The former might be the
same Robenus who had already worked on the cathedral of Coimbra.
Only the nave and transept remain from the onginal building which, in its
character of a fortified church, followed the ]'ortuguese tradition typical of
its early Romanesque style. The massive twin -towered fa"ade was not
completed ul1ll1 the fourteenth century. It is conceivable that th is cathedral, tOO, was intended to have a projecting double-storey portico in Ihe
center of the fa~ade. But ;t was soon integrated mto the main hne of the
fa"ade by the addition of flanking towers. The large gallery in the
cathedral of Lisbon is subdivided by double arcades. Compared to the side
aisles, it represems a much lower Storey which appeJTS grilled off because
of an arcade of slender columns. As with the cathedrJI of Coimbra, here,
tOO, a connection with Issoire in France comes to mind, for there this motif
is u$td in a $lInil3r way.
In contrast, the piers are highly unusual: stepped and with three
circular supports on each narrow side, they finally merge with the multiple
recessed and richly molded intrados of the arcade. AI best, the sculptured
198
.....
.... . .
~.
:.
-L . . ;
There. the cmhedrab of Zamora and SaLimanca aud {he (;oliegiate church
ofToro were built around the middle of the twelfth (enTury. All three have
a number of features in common, al{hough the simiiariues between
Zamora and Toro are particularly striking (see ground plans of both
churches on p. 201), Both Zamora and Toro have relarively short naves
and twO wide aisles. [n the east {here are transepts that projeCt slightly
beyond rhe straight row of {he side aisles and are siruated in front of a
group of Three echelonoo apses. Only ,u Toro has this feature survil'ed m
its original STate.
The cath~'tIral of Zamor,. is the oldeST of Ihese churches (photos. p. 200,
and ground plan on p. 20 I). [IS construction began under Bishop Esteban
ill 115 1, and The (onsccl1l{ion took place ill 1174. Here, around the middle
of {he twelfth cenTury, we can see the beginning of a process of archi{ec{ural
emancipaTion, a breaking awar from the forms traditiollally used in the
kingdom of Loon. The structure of the Ilave piers became more complex,
achieving a much more sculptural effect Than in rhe earlier buildings.
The view from Ihe side aisle dearly illustrates rhe naTure of Ihe
innovalion al1d highlights {he distinctions with the older churches, 111
principle, Ihe rt.,(langular or square core of the pier, such as is found in San
lsidoro in LeOn, in Fromista or Santiago. has been retained. As in the
aforementioned buildings, that core continues up il1lO the na,'e wall or the
",
7...;"nora.,"lhed,~1.1151-1 1 71 View
frQm soulh.wesl jlth). InlCflQ' >!ewof
""nlrallowcr jrigh. )
200
immcdiately ne:<t 10 the original one. and although the north wall of thc
latte r was dcstroycd to mak e w'ly for it, the rCSt of it remaincd undam ..
aged. Siuce then, a distinClion has thereforc been made in Salamanca
between the new c;\lhedral, the ~Catedral Nueva, ~ and the old Romancs ..
que one, the ~Catedral Vieja. ~ T he starting date for construction work on
the old one is unknown . The building is first mentioned in a document
made in 1152 by King Alfonso VII and dealing with the building workers"
pay. It is likely, however, that Ihe const ruction of the ~Catedral Vieia ~ was
started before that date, f"\'en if for stylistic reasons the major part of the
work was not carried out unlll .he second half of thf" twelflh Century and
building was not complcted until the thlrtt'Cnth cemury.
A cursory look at the ground plans of the .hrl'C churches suggests that
there are few similarities between Zamora and Toro on the one haud, and
Salamanca on the other, for the lalter has a nave that is considerably
longf"r and has more bays than the IWO other bUIldings. The transept is
also relatively more prominent . a fealllre that is reminlscf"nt of ,,en earlier
buildings such as the aforementioned churches in Sanllago, Burgos or
Stlos. Another significant faclOr in thIS context might be that the building
of Salamanca Cathedral was begun before Zamora and Toro and was
therefore designed according to 3 traditional plan.
]u the interior, on the other hand, Ihe similarities immediately be<:ome
obvious. Not only has the calhedral of Sabmanca been constructed
throughout with groin vaulls; it also boasts the mighty. pointed tTllnsver5e
~
~ I
"=~
:
~=.-
r-.-._
,
I'
II
"
,I
"
.;: -~-l
.II
.II .C
,
.=
I
Col1rg,a,~church
201
OPPOSITE
202
together. Neuher does It have a dome Itke those found at LJ.mora and
Salamanca, with Iheir Slrongly molded ribs and billowing vault cells. The
dome ofToro is a simple hemisphere wilh slender ribs nor necessary for its
actual construction.
These: three very striking cemral towers constitute special CJ.scs within
Spanish Romanesque architecture and ha\'e therdore been attributed to a
regional development. Only one other tower of this kind, al/xit with
modifications, has been built since, namely in the Portuguese town of
Evora. It ~ms therefore paradoxical that at the same time as classing the
towers as a product of regionalism, scholars have uied to find prototypes
for them throughout the whole of the Mediterranean region, citing possible
models in Byzantium, Amman or I'alcrmo. On the other hand, there are
undeniably formal similarities with the architectural style of tht: region of
Poitou in France, where comparable examples of such sculptural articulation can be found, for instance at Notre-Dame-Ia-Grande in Poitiers
(photo, p. 269 ). These possible links to France can even be supported by
hlstortcal faCts: KlIlg Alfonso VI (1071- 1109) of Casule and Leon was
married to Constance, the daughter of the COUnt of Rurgundy. Also married
to COuntS from Burgundy were his two daughters Teresa and Urraca, the
latter temporarily holding power after her father'S death. In 1170, more or
less the exact date whelt the central towers of Zamora, TOTO and
Salamanca were built, Eleonor of Aquitaine beeame the wife of Alfonso
Vllt (1158-12 14). Although it is conceivable Ihat at that time a new influx
of French artists came to Spain, this possibility should not be given too
much credence. What appears like an unusually rich language of form
within the Romanesque architecture of Spain had long been a tradition
there. Elements similar 10 those observed in (he aforememioned central
towers may already be found in earlier bui!dillg~, most notably the upper
storey of the soulhern (ransept fa~ade of Santiago Cathedral.
Of particular interest here are the ~multi-faceted~ arches, that is arches
whose supports are not continuous but form small arches in lurn; these
can be ~n on alllhrec cenualtowers discussed, either in~ide or oulside.
205
206
exchange of ideas took place between the cenTre of Ihe order in France and
its subsidiaries abro.1d.
Apart from the religious orders, there were other groups which were
inTerested in the promotion of all IIlternational culture on the Iberian
Peninsula. These included the orders of knights whose principles were
based on French culture, and who were a I)'pical phenomenon of the age
of the Crusades. It must be remembered here that, as far as Spain was
concerned, the knights' first prioriI)' was Ilot the recovery of the holy sites
in [he Middle East, but the re-conversion 10 Christianity of the population
of the Iberian Peninsula. All the members of these influential knightly
orders were part of a large, international class of noblemen, even if
individual members had strong national interests.
Finally, we must nor forget [hat since the end of the twelfth century, the
early Gothic building sl)'le of modern France had also begun to be considered
exemplary for purely aesthetic rea suns. Anyone who wanted [0 commission or build an ambi tious church project could therefo re hardly ignore
Ihese: new French models. Admittedly. there were no actual models of
Gothic architecture in Spain before the early part of the thirteenth centufY.
But the so-called ~Iate-Romanesque~ style had been increasingly infiltrated
by Gothic clements ever since the final )eafS of the twelfth century, especially in The east of the country.
We ha,e therefore established that several reasons for the increasing
acceptance of French architecture came together at the same time on the
Iberian Peninsula.
207
Th~ reasons were nOI all releval1110 Ihe S;lme degree in olher European
countries, so Ihal their R01l1ancsque styles Mlhe end of the IWclfth cemury
looked dlfferem. BUI even in Spain, Ihe archi tecture of thai period C3n nOi
simply be ex plained in terms of French influence. This is shown by the
example of the cat hedral of Za mora: ollr analysis has demonstrated that
the striki ng style of thiS building was the re$L1lt of a number of quile
different, oflen specifically regional architectural developments.
The cathedral of Santiago itself remains the principal example throLigh
which to study Ihe confroOlation wnh non.Spanish architecture along the
pilgrims' route. ConStruclion work on the cathedr:ll was halted aroLind
11 25 after $evere disturbances 10 the city and confrontations belwttn the
archbishops and Ihe k'ngs. II appears Ihal the first opportun,ty to resume
work on Ihe slill mlSSlOg nave bays of the " 'estern seelion and on the
fu~ade was provided Linder the rule of BIshop redro Gudesteiz ( 11 671173). Whilst a COOlT3C1 was Signed wilh C011SIruction workers in 11 68.
the work IS I,kely to have bttn resumed earlier than that. It was necessary
at that lime to beglO construction wllh Ihe crypl.like narthex which
extended from Ihe westernmost nal'e bay as far as the ra .... de. Th,s
construction was nccdcd m order to e,'en OUI the diffeTCm heighl levels
between Ihe floor of the main church and Ihe terrain sloping towards the
208
west. In the lower church of SantIago, the novel French lechnique of Ihe
rib vault was put into practice for the first time. Some elements, such as
the corn ices which lead around the capitals, make a similar appearance in
the early Gothic archilCClUre of Burgundy. Above all, the choir of the
abbey church of Vhelay comes to mind, start ing point of one uf the
main pilgrl1l1s" routes. The style of the chu rch of Vhclay is further
reflected In the entrance porch of Santiago, the " Portico de la Glona H
(portal of glory; pholQ, p. 298). Several sources name the builder
responsible for this porch as Mateo. Since 1161, he had worked in Galicia
as a bridge bUilder. " Hponteador,H and it appears he was still ali ..e
m 1217. Abol'e the lower chu rch, Mateo built a two-storey entr:loce
poT(h wllh an addluonal narthex betw~n the lowers. Today, IhlS ground
floor nanhex IS all that remams, as the cxterior fa~ade L1nde,...ent
considerable allCral10ns m the $e"enlCCTlth and eighteenth ccnturies.
An Inscnpuon mforms the viSitor Ihal the doors were ready 10 be put
into place III 1188. The portal is famous mamly for iTS sculpture. which
IS among the mOSI SlgllIficant work of ItS kind of the lWeifth CCnlury.
From an archnCC1ural poin t of view, the porch is a perfect e:<ample
of Ihe respond. rib sySTem de"eloped in France since the middle of the
century.
So many shafts are clustl're<! aroun d the pie rs that thl'ir cores can
hardly be rewgnizl'd. Nevertheless it would app<!ar wrong to classify the
Portico dl' la Gloria as a work of the early Gothic period, for Matoo
obviously m~de efforts to adapt his porch to the older parts of the
cathedral. To th is extent the historical fomls are at best modified, but not
fundamentallyaltl'red.
The Spanish orders of knights were closely conn~"Cted with the
pilgrimage to Santiago. After all, the Christian ex pu].;ion of the Moors was
fought under the banner of the Apostk James. Hl' had been revl'roo as the
personal leader of the Reconq uisla ever si nce having been creditoo wi th
bringing about victories in more than one successful bailie against the
Moors. Thl' Qrdl'r of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem had established
a branch in Spain in 1 113, and the Templars had arrived in 1118. Despite
thdr international status, both thcc ordl'rs of knights were strongly
influenced b)' France and French culture. Other ordl'rs of knights representoo
In Spam were those of Cabtrava and Alcantar~, and later in I'onugalthe
Order of Santiago aud the Order of Christ as successors to Ihe Templars. A
common chJr:lcteristic of the older orders is that Ihey not only integrated
elements from France and the regions Into their architecture, but also
allempted to imitate sites in the Holy land. A truly mternational style was
the result. II is no coincidence that a number of very charactenstic bUild
mgs constructed by those orders sprang up on the Iberian I>eninsula d urmg
the twelfth and the early thirtec-nth centurr, the very period when it was
dominate<! by a strong international clullate.
The largest of th~ churches is at Tomar in l'onugal (photo, p. 208;
ground plan, p. 211). [n 1159, King Alfonso J Henriques had given a castle
to the Order of the Templars in honor of their contribution to the
Reco nquista. The castle's stralegic posi tion was, howe"er, so unfavorable
that it was soon moved to its prtscnt site. All that has survi,'oo from the new
fortification are some ruins and the ch uf(h. Today, il stands in the center of ~
Castle of the Order of the Knights of Christ, the main part of which was
bUilt between the fifteenth and the scventec-mh centu ries. From 1318, the
Order of the Knights of Christ had taken over the Portuguese possessions of
the Order of the Templars after the latter's dissolution in 1312.
The Rom~nesque church, known as "Charola, ~ d;lIes from the second
half of the twelfth century. [t consists of a centrally planned building with
sixteen sides and with a free-standing, octagonal chapd in its cen ter. The
observer wi ll be pllt~led by the contrast between the fortified style of the
exterior and the elegance of the interior: the chapel in the center does not
hJve massive walls like the chuf(:h exterior, but consists of slender arcades
wi th richly molded piers on the lower floor, and a Steep window storey
above it. An optical link is established between the two storeys by
responds, attached both on the inside and the outside, and from which the
nbs of the vaul t risco These meet in the center of the building to form a
5m:lll dOllie, while the ribs on the outside of the chapel lead il1lO the
surrounding walls. Since the laller are sixtcen-sidoo and the central chapel
IS only octagonal. vault ribs in the shape of solid stot\{' bands run from
each corner of the oUler w:llls TO The interior wall. O nly everr second rib is
also connected to a respond, whilst the intermooiate ones terminate on
corbels a bo,'l' the narrow windo ws of Ihe upper storer of the central
chapel. Despite the fact that generous layers of ST\lCCO were applied to the
in terior of the ~Charola~ in the early sixteenth centur)', its original
archi tecture c,m still be satisfactorily appreciated.
The peculiar layout of the church as a centra lly planned building with
all ambulatory leading around a chapel in the center might have come
about because the building was intended as a copy of the church of the
Hoi)' Sepulcher in Jerusalem. A copy in the Middll' Ages did not have the
same meanlllg as it docs today: It did not have to be an exact reproduc tion
of the original, but was intended rather to remind the viewer of certain
basic forms of the original. In this respect. the centrally planned ,hurch of
Tomar was entirely adequate. The church was built by the Templars, who
had founded their Order in Jerus.alem in order to protect the holy sites and
their pilgrims. It therefore seemed natural that they should try to (,:Tea te a
copy of Jerusalem in their most important base in I'ortugal. Moroover, the
p<!riod 11\ the late twdfth cent ury when the church of Tomar was built
coincides more or less with the loss of Jerusalem to the Arabs in 1187, and
also with th,' unsuccessful attempts by the participants in the third and the
fourth Crusades to reconquer the city. It is therefore quite conceivable that
the ~Charola~ was in tended to remind the visitors of the lost sites in the
Holy La nd. This assumption is further strengthened by the fact thai at that
"ery Time, more and more COpies of the chu rch of Ihe Holy Sepulcher
appeared.
The ~Vera-Cru~~ church, or Chu rch of the Holy Cross, near Segovia
(photo, p. 2 10; ground plan, p. 2 11) is closely [inked 10 the ~Charola ~ of
Tomar, both in terms of the date of its cOnstruction and its design.
Consecrated in 1208, the ~Vera-Cruz~ was most probably built by the
Order of the Canons of Ihe Holy Sepulcher. As in Tomar, there is a central
chapel su rroundoo by a circular ba rrel-vaulted ambuiatorr. T he two parts
of the building are, however, of dodecagonal shape so that there is no
discrepancy betwec-n the inner and the outer wall circles. [n addition, the
Vc ra-Cru~ church has a chancel with th ree apses at the cast end, and a
heavily recessed entrance U1 the west. It can therefore be considered both
as a building with a centrally planned larout and as one of linear planform. The chapel placoo in the center of the building is not as richly deco
ratoo as the one at Tomar, but its design is more complex. T he cha pel is
built over a low, crypt.like lower storey and can be reached via a double
staircase on the west side. Si nce the cha pel walls are almost solid
throughout, the only light sources for the chapel are the windows placed
high up, where Ihe chapel pierces the roof of Ihe main church. The chapel
itself is crowned by a small dome supported by twO pairs of parallel ribs
that do not inte rsect in the center.
A similar vaulting system can be seen in ano!her cen tr~lly planned
building along Ihe pilgrims' rou te, namely at Torres del Rio in Navarre
(photos, p. 211}. It cannOI be established with certainty whether the
chul!;h there used to belong to the Tempiars, although it is certainly
dedicaU'd to Ihe Holr Sepulcher. Unlike at Tomar and Segovia, the
octagonally laid-om building has no central chapel. BUI compared to the
former buildings, this church is distmguishoo by its relatively lavish
209
;0'
Sc-goY'3,
V~raCrul,consra .. d
in 1208
~OlTO.\t
Instead of IWO paif$ of parallel ribs as in Segovia, Torres del Rio has
four pairs which support th e dome, the ccnler of which is crowned by a
lantern, The sculptural articulation of the vault is completed by a number
of additional ribs that spring from the responds in the corners of the
building. The large windows in the upper storey of the outer building are
reduccd in the inner building to tiny gaps which allow in only a small
amount of light and which are located al The base of the crossing ribs.
[n Torres del Rio it becomes particularly obvious JUSt how eclectic and
210
o
o
"
00
"!'I-~~
...
"
Segovoa. V:!eru .
Ground pbn
211
OPPOStTE PAGE
Moreruda (rro\"1lK~
of umora). ruIn.
only modern features were th e lX'inred arches of the b.ure! vault and the
The overall design of the choir it~lf is based on Ihe pattern traditionally used in Burgundian architecture even before the time of the Cistercians.
At Cluny. for example, the low chapels are covered by semidomes and are
auached to the higher, rib-vaulted ambulatory whose only ligh t sources
are the tiny windows set above the chapel openings. An arcade uf columns
with pointed arches leads from the ambulatory IU Ihe interior choir.
The Jailer has an upper storey with windows which SIMI above a cornice
that is engaged with the corbels undernealh the dustered vaulting
shafts. These compound vaulting shafts rise up between the semi-cirx:ular
headed windows and support the ribs of the semidome vault above the
choir apse.
AI Moreruela, Spanish Romanesque architecture achieves a hilherto
unknown quality, both in the over:llliayout and Ihe detail of the extremely
subtle design of Ihe choir. Such an achievement would have been
impossible without the French influences described earlier. J'a radoxically,
any contemporary models in France from which Moreruela mlghl ha"e
drawn inspirallon have all been destrored. The Spanish abbey church
thereby allows an appreciation of early French Cistercian architecture, a
pleasure no longer possible in France itself.
The nave and transept of Moreruda are far less well presen'ed than the
choir. bUI C"an nevenhe!ess be reawnably well reconstructed, both sections
wcre covered b)' barrel vaults supported by tranS"elSe 3TChes. Although this
type of conSlruction may hal'e been directly derived from French Cistercial1
church building, it had been traditionally used for cenTUries in Spain itself, The
The architectural syStem employed at Moreruda was used once moreprobably onl)' a very short time later - ill the Cistercian monastery of
Poblet in Catalonia. founded by Count Ramon &renguer IV of &lreeluna
in 1153, There are two main differences between the tWO buildings' the
bays of the na,'e at Morerucla are more compressed, so thai it has nine
bays compared to Poblet"s se,'cn, Furthermore, the ambulatory at Poblet
has only five radiating chapels, SO thaI there was enough room to furnish
the transepl wilh chapels of the same siu,
Of somewhat different appearance is the church of the Cistercian
convelll of $.lmes Creus (photo left), which is also in Catalonia and was
established in the year 1150, As. at I'oblet, it relied on the support of Ihe
countS of Barcelona, and, <lfter their alliance, also on the kings of Aragon.
Both monasteries house numerous tombs of COIlIUS and kil1gs al1d were
extended in the late thirteenth and early foutleenth centuries to include
residential quarters.
[t seems that the convent had chosen the wrong site, and had to mm'e
twice before building work on the prtsent church could Sian in ] 174. Ii
was finally cUIlsrated in nil. The clong.lIed nave and tWO aisles
comprise si); bays. It is adjoined by a "cry narrow transept wlIhout aisles,
011 the east side of which there are four rectangular chapels and Ihe large,
equally elongated choir without ambulatory, The ground plan of thts
church is therefore roughly compar<lble to the German Cisterei<ln con,'etl!
of Maulbronn (photos, pp. 68-69). The interior, however. is anything bUI
typical of this order. The indIvidual ba)'s and aisles are ~parated by
mighty cruciform piers, The outermost front verucal responds are bevcled
off 011 the nave side (a feature often found in Cistercian architecture), so
thaI further up they can carry the powerful pointed transverse arches,
Extending between these arches are groin vaullS with broad vaull ribs in
Ihe shape of solid stone bands thaI Slart immediately above the corbels
without being illitiated by responds. No olher features aniculale the twoStorey wall which has arcades and a clerestory. so Ihat the effect of the
church interior on the beholder is one of austerity and, at the same time,
extreme monumentality. The same impression is conveyed by the exterior
of the church with its solid massive wall. A number of buildings belonging
to the original com'ent from the Iwelflh cemury arc still present. amongst
them the hex<lgonal pump-room with its SlOne-band rib vaulting. the
chapter-house. and the dormitory. Begun in 1191, the dormitory was
designed as a continuation of the southern transept arm and fealures a
rising beamed ceiling set above a row of pointed strainer arches. It mighl
well have been Ihe first of a number of similar buildings thai were 10
become a ,har;!cteristic fearure of Gothic architecture in Catalonia.
The earliest and arguably the most impressive example of the !;ate
Romanesque style in Call1lonia is the church of Sames Creus. a Sl3lelnel1t of
succim monum~n11llity. The orher two main examples are Ihe cathedmls of
Lleida (Urida ) and Tarragona. Both these churches show a remarkable
degree of tradition in their style. considering Ihat Ihe period of their
construction continued well into the thirteenth century - a time when Fr:mce
T~,,~gona,cath<:dral.l:Icfor.
was already bUlldmg cathedrals that were the very embodiment of the
high Gothic style. The strongly seulptural articulation of their interiors
puts L1eida and T.1rragona in the same [radition as Zamora, TOTO and
Salamanca.
A dated epi taph on the exterior of the choir of the cathedral of
Tarragona (photo, p. 214) suggests that building work must have begun
before the year 1174. However, the church was nOI compleled until Ihe
fourteenth century. The l~st indicaTion as to the possible appearance of the
original design IS Ihe cloister in the north-east, since all the western partS,
including the fa~ade, were built in the later stages. Plain walls with little
articulation, and windows reminiscent of embrasures make Ihe calhedral
appear like a fortified caSlle, creating an effect similar to [he POrtuguese
cathedrals already discussed, or the abbey church of SantI'S Creus. In the
cloister, on the other hand, there is a singular fusion of differem elements
and prlominantly finer, almost filigree-like shaJX's. Whilst as a whole, the
cloister bears all the hallmarks of late Romancsque arch,lenure, some
individual columns and capil3ls arc clearly oorrowings from buildings of
the Classical period. The detailed roseltes aoove the triple arcades, 011 the
other hand, and also the frieu of multiple arches ooth betray their
Moorish origin.
The aisles of the nave cominue on the other side of the transept and
terminate in apses of differem si1es. Uniformly covered by groin vaulting,
the building is arti(Ulated by powerful picrs, each with a pair of columns
of thrcc-<juartcr circular profile anached to the front side. These attachl
columns support the transverse and the arcade arches, whilst the more
slender responds attached to the corners lead over into the diagonal ribs of
the vaults.
214
The old cathedral of Llcida (photos, p. 215; ground plan, see aoove) is
situJted high 300ve the town. Although it was begun later than that of
Tarragona, the building was complecl much earlier, namdy in 1278.
Durmg the War of the Spanish Succession, it was com'erred into barracks.
This was in 1707 and was illdd used for this purpose until 1926. As a
result, the church interior was not subje;;ted to the type of alterations
suffered by most other Spanish churches, and is therefore much easier to
Jnalyze. Restorarion work on [he cathedral of Llelda did not commence
until 1946.
The history of the building is well documentl. According to a
commemorative stone, the ceremonial laying of the cornen;tone took place
in 1203 through King Pedro [I of Aragon and Coun t Ermengadus of Urcel.
It is further known that Bereng.uius Obicions was res(Xlnsible for the
building administration, and that Ihe architect was Petrus Decumba.
Lleida was nOi re.::onverted to Christianity until 1149. and the cathedral
was built on a site lhal had formerly been occupied by a mosque. This
might explain some puliarilies with regard 10 its layoul. The position of
the doister in the west, in front of the church, is remilliscent of the outer
court traditionally found in mosques. The unusual overall width of the
church and the relatively short nave (comprising only thr bays) are duc
to the re-use of the foundation walls of a mosque with its traditional broad
layout. On the other hand, it should not be forgotten that there was a
tradition in Catalonia of churches with projecting transepts, such as at
Ripoll and La Seu d'Urge!l; this feature was moreover found in the
churches along Ihe pilgrims' routC.1t is no accident that the side entrances
of the church at L1eida, with their corbel-decoratl (Xlrches, are
reminiscent of the older porches normally found along the pilgrims' roUle.
Lleida howe"er lacks the recesses in the Moorish style which would flank
the entrances of these churches.
There used to bf, five apses all increasing in depth towards the cemral
axis. Now, only two of them survive in their original state, allowing us to
appreciate JUSt how thick the walls of the building are. The piers tOO are
enormous and are fitted with coupled columns on the from thall suppon
the mighty trans"erse and arcade arches, similar to the arran!;ement at
Tarragona. At Lleida, however, the transverse arches are atraded to an
additIonal supporting element, the edge of whIch is further slr\!1Igthened
by a respond placed next to the one which supports the diagonal rib. This
arrangement means that the piers of the cathedral of Lleida have one extra
step compared to those of Tarragona. As a result, they project further our
into the nave, whilst the walls, despite their thickness, appear .lS though
they had been stretched betw~n them. A simibr effect had al ..:ady been
achieved in the cathedrals of Zamora. TOTO and Salamanca. Their imerior
spaces moreover share another feature with Lletda: the clerestory wrndo,,'s
are set above a cornice whtch is linked 10 the capitals of the piers. As ill
Salamallca, the capitals at Ucida are endowed wilh extremely rich
sculplural decoration.
All these Catalollian cathedrals of Ihe bte ROInanesque period clearly
have close affinities to the French G<>thic STyle regarding their structural
articulaTion and rib vaulting. Individual elements such as the rose
windows, for example, are further clear indications that the Gmhic style
must have bttn known in Cataloma. Nevertheless, these buildrngs cannot
be classed as MGothic," For one thing, th e structure of their .... alls and
vaults is not based on the system of support and load; the pow',rful piers
tend to fulfil an optical functioll rather than a static one. The reduction of
wall thickness, on the other hand, had made much greater progress in the
architecture of the high Romanesque period, as is shown by Sam:iago. !r is
more appropriate to view these Catalonian churches as part of a regional
Iradit ion, enriched by modern stylistic elements, rather than as a
transitional slyte. hld~d, the transition frolll Romanesque to Gothic style
was nOI a gr:t.dual process in Spain. The new architectural style did not
really Slarl there umil well into the second decade of the twelf!lh century,
but when it did arrive, its impact was immediate and widespread.
The fiT!lt examples of the new style were the cathedrals of liJledo and
Burgos, almost exact copies of certain Gothic buildings ttl France.
Its arrival also coillcided with the final settlement of the conflicts
surrounding the succession to the throne. These conflicts had flared up
again and again during the e!C\'enth 31ld twelfth cellturies, causing
continual splits within the country. Only the three kingdoms of Portugal,
C.1\alonia and Aragon, and Caslile and LeQn now remained. The kings of
Castik and Leon attempted to introduce an autocratic and oentraliud
government modeled on the example of France. The new stJlle of the
Gothic cathed ral served as a seemingl)' adequate means of (,'xpressing
their ambitions. All these developmentS he ralded the beginning of a new
era, one that turned iTS back on the traditional, regional and also
international values that had been the hallmark of the ROlllanesqjue period
in Spain.
215
Heinfricd Wischcrmann
Romanesque architecture
in Great Britain
Ca"'~rbIlfY. bbty
217
Whether this u,uh was actually made or nOI, Harold clearly did not
consider it 10 be binding. When Edward was on his deathbed he named
Harold as his heir, and th e laller was duly anointed king in Ja nuary 1066.
William appeaud to have little prospect of disputing his possc:ssion of the
throne. It was an enormous amount of luck combined with exceptional
energy that helped him gam victory. He declared war in tine firm can
victiun of the justice of his claim, and with the mural support of the pope.
Two further eventS aided him, the weather and an invasion bJ' the king of
Norway, who Harold successfully fought at Stamford Bridge. On October
14,1066, William met Harold at Hastings.
Harold fell in battle, and English resistance against the invaders
collapsed. William was crowned at Ch ristmas 1066 in WCstmilnster Abbey,
Edward's neW building.
'Ibe viCtory at Hastings did not bring with it peace and StXurity for the
invaders. The Normans remained an army of occupation fo,r more than
five years, and met with considerable problems in the nurth of England
and Wales.
AI first, William attempted to maintain the type of state and government system that Edward the Confessor bad set up - and to do so with thc
co-operation of the AngloSaxons. But this attempt was frustrated by
localized revolts and the demands his followers made for appropriate
rew ards; in its place, an authoritarian system gradually eme rged wilh a
cen tralized royal houschold, feudal aristocracy, a Great Council and a
218
reformed Church. The emphaSIS of WiIliam's poliCies was on continultyan example is his fi rst decree to the dty of London, giving the assurance
thaI KiT is my desire That you should retain your laws and customs as they
were in King Edward's days.~ But he also intended 10 record and organize
the new wealth and property that he had acquired. This was done by
means of the famous Domesday Book. which was a systematic description
of the country carried OUt between 1066 and 1087 by tral'ellmg corn
missioners; it recnrded the properly in each manor and every county.
(t is unlikely that Duke William (J (crowned William I) Turned his
thoughts to building churches much before ] 070. T he priority was to
build and man as many castles as possible, they were needed bOlh 10
combat military threats and to safeguard his regime. But Will iam was not
the only person in a position to commission buildings. He had placed a
varicty of noblemen in positions of power in England, and they intended
to have a say in the country's future, whether as StXlllar or church
dignitaries. The pre-Conquest noblemen were replaced by the Continental
invaders. By the end of William's reign, a mere 8 percent of land was still
owned b)' Anglo-Saxon noblemen. A fifth of the land belonged to the king,
a quarter to the Church, and nearly half to William's relatively small band
of followers from Normandy, Flanders an d Brittany.
The church hiemrchy underwenT the same process as the aristocracy.
Normans being given positions formerly occupied by Anglo-Saxons. With
the agreement of the pope, William the Conqueror removed Stigand as
OPPOSITE
lIoyt"" Ta ..... ry. 1101,1. set""' around a
............andM'1ey (Iopl. H..old ._an".
an o,"tI btfon' w,num .M. hr ...,n htlp
hun p,n d.t English no"," (bdow).
Wooirmbroodrry on )".ttI. l'lroshi 20
"",hn.lrnglh........, tMn 140 1M. From
Ion to 1082. Tar".... r... dr lIoytuK.
W"h .hup'u) pnmw.>on oht... 'OWn
oillo,.,u!{
"
21'
London; it was begun in 1053 and consecrated in 1060. The ground plan
(fig "r~, top) of its antiqua!(~d church (a continuous transept and single tiny
apse) was revealed by excavations some years ago. It is quite likely that the
..
--
plan of the church, which Harold showered with relics and gold
1 .J.~cJ.. "L
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fT II
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L-
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Cant~rbury
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!.......
C,nte,bury. St. Augo,,;",', Abhty. Nt"" Abbc:y of Peter and 1'.,,1. !'I,med l>etwrm 1070
and 1073. BUlir by Abbot Srotl3nd. ground pl~n
220
.~
~.
statement that Remigius had built a church ~in loco forti fortem, pulchro
pulchram, virgini virginum. ~
T he people building churches at this lill1e II1USt h~ve felt a pronounced
need for security. This view is suppoTled by {he transfer of the episcopal
see of Sherborne and Ramsbury 10 Old Sarum to the north of Salisbury,
carried OUi in 1075 by Bishop Herman Ihe Flemmg, formerly the court
chaplain 10 Edward Ihe Confessor. HIS new cathedral (illustra tion, left)
was not built in the town, bill on a broad hill 111 the shadow of a large
Norman castle - meaning that even water shortages were an acceptable
trade-off for safelY.
The cathedral wu completed in 1092 by St. Osmund, but fi"e days
before it was due to be consecrated it was destroyed by a Storm, The
foundations, which were excavated in a field in 1912113, show that the
building had !iule in common with churches in Normandy, posSIbly
because of the person who commissioned it. A cross-section fa~ade was
connected to a nave and side aisles with pillars; the t","sept and towers,
destroyed from 1538, can be made 0111 111 the ruins which wen~ excav~ted
in a Canterbury meadow, and liS elevation would have been similar to
models in Normandy, and the slightly older Canterbury Cathedral.
The next English successor of St. Stephen's in Caen was the AngloNorman calhcdralll1 Lmcoln which, like so many of ils contemporaries,
was extensively rebuih dunng the Gothic period in the Early English style.
Remigius, who had previously been the almoner at the monaStery of
Fecamp, was made bishop in 1067. In 1072, as part of the reforms made
to the dioceses after the Norman Conquest, the bishop's see of Dorchester
on Thames was moved to Lincoln; the cathedral was built on the fortified
Lincoln Hill, above the River Witham. The Cathedral Church of SI. Mary,
which was STarted in 1073174, was completed by 1092, when it was
consecrated. As Remigius died on the eve of the consecration, it was
undcruken by his successor, Robert Bloct. All that remains of Rellligius's
building is the central section of the fa~ade (photo, p. 221], built of hewn
stone, and with narrow openings that look like the arrow-slits on a castle.
Because of excavations, it is possible to make a reliable reconstruClion of
its appearance: a two-bay fa~ade wllh twin towers was conneCled to a
nine-bay colu mned nave and aisles, a projecting transept with tribunes
that was initially in two scClions, and a choir composed of five chapels in
echelon. The reClangular sides of the side a~s were a common feature in
churches in Normandy. The cathedral llself must ha"e been a galleried
basilica. There is evidence to support there being groin vaulting in the side
aisles, underneath the tribunes and in the four outer chapels in echelon.
The cemral part of th e choir w,IS probably roofed by a barrel vault. The
transept and nave would have had wooden vaults. Nothing is known
about the shape of the crossing tower. In 1911, John Bilson quite rightly
praised the building for its "logical precision, clearly defined struClural
organization, and feeling for monumcnla! forll1.~ Its mOSI remarkable
section was the fa~ade area, shape<llike a triumphal arch; if Ihis section
was really - as R. Gem suggested in 1982 - originally conceived as a
fortified church without toweT'!i, il would explai n Henry of Huntingdon's
222
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..
n,
lk
IDDD!
-.
[J
Paul
223
Whu~To".r.cr.... -
224
the north Side aisle) have made it possible to reconst ruct the exterior,
which would have been divided by tall blind niches and several rows of
windows.
York Minster remained very much an exception. In Winchester,
Hampshire, Bishop Walkclyn (1070-98) of Rouen replaced the last AngloSaxon bishop, Stigand. Walkclyn, who had been the king's chapiain, startro
work on a new cathedral in 1079 (photo, Ixmom and figures, p. 226); it
was built ~a fundamemis, ~ from scratch, and shows that the Normans
were using Canterbury as a model, thollgh with some differences and
embellishments.
On a hill above the River hchen, Walkclyn builr what was at the time
the largest church in northern Europe. until Cluny Ill. Its very length of
533 feet was an expression of the importance of a cit)" which had
witnessed the coronations and funerals of kings and was the dest ination of
a pilgrim TOlite (0 the gra"e of SI. Swithin. In 1093, the Benroictine monks
25m
225
Winch~.. rr
from the nearby Old Mmsrer were able ro move into Ihe completed cast
section. In 1107 the crossing rower collapsed, but was soon replaced wilh
Ihe aid of stronger pillars. Repairs also had to be made in the bays of the
transept, most noticeably to the capit;lls. The church W;lS completed in
;lbom 1120.
The fa~ade, which was guarded by two towers, was connected to a
nave and aisles with eleven bays, whIch retains its lare Gothic cladding up
to the gallery. The most impressive part is the transept, incorporating new
continental ideas. It was redesigned in abom 1085, giving it side aisles, ~
that the aisles to either side of Ihe nave continued into Ihe wings of Ihe
transept. Towers - IWO at ei ther end of the transept - were intended 10 be
temporary alternatives to a crossing tower. It was clearly modeled on the
galleried transeptS found in pilgrimage churches such as Toulouse and
Santiago. The choir, raised above a powerful crypt in several parts. al~
had side aisles. The cud of the choir was surrounded by a seml-circular
ambulatory, and an ;Ipse-like Lady Ch;lpel W;lS attached to its rect;lngular
termination. A rhythmic alternation of pillars and columns, together with
vertical supports in front of the strong w;llls, suggests th;lt a stone barrel
v;lult was planned for the central ;lisle at the beginning of the choir. The
idea was abandoned in abom 1085, at gallery level.
The transept (photo, p. 225, bottom) was almost unlOuched by the
Gothic alterations made at the end of the twelfth century (whiCh started
with a retro-choir); it gives one the opportunity to experience at first hand
226
OPPOSITE
Hereford C.tht<lral.l'.ost
227
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............
.
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~
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jM
OPPOSITE
:
.om
One can still gel an idea of what the west front of Bury looked like by
examining Ely in Cambridgeshire (photo, p. 229). The wide fa\"ade of Ihis
cathedral, which was dedicated to Ihe Trinity. was eVldenlly buill in dirc.:.:t
by Sr.
Elheldred~,
starting point at Ell', as il W,IS at Bury. With the aid of the monks, King
Wilham was able 10 ddeal one of the last pockets of Anglo-Saxon
resistance in the marshes around Ely. In 1081, the office of abbot was
conferred by William upon Simeon. a Norman who had been prior of
Winchester and was the brother of Bishop Walkdyn.
Simeon started work at El y soon after he was made abbot, and the
onginal building remains, eXCept fOT the crossing and choir. Like St.
Albans, the choir had aisles and thre.: storeys, and probably terminated in
a scml-circular apse. The transept, as al Winchester, had three storeys. The
mighty (>Crogon over the crossing, buill between 1322 and 1344, disturbs
the regularity of the slim Norman bays quite considerably. The ea,t stion
was probably compl<.""!ed when the relics of the monastery's founder were
transferred in 1106. In 1109, the church was elevated to the rank of
cathedral, and the Breton Abbot Herve becamc ils firsl bishop.
The journey from Ihc high to the late Romanesquc period can be made
hy p.",in& fTnm the nl<ll'<I """'inn, Ihe <;nllih ~rm of Ihe tr~n"'pT with II~
pl~1II storeys without responds (alternating system of supportS in the
ground floor. gal1eries, triplets (windows with three lights) with a
walkway, the latter probably built after the crossing lowcr collapsed in
1111 ), via Ihe northern transept which has a clear vertical sl ruct ure due to
elcmclIIS placed in frOIll of the pil1ars, the nave and side aisles with thirteen
bays (a lternating syslem of supportS in Ihe arcade slOrey alld gallery.
triplets with a walkway. phOIOS, leh), to the fa~ade. The walls of the open
west trallsept arms, dating from the late twelfth celllur)', arc richly
decoT3too wilh seqnences of blind archcs. The nave is magnificcnt; though
it took a 10llg lime 10 build, il remained remarkably true to the original
design. The hori:wntal sequence of its storeys, which are proportioned m a
6:5:4 T3tio, is broken by th e narrow responds which, illstead of the broken
woodell ceiling, almost certainly supported a wooden barrel vault. As in
Peterborough alld Norwich, this is high Romancsque articulation of a
building carried out 10 a beautiful degree of perfection. The exterior of the
nave and side aisles is more lavishly decoratoo than the interior, and
includes a sequence of blind arcades.
Bcrmondsey Abbey in Surrey (figure, p. 230, top) was a Cluniae priory
like Lewes in Sussex and Wenlock in Shropshire. Its eastern stion, which
has only been known since recent excavations were made, is curious and
11l1til now was difficult 10 interpret, just like the solutions 10 building the
choir in Rocheslcr and York. Thc building had a transept wilh four apses,
and it was (onn('(:ted 10 a sanCluary Ihat was a good 65 feet long,
surrounded by five apses on the eastern side. The church, which was
probabl)' begun in 1082, was an unusual succcssor to Clunr II.
Onl)' stions TCmain of the monastery church that was founded in
1083 by Roger de Mommorency for Benedictines from see~. The three
bays ill the nave and aisles, built around 1100, have round pillars and the
228
Ikrmondsq Abbty.
Ground pl.n of Ih~
eaSlern sectIOn
usual tympana in the galkries, but the clerestory does not have a walkway
in front of the windows.
The Cathlral of St. Mary in Worcester (p hoto, below) is es~,ially
informatile where the continuous relationship between architects in
Normandy and Norman architecTS in England IS concernl, and it has
~n quite unjustly ignored in publications on the Euro~an R'~manesque
period. While the large building, built of reddIsh sandstone, is largely
Gothic, important sections of its Norman prlecessor (crypt, base of the
fa~ade, arches, responds) still remain. The town was made a bishopric in
680, and the thl""n church of St. Peter was under the care of secular canons.
St. Wul fstan (1062-95), who was the only AngloSaxon bishop to remain
in office after Ihe Conquest, demolished the late tenthcentu,ry church,
which had ~n built by St. Oswald and subsequently damaged by the
Danes, and startl work in 1084 on a church, the large size of which had
become necessary due to growing numbers of monks. By 1089 the
building work had progressed so far that the clerics were able to move
from Oswalds old church into the new cathedral. After the translation of
the rdics of Oswald, Wulfstan had the old buil d in~ demolished; it
probably stood near the present na'e. Wulfst an kept records that show
that a synod took place in 1092 in the crypt which he had! built and
g~
~.
--I
.,
"
-<
t -t
....
.J
'"':t
.,
.,
lo
r
r
r-J.
230
laid the foundation Stone of the new building in July 1089, it is safe to
assume that he was working to a model.
St. I'eters in Gloucester - a cathedral since 1540 - is an aisled basilica
with a transept, ambulatory and radiating cha pds. T here is a crypt with
several aisles which extends for the emire length of the choir, JUSt as in
Worcester. The polygonal main choir has arcades over round pillars. The
ambulatory is groin.vaulted, and above it are barrel-vault~-d galleries.
Their round pillars originally had four semi-circular responds, of which
three remain. Those facing inwards disappeared when the choir was
renovated during the late Gothic period. T he first two storeys are the same
heigh t, and above them is a late Gothk clereSlOry. The aisle-less, five-bay
transept with chapels to the east is Romanesque in its ground plan and in
parts of its elevation. Compared with the choi r, the nave and side aisles
have a completely different devation now. Above round pillars without
responds, pseudo-galleries open out Ollto a walkway. The derestory was
rib-vaulted ill the thirteenth century, but underneath this are dear traces of
its former shape: stepped triple arcades, walkway, central window. T he
side aisles arc rib-vaulted, and the exte rior walls ha,e alternately three and
five responds.
T he galleries of the two re maini ng Romanesque storeys of the choir
provide important information for a reconstruction of the former superstructure. They have semidomes, which must have been intended to
support a vault o'-er The central choir. There are six possible solu tions for
the superstructure, and if the intention was to "ault the aisle with stone, it
is likely that the third storey was a triforium with a walkway, with or
without tilly windows.
Such a soll1lion would have aPlXared qUite strange to anyone brought up
on the French Romanesque style. But iT is the very one that can be proved to
ha,e existed in two other barrel-,aultL-d buildings belonging to the Severn
Group. They are the churches in Tewkesbury, Glouceslershire, and Pershore,
{Hereford & Worc<'"5ter, photos, p. 232). In the eastern Stions of both
churches were vaults o,-er the central aisl~, covuing gall~ries and a lriforiulil
and walkway; th is was a three-part elevation, nOt the four-part one that Jean
Bony reconstructed in 1937_ Th~ transepts ofTewkesbury and Pershore used
10 be barrel-vauh~d '" Slon~, and give clues to the elevations of the choirs,
which in both ca~ no longer exisl. As both churches belonged to priories
Ih at were subordinate to WOrceSler and Gloucesler, they probably had
corresponding elevations at the first stage of planning, but the intention to
use stone vaulling failed, probably because of the width of Ihe nave, despite
Ihe novel elevation. Worcester and Gloucester were presumably replanned,
and the stone vault was replaced with:l w()(j(jen vault with girders, the only
form of roofing that corresponded to the desired spatial effect.
It is easy to reconStrUCT the transepts in Worcester and Glouc~ster. Both
of them, li ke the better preserved tr;lnsepTS in Tewkesbu ry and l'ershore,
had one aisle and fi,<e bays. They had two-storey eastern chapels and
toW~rs with staircases at the corners. They had a Ihree-slorey elevation
and stone vaulTS were planned, and possibly even built.
There are very sparse remains left to aid a reconstrucrion of the
R Olliancsqu~ nave and side aisles in \X/orcester_ They do, however, prove
1~
231
.... .. .-
_IJ .. ~ .
~
rI..
:;r~
ground pl~n
(ab<we), elevation
232
that Worcester did [lot simply have round pillars Itke Gloucester and
Tewkesbury. The elevations of their na,'es and side aisles are quire
different from the eastern seCTions of the buildings, and have excessively
high arcades and a low triforium and walkway; the triforium had started
replacing galleries from about 1110, as they were no longer considered
structurally or liturgically na:essary.ln GloucesTer, COnStrUCTion work was
started bter, and around 1120/30 the openings of this intermediate StOrey
were grouped in the center of the arcade beneath; this clearly shows that
the intention was to use what, at that time, was the most modern form of
vaulting, namely the sixsection rib vaulting that had ~n im'ellted in
Normandy (sec photos, p. 142). It is probable that the plans in Worcester
were changed to an alternating system of supports in the nave and side
aisles, in order to avoid the obvious break Ixtween the substructure and
vaulting evident in Gloucester.
Due to the combination of vaulted galleries and triforiums with walk
ways underneath a vault, the $e"ern Group O(cupics;l special position in
the English Romanesque period. The main architcct of the Group must
have been aware that a stone vault could nOt Ix exccuted over a basilica's
elevation if the sp;m waS mOfe than ten meters. 11 can only have been
possible to realise his solution to this problem in smaller buildings.
The bishop's chapel in Hereford, which was demolished in ]737. had a
the twelfth centllry) with its typically English sequences of blind arches,
sltll stand. The l:hurch of lewes Priory in Sussex (figure, p. 235) was also
st;lrted after 1090: this was another priory founded by William I of
Warenne, in 1078181. The church, which has bn e"cavated, was a
successor 10 Cluny Ill, begun in I 088, like iI, the English daughrer-house
had two transepts and an all1bulatory wilh radiating l:h'lpels.
The first cathedral built during this decade was Chichester in Sussex
(figure, p. 235). The cathedral, dedkated 10 the I-I oly Tnnlty, was pari of a
bishopric founded around 681 in Selsey by 5[. Wilfrid, a former abbot and
bishop of York. In 1075, the dedsion of the Counl:iI of London to 1l10ve
the -village sees~ to dties led to the b1shopric being shifted to ChIChester
(Noviomagus), Stigand was the first bishop (1070-87) at this new site; he
probably started work around 1080 on a new building to repJal:e the
church of St. I'cter's, which was used on 3 temporary basis. That would
e"plain why this large building, of which large partS survived thc Gothic
mod(Crnizafion (despile a fire in 1187), appears rather oldf;lshioned. The
OPI'OSIT~
fOf11'l(r Clum""
prlorychurch.lkgun 1089. W<"S' b(adc
fi'<===[J
000
000
0=
I1P rc == = , lL~=V
ChlCh<"S'er Ca,h~dral.
Su..u.lkgun around
1080. BII,It by Luff..
dev."nn of 'he chOir
235
with the addition of galleries, a clerestory, groin vaulting in the e;lSI SlXlion
and probably a wooden vaul, in the nave. There is no justification for th e
frequently expressed opinion that the rib vaulting was planned and built
~im'ented"
Sf. ttiennc in Caen to be precise. The earliest plans of this church had
intended the monumental basilica to have a stone roof, but 31 the time the
width of the spans mean! that it was not possible to realise these plans
with a stone vault; rib vaulting meant this was now possible after all.
William the Conqueror's mortuary church had an alternating system of
supports, which is why Ihe first example of monumental rib vaulting,
which corresponded 10 its system of vertical building elements, is in six
sections. In Durham the four.part rib vaulting lacks all reference 10 the
elevation, and was qUite evidemly added later (from 1128133 to around
1160), being put up on consoles o,'er galleries wi th conctaled butrressing.
During the course of this, the clereSlOry was modified, and th e interior was
gi"en a more lavish decoration in keeping with the late Romanesque
style. Naturally the ribs in the side aisles, such as one sees on many
occasions in England. had groin vaulting pushed underneath them at a
laterda!e.
Another thing which speaks out against the early dating of Durham's
rib \aulting is the facl that this type of vaulting was not ret known in the
buildings (such as Norwich, the choir built by St. Anselm in Canterbury
,
, r
~
r
,
I
II, "
I
I
20m
236
1rII--=- -=-
f"2- : ~
~.-.-.-.-.-.-.
::;~'.~ . ~:
.. rf-v
~~:r
Calhffir31, ~nd Pel('rborough} SI;lIIW shonly befoK and after Ihe tum of
the century. Rather, Norwich and ]'(,Ierboruugh both finally decidtd
against attempting 10 vault Ihe n3\'(\ Instead, theIr designers pelffltd the
'aquwucl system' of the na.'j' walls. This pre-COIhle structllre, which
rcmovt'$ allth. hcavmc$S from walls, finds ItS mOSt magnificent '!1<pression
In Ih~ bUIldings.
The bIshopric of EaSt Angha probably dales back 10 a set: Ihal was
founded In Dunwi.h, Suffolk, by SI. Fdlx of Burgundy around 630. [n
aooul 955, It was combined wnh Norlh Elmham in Norfolk, and Ihe sec
was mo.'cd [0 Thetford In 107S. 11 WU nOt until 1094 that Bishop Herbert
de Losinga (1091-1119), who had preYiously bn prior of F~~amp and
abbot of Ramsey, moved to Norwich, which was safer. Losinga had
eyidently bought hiS office fram Wilham Rufus, the a"aricious son of the
Conqueror. !-Ie had a part of the Saxon cily lorn down and slarted work
on a mighty new buildmg In 1096 (photos, p. 238). He !i,'ed long enough
to Stt the east sections (3 thr~-storey choir With ambulatory and three:
chapels. alslc-kss transcp", and firsl double bay of the nave) completed.
The sanctuary, like thaI al Ely, 's strlkmgly long, and the elevation follows
that of St. Ellenne In Caen In other respecls: the arcade supported Similarly
high, unscparated galler~ and there was a walkway In from of the
clerestory and a triplet. Double responds in from of the galleries show that
the structure was stab,I,U"d by stone arches, like Durham. The 1.ue Gothic
nb "aullmg, m !It\"Cral sectiOnS, was probably predcd by a wooden ,auh.
The supporu m the ground floor are COnSPICUOUS: they swmg out 10 the
238
cast and ""est like segmental arches. as if round and edged p,lIars had bn
merged. A IYPic;J.lly English feature is that the cast and w<"St sides of lhe
tran!ltp! (whICh has liS ongmal two-storey chapels) arc different.
By the lime he died, Bishop Eborardus (E\"erard de Montgomery,
112 1-45) had completed the na"e, fourtten bays long, and finished it off
wlIh a Simple cross-section fa.;ade.
We w,1I pass oyer the mediumsi1ed monasteri<"S built around 1100,
whICh arc well worth Sttll1g: they arc LlI1d,sfarne in Northumberland
(l093ff., phOIO, p. 239), whICh is now in ruins bill which was rebUilt wllh
rib vaultl1lg at the II1SI1g.1110n of the Benedictines in Durham; Christchurch
I'riory in lla mpshire ( 1094) which has laIC Ramanesque patterned arcade
spandrels and was founded by Ranulph !-1 ambard, bIer bishop of Durham;
Binham Priory In Norfolk (c. 109 1ff.), of which JUSt one hall remains and
whl)!lt pomlcd roof suggesls ,hat lhe upward thrusl of the double responds
must hale supported a h,arreJ vault; the mlghlY arched walls of Colchester
Priory m Es!ltx (c. 1095ff.), whICh was the firsl Augustmian !ltnlemcnt m
England and IS now III rUins; and the tWO Romancsque na'"e SfOrc-yS of
Wymondharn Abbey in Norfolk (I107ff. ), which was founded by William
de Albl", as a daughter-houS(" of SI. Albans.
The archll~turJ.1 climn of thesoc yeus musl hal'c bn the choir of
Canterbury Cathedral, of whICh only Ihe outside walls slIlI sland (phoro.
p. 239 ). The bUlldmg was begun m 1093/96 by AnS("lm (1093-1109) and
hi! prior Emulph ( 1096--1107), and evenlually completed by Pnor Conrad
(1108-26): ,hcy replaced Lanfmnc's three apses with a choir $0 long Ihallt
An~lm.
239
WWf.'I'<
nearly doubled !h~ lengdl of the cath~-dral.lll the east was a transepl with
two chapels in each arm, and an ambulatory with two langenliall)' conncere<! radiating chapds as weI! as:I rectangular Lady Chapel; they were
built over the extended crypt and were able 10 house numerous new altars.
The elevation of the extension, which was consecrat~ In 11)0, would halle
been round pillars supporti ng a weak!)' lit g.1l1ery and a derestory with a
walkway. Gcrvasius of Canterbury WTlfes that the ceiling was painlcd.
The most remarkable of the few central-plan buildings in England is
the round Ch urch of the !-Ioly Sepulchre in Cambridg... (pholo. 3bol'<,:),
which was ~gun around 1120; wt do not know why it was built. It is :I
copy of the Chu rch of [he Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, and while it was
renovated by the Cambridge Camden Society from 1841, its forms are
nonetheless trustworthy. Eight round pillars surround a central space
which is roofed, via unvaulted galleries :lI1d round arch windows, hy an
eightsection dome. hs powerful ribs ha"e as liule in common with the
original plan as th= in the ambulatory.
Apart from renovations to choirs such as those in Old Sarum, Wiltshire
(c. 1110-30) and Rochester (II II-H), the first third of the twelfth century
also saw the start and e;<lension of several imponam monastery and
bishop's churches: in Waltham Abbey, Essex, ,\ new building (IV) with an
ambulatory and transept was built between 1110 and 1160, and the
240
galleried na\'e and side aisles still stand, complete with th e patterned round
pillars and arcade arch .-s that were influenced by Durham. The transition 10
the Gothic period can be seen at Selby Abbey in Yorkshi re. The choir with
chapels in echelon, which was staned around I [00, was later replaced by a
\atc Gothic building, but the Romanesque aisle less transept with its low
crossing, and the two cast ba)'s of the na,'e and side aisl.-s, still remain. From
rhe second double bay onwards. individual Gothic forms appear in a quite
bizarre shaJ'C'. We only know the outlines of the ground pbn of the monastery
church at ChcTlsey in Suner. which was bUIlt from 1110 onwards. And little
more IS known, other rhan the twO mighty rowers over the transept arms, of
the cathedral ch urch in ExCler, Devon, which was begun in 1114 by Bishop
William Wardwast (d. 1137) and consecrated in 1133.
The churches of Chertsey and Old Sarurn, as well as SOl1lhwelJ
Minster in Nottinghamshire (photos, p. 241) which was begun by
Archbishop Thomas II of York (I \08-14) as a collegla!e church, and
Romsey Abbe)' in Hampshire (photo, p. 241, budt c. 1120-1250 for
Benedictmes), arc amongst [he earliest buildings !O have rectangular
chOIrs or ambulatories. This type of ambubtory, which appears to be an
invention of [he English Romanesquc pe riod, call be traced back 10
continental ambulatory cryptS of the late Carolingian period. The best
prcscn'ed is the choir of Romsey Abbey, which only lost its probably two'
rt . .-.
"...
..-\
, p ....,
.~
'" : u
"1: U
1
.~
storeyed cast chapel. The na,'eJ of the twO coll~gJa{e churches arc
varia nons of ,he Enghsh high Romanesque period that are full of
char;l(ter. In Sou'hwell, thrcc storeys ,ha, decrcaS<! m he'gh{ (arcade with
round p,llars, gallery wl!hou, a tympanum. round wmdow behind a
walkway ) suppon a wooden "auh (!). and the s,de aisles h;n-e an early rib
vaui ling Ihal is mscned on conJ,Oles. Romscy also has Ihe Iypically B"ush
-aqueduci S)"Slem - wllh three Slore)"s. and another wooden vault! While
Southwell aVOids any .en.cal emphasIs. In 'he finl bay II looks as though
the maSlil\'e round pIllars ""ere mlng Ihrough 10 Ihe gallery. crealmg a
-colossal order- such as Ihat In Oxford or Jedburgh.
80th bUlldmg, belong to Il group wh,ch Ilrouod 1110 replllccd the
stone "aulls planned ,n ,he cle,'enth cenfUry with wooden vaullS; they
dlstmgulshed themseh'es by means of theor alternating systems of supponJ
.- !!i"~ ~
a. .
00
oj
'I . .oj,,.
j.
t:J .I,I ,,
'
~.:!~
10 20 m
J[ , r
Ground plan of jean <It
242
s.'.
b",ldmS
oi SI.
dlssoh'c thc walls as well as illuminate the imerior. By 1143 the choir,
wh~ thrtt aisles ended in apses and which had an alll~rnallng system of
supports consisting of octagonal and round pillars, was readr: the ribs ill
its side aisles were added latcr. The main twin-shelled apse. which governs
the sequence of storeys in the choir. is extremdy Important, and it has
wmdows in all three storer s. The dOl1ble-aiskd tran~Pt, which has Ihree
store)"S {as in the choir and nave, arcades. gallenc5 with rympanums and
trjoles}, has a proper screen composcd of responds and cornices across if.
Abbot William de Waterville {1155-75} also surted work on the na,'e and
side aisles, which did not have an altcrnatmg system of supporlS or vault("d
g.1.lleries, and work was finished by Abbot Benedict ( 1177-99) before
1193, in accordance with the original design. The polygonal broken
wooden ceiling in the nave, which dates from the thIrteenth century. was
almoSI ccrtainly preceded by a wooden barrd vault. The western side of
the church is Gothic, and would have been completed, with liS little corner
towers and the gigantic niches reminiscent of lmcoln, by the time the
building was consecrated in 1238,
The English high Romanesque period concluded towards 1135 with
the end of the reign of Henry l. Henry's mam work was the abbey of
Reading, in Bcrkshire, which has disappeared. exccpl for a few remains of
the transept at the end of Forbury Gardens. The monaslCry was founded in
112 1, and its church, which Becket consecrated in ] 164, is where the king
was buried. Cluniac monks came from lewC"s to guard hLS tomb in front of
the high altar.
One can gct an idea of this ChUTCh by looking al leominster I'riory 111
Hereford & WOTCeSter (figure, bottom left ), It was a daughterhouse of
Reading, and was an austere aislcd building wllh a transepl, cross ins
tower and radiating chapels, built aflcr Henry I gave the Anglo-Saxon
foundation to the mOrtUary church he hJd had built in Bcrkshire. Only Ihe
I1;1V", which had a lavish Stepped portal, and the northern side aisles
survived its dIssolution in 1539.
The priory church of St. Bartholomew-the-Great in london (figure,
1'.243, bottom right ), which was buill in 1123 by Rahere, a fa vori tc
of Henry's, also had an ambu13tory an d radiating chapels. Rahere had
started a pilgrimage 10 Romc, and when he became ill "owed 10 found a
hospital. He was the first prior and died in 11 43; it is unlikelr that he Ii"cd
long enough 10 see [he completion of the church, which was looked aftcr
by the Augustinian Black Canons. The alsled choir, with its sllIrdy rou nd
pillars, g.1.llery and clerestory, is impressive.
From the outside, Wimbornc MinslCr in Dorset looks completely
Gothic; but inside are significant remains dating from the decade s after
] 120. The nave IS reduced 10 IWO storeys, and the round pillars are
covered with late Romanesque chevrons. The Church of St. Kyn "burgha
in Castor, Cambridgeshire (photo, above ) IS dominated by a magnificent
crossing tower, the only remainmg Romanesque section of the building; its
crossll1g pilla rs are decoraled by SOllle low relief capitals.
243
244
245
Fountain, Abbty
IYo,hhi'~).
fo,,,,,,,
246
OPPOSITE
1127- 34,
, :'
, ~~~~~~
SO
--- 1"'
....
-10
--.. --
r--.-~
p~
[ 1 [ - -_._--
fao;ad.
m.
tow~r
~:;;:~'C
.
.
ri
F T
CIoi&lerS
iJ
1-
_~J
the hallmarks of the Burgundian Cistercian style are the ground plans, the
shapes of the pillars, the pointed arch arcades, ,md th e deanl)" Cut stone.
Frane .. was also the inspiration for the poimed vaults in the sid,: aisles and
choirs, Ihough Ihe pointed vaulting which is typically found in the
windowless naves of cominental Cistercian buildings does not seem 10
have found favour. The naves appear to hal'e had wooden roofs, Ihough
Kirkstalland Buildwas had ..arly rib-vaulted choirs,
Those Cistercian buildings that were started in the late twel fth century
- Byland in Yorkshire, Roche in Yorkshire, Furness in Lancashire and
Jervaulx in Yorkshire - show that the strict archttectural rules of the first
half of the century were being relaxed in Britain. Byland Abbey (figure,
p. 248, top left} had a transept wilh aisles, and an ambulatory, and Roche
Abbey was showing signs of the Gothic style from the region around Laon
as early as the 11705.
While rural parish churches kepI to Romanesque models umil around
1200, the rebuilding of the choir of Canterbury C.lIhedral follo.wing a fire
in 1174 led to the first large-scale building 10 follow continental early
Gothic models, such as the cathedral in ~ns, in all its details.
Sacred buildings in Wales, Ireland and Scoiland
In comparison to the impressive se<juence of s.lCred buildings in England,
the churches of Wales, Ireland and Scodand playa rather more modest
role. Not enough buildings have survived in any of th ..se countries for one
to be able to reconstruct a c1 ..ar development in style. Norman influences
248
aTe visible everywhere: such as the dreary nave and side aisles of the Welsh
cathedral of St. David's {I 190-98}, which is nestled in a hollow.
Worth mentioning in Ireland , which was part of the Norman kingdom
from around 11 70, are the barrei-,'aulted hall of Cormac's Chapel {112734} on the Rock of Cashel {photo, top right}; Ihe ruins of th .. Cistercian
abbeys of Mellifont (only Ihe foundation walls remain of the ,hurch which
was consecrated in 1157) and Jerpoim, which dates from the second half
of the twelfth century; the slender, 93-foot round tower of Ardmore; and
the calhedral of Clonfen, whose portal is studded with numerous heads. The
conlinued existence of the small stone churches belonging 10 the early Irish
monks is demonstrated by St. Kevi n's church in Glcndalough, which is a
tiny SlOne building with a steep roof and round tower.
The most important Romanesque churches in Scotland date back 10 the
reign of King Oavid I (1124-1153). The Benedictine abbey of Dunfermline
in Fife, founded around \070, was the burial place of eleven kings and
queens. The arcades of the three.storey nave and side aisles of the church
(illustration, p. 249, bottom), which was consecrated in 1150, dearly copy
Durham, and its exterior reminds one of models such as York (built
by Bayeux}. Equally latc Romanesque ( I 180-1200} in style is the mighty
ruined lOwer at the western end of Kelso Abbey in the Borders. which was
founded in 1126. In the countryside nearby, Ihe monks of the reformed
orders built Ihe "Border Abbeys, ~ magnificelll ruins from the twelfth
centory, which were a SOurce of inspi ration to Romantic painters. The
Cistercian s founded Melrose in 1136, the Augustinians founded Jedburgh
Dunf"",,h~ A~ (Scoxland~
fur .....
monast"'Y church,
reconstruction of rxlenor. M""".ctty
foundc.l.n 1070
IImnlK'l'll1<'
249
I.EFT TO RIGHT
,- ..
thl." raising of the mone at Hastings, but also vIews of mottl's at Dol, Dinan
and Renncs in Brittany and Bayeux in Normandy. Well rcsearche<!
examples arc Cotho in Lincolnshire (illustration, p. 250, lOp right ) and
Hen Domen in M011lgomeryshire, which was probably built by Roger of
Montgomery from 1071. The wooden structures on the mottl's varied
considerably. Some were simple lookout lowers. such as Abingl."r in Surrey
(illustration, p. 250, lOp right), while others were fortified resIdential
towl."rs with more than one storey, such as Rhuddbn in Clwyd.
The ringworks also varie<! in si1.t and shape. Most of them ,llere circular.
They consisted of ditches and waHs which were fortified with wooden
paJis.ldes; Within were various buildings. Ringworks were- not invente<! by the
Normans, for Ireland has numerous exal11ples dating back to the sixth ccntury.
An illUSlration of Ashley in Hampshirt' (p. 250 top righl) should be suffICient.
In numeruus cases, the Normans placed Iheir strongholds within older
fortifications: sometimes in Roman forrs (Porte hester in Hampshire,
figure, p. 251 lOp right ), or in Anglo-Saxon villages such as Pleshey, Essex.
In Ihe IOwns and cities (York, Norwich, Lincoln etc. ) whole quarters were
destroyed 10 make way for their fortresses.
250
.~
rom
c..",..buryea"k.
b,enor devation. (top) .
ground pIon of fi~t floor (bottom lefTI.
ground pIon of sond floor (bottom
righT)
251
_<OIl.
rnmI'''_
",it
,'l1li' ,n,,,_.
.nd h.... k
.f,.,
,,-.U
~,""a,1Ofl
ol.t.. na..
t>m .....,k
In Dm.....'k. ,lot I("""'nnq .... p<no<l dod
"*
=''''1''
It
"..~ll~1~'
... ......
.. 1O't<i".."I, ""tOlIndod hr an
"''''''''.
,.... ......
... tl.:l
N...... ~
Kalundbotg.
VOl" fruc" K"k .
GrotInd plon
'_<n.
V,l,"~.
'n.. ........
252
.".<11
.1"""" ,,,,,f..
...... """
lit"'"
moe,'" ..
,.... _
hrau"ful .....u.....1 """,to,
",""I.l,,. ,n '>c.ndtru, .. '" K"'f, IUk"".
11.11 ,n fIcorJIrn ...'h"'" ..... ~pItoed ,n
1261 u"n~(;.,ch", form.
S" 'Irn
n.. only r.maln'ng .u, hurch i, S"'eden
.. lhe ... ,her pl .. n ~hu",h ,n H.darM on
V'''''gOlI.nd. do,,"II from around 1500.
A rubble church " ... bu,h '" S,s.una.
UppLmd. wh"h " ... ,.he .. a' of" b,.hop a.
a roral <o.m from around 1100. II OS no<
n>on "'I>nher .heclUC"lro.m
ofS.. P.r
" . on f.".he b&,hop', ,hrch.
n..rnurch ofHuuby on V'''''SOlt.,o.d Wa'
l.rS". and .100 ,nuatM a. a .0y.1 <oun,
" ha, bn ... lkJ .he "c ... dle 01 SwM ..h
"rch"..,.ur. " bo<.u .. on .he rly ''''dfth
n.ury a su," church wMg lrom ..,mnd
1020 wa, plocM "'nh "
chor<h.
Another brg< <hurch was .he ca.""'ral ,n
Sbra. V....rgotl.nd. wh"h ..... r.pl.nnM
on .. , ....1 o< ... ,"ono; nsc.yp' d.... h.ck '0
,he .1<,.. n.h n.ury. lI.he church on G.ml.
Upps.;ol . of "'h"h .he ,ho .. and cro... n5
... m.m ..... lIy W... f.om c. 1110." "'OIold
he .h. old< .. h.. I>op, .hu",h on .he coun.ry.
""n
"OIl<"
'r"""
mos'
.h.
n'
.01,,",".
,0
USt
"r..
11~1I'!Jl.
Finl.. nd
SOU.h ...." F,nland ..... no! con,.".d "n,,1
abou, 1150. In 1156 H.n.ik. ,he 8..1>op
01 UWS.la. Wb k,lkJ "'h,1< undr"akon&
m",oonart W01"k. "nd wa. buned on ,he
prM..,...". 01 .he pr ... n. .hutch ,n
N""""' ........ Finbnd proNbly dod no! n:ceI'"
m","onary b"hop,i< u""1 .10< .arly .hll
r~".h ~n.ury. and ,he fi ... normal b,shopri<o ""h ..., 'nTurko.da,es ba<k '0 ]176.
NOn< <>f iTS .... ub, and _rod wo<><I<n
RolJUn<>.q"" build,ng< ha U ...... M . .\1""
01 " ...On< bu,ld,ng' I.he ... are
125
nl<"<l .. ,.1 "on< chuh.es) .re bu,l. 0/
,,,bb1<. ",..... ng .ha h<y ba," \"Cry Ionlt
d,ff".I,.o
",nammU'..,.., .nd a",
d .... Th.. pn<ltc ...o 0 .he ... ,,,,,,.. 1 ,n
Turku ...... Rom.n<>.qu. ""OOden chuh
d.,,"II front , he fitS( half of rhe Ih,"~n.h
"'""ry. The <huh.es 01 Al..nd have
r he. Ronun<>quc arp' ....""" .xamples
ondud<- .he rough
h.1I ,n Ibmm,,land. d.,,"II from ,h. 1.1" fo .. r1on,n
mury, and .he $'on' .. cnsty on fin"",m
(..-rood half of ,10< .h,rtttd.h n.", y)
... hich " . p.n 01 a wooden <h,,h.
.boo.
.hcrrfor.
"OIl<"
Bo'"!l,md.
Of,,. church
253
Th~
'oun<~'
'0
Hunp'y
Tht Arpad Pulc (;.i... (972-9'91) .ncml"N
an .malgam."on of.1>< M.gyar
,n'"
a "'....'8" ...,," h" '001\ ~t.pl><n I 1998_
1038) ...... '0 ",cctt<! ...,hcr<.1>< f.,I><. h.d
fa,IN. Hc wa. ~",.... n<d ,n 1001. OI'S''''ud
h" c"'""ry ,n'o .dm,n,,"''''' C","11,,,, .nd
...cd 'wo archbo,hop''''' (f.szt<<goml
C",n Md K.I"'.... ). Thc 1ltn!1C"'" order
""'. brough' to r .""""balma f""" Ilohtmta,
Thc Rom.n Cathol .. Church ",pl.eM tl><
G.... k Onhodox Chu"h .h" h.d 1'",,-.,11
until th .. "m . Stcpl><n fOl'rmd ,onIlIIoo.
WIth hts r.rtghbor$, In putlCul.. th()';t in ,he
.....", ... hlCh '0 !Om< dtgJ... <xpl.,n. ,I><
"rung mH ..."... uf !Ia...".n .<><1 ('.... m.n
.rch"C'<,utO on Hung.ry, rly Romanesq .. otyk. Not until ,I>< _<MId half of
,I>< twdfrh ~n'ury d,d 1t.I",n .nd F ",h
,nll ... ntt< p",dom,u,c.
Tht Hunga".n ~ Iy ROO13nC"l'''' archllC'<'ural .. yk <xp.~seJ It..lf In num.."".
fo.m,. Th< round chur"h of f...zt<<gom
nod Vazpn'm (5,. Geo.ge'. Chapell ha,..
b...n ."".'alM .nd p,,,,,",bl)' d1,c b.Kk ",
tl>< lat. tenth 01' < Iy .Ie",nth cen,u,in;.
"Il>oo< ".. Iy b,Wop', .nd collrgr... chu.
d,n ,ha, h bn c" ...... d wtrt hall
<hurch .. ""II""U' ... 0 . .1''' '>f - u,ually _
buil"", "'"h th,~ .pses uch .. ,I><
",thod..1 ,n Sdk>f<hOn-;i. wh"h wa, bu,l,
f",<<><oo."o", and '01"1 fu""ral;, 'to rUIns
orc beh,nd ,I\<- b"hop" ",I.ec nd tht
.r
. ....i
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ground pl.n
254
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Wh,lr all that .cm.,n of ,I>< """""1
chu.chn ,n \"('rocbw (,I>< Augu",n .. n
""""'''try 'Our l.ody of the s..nod anod , ...
lItn!"" ... '" J',c"""'''''''''''an mon."..... 1 atO ,hc .yn,pan. d."ng from , I><
twelfth ntu", ,I><",
p..... n'able
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011><. pl..n .......
.hough .hey ~ "",,",,h...o"qu.ud wh ...
compared '0 o,1>tt "'OIk, hnm ,I>< oa"",
pe.rod. Thc church of St. And.<w " .1><
mos, I><.u"ful ""ud bu,ld,ng ,n K.. kl>w
If18UI<, p. In. bonum left). Thc compk"
,..h"h 'n t'" ci ...nth .. n,ury W", firs, u<;oJ
boIh ., ,I>< so,' ..... ;g,,'. anod a I"n,h
cnu",h.
m.de. mon>lt<rychurcb b ....
h . o,,&<n.1 h.U ..... ",,,,,,.. I,n 1200, a~'
.bo.. b il"" "'IIh ehull a. ,1><.,,, cnd,
,I>< .de .(>'<> h........ 0 c"c>\,.,l. Th.
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polygonal
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b..> .. I"" ... lfh ... ~ .... lb rffi"'~ on poll...
and dtd",~,td 10 Pnot.nd P.ul;" b;ou fl...
,oof. ,.. n~l"'.mI ,h.... Apon 0 1201401.
.nd ..... rnro<nl
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'\I>"m ,n O~'uw d>l.. ft.om ,he mlddl. of
,he , ..,.If,h rrn',,'Y, .nd " .110 ",,,I,,.
with n.,.~ w~lIs "1''"3 on p,lIars ,nd. fl.u
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U'onOI'. 1",,1, of "rge' t.."in ...-. "
d.cou,td ..'ItI! ~ .nd roond ..,.....
Tht pan"" chweh of ll>um. drdoca.td
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255
Uwe Geese
Romanesque sculpture
Inlroduction
Isolaled new beginnings in large-Kale Kulplure apptared during the tcnth
century, but II was nOI until the construction aCllvity that began suddenly
in many regions around the year I 000 Ih~t Kulplure became more widespread; Romanesque Kulpture, with "cry few e"ceptions, is firmly tied 10
architecture. And this fi rST spreading of a Slyle, through Roman and
ChriSlian [uropt, Ihal was uniform in terms of form ~nd content is [he
reason wh). for Ihe first time since the Classical age. art historians feci
justified in talking of an era.
Given that Kulpture depended so strongly on architecture, it mainly
appeared in the form of a relief, and this was 3 decisive difference from the
free-standing and anafOmically correCT Kulpture of antiquity. Though they
are traditionally considered to be part of Kulpture, reliefs occupy a middl e
position between painting, which is flat and tied fO a surface, and spatial,
corporeal sculpture. It is spial due to the synthesIS of haptic and optical
values, which the eye perceives as being genuinely three-dimensional.
~pending on the di stance betwec-n the background and the protruding
fignre, reliefs are classified as either low rehef (a lso called bas relief),
middle relief or high relief. All rh ese forms appear in Rornan~ue art in
vario us C0l11e"t5. While low relief is normally a feature of the pre and
early-Romancsque periods and w~s used later for decorative work, the
narrarive Kenes in tympanul11s and capitals were normally carried OUI in
l11iddle or high relid.
The earliest sites of R0l113nesqne sculpture are usually simple architeclllral elements. such as the corbels in Fromista in Spai n (photo,
opposi te} and the surfaces, similar 10 melOpe5, between them, or the door
lintel in Roussillon (photo. p. 258). While corbels bore secular 1I10tifs in
the widest sense, door lintels were more suited to a row of figures such as
that at the Last Supper. Soon, tympanul11s started to appe ar vaulted above
door lintels; they were initially no more than th e one in Aries-sur-Tech,
which was an arch filled with sandstone (photo, opposite) containing a
cruciform representation of Christ in Majesty. During the following
period, the tympanum became The central and most prominent site for
Romancsque sculplllre.
The capi tal was rhe upper part of a column and supponed the vault.
The column's symbolic content derives from its origins in the shape of
trees. And just as trees ha"e roots and a crown reaching for fhe skies,
columns have bases and capitals. This correlation has ne~er quite
disappeared in the sacred sphere. In addition. the column and vault bore
the symbolical form of the cosmos, where God lived. And between them.
an architectural infermediary between the upport and burden, was the
capital: a{ the oottom if was STill earthl)', but abo"e it faced the heavens.
This is the confe"t within which the contentS of Roman~ue sculpture on
~"I'it"b .J",>duJ.>l'.J.
Romanesque KulpTure was srrictly hierarchical, where irs form and
content are concerned; it followed STftctl y laid down, decidedly ceremonial
and frequently rigid forms that had developed out of religious traditions.
As a result, the folds in clothing and position of bodies, as well as the
depictions of hands, fect and faces, had certain generalized features that
M
From;", (l'ro .."". of hl.nlia~, :on
Martin. P.dHnenl Wlth ,<.>nsol. flgure_
Lut ,hlrd of Ihe eleventh ,.nlury
BOTTOM
CEt..'TRE
257
SIGems..<J<sFonlOmts (W<StI,rn
I'yrenttSl. abbey church of Sa,nlGtni,.
Door lInlel, ChrlsI bel"'n angels and
s,,,nrs.Marble.10I9120
works from the easlern Pyrenees, including Ih ... door llilld in Saint-Andrede-S(m~de. a neighboring town 10 Saint-Genis. and the tymp3n um cross as
well as the window frame in Arles-sur-Tech, which are all relmed StyliSlically. The door lintel in SaintGenis has an inscription which gjves its date
of origin as the tw~nTy-fourth year of th~ reign of King RObel1 the Pious.
which staned In 996. ThIS dates the lintel precisely to the year 1019-20,
makmg it one of the oldest examples of Ron13nesque stone sculpture.
In the center Christ is emhroned in a mandorla, held by IWO angels. On
either side arc three aposlles in arcades with horse-shoe arches. AI this
point the connection between the figures and the archite<:ture is still "er)'
tight, and this IS demonstra ted by the silhouettes of the apostl!es, who are
not ShalXd as normal figures but accordmg 10 the form of chI' arcades.
DespiTe Ihe similarily of Ihe figures, Ihere are substantial diffel"tnces in the
bearing and mo\'emem of the figures in Saint-Andre.
All these relids and the framing decor:lIions are worked in extremely
flat chip-carving, and comemporary models for this would :hardly have
been found in antique sculpture. It is mort likely thaI two-dimensional
frescoes or small pieces of an such as ivory reliefs, illummated manUSCTlplS
and goldsmith's art servt'<l as modds, and Rupprecht quite rightly
comments: ~Format and 11I0b,lity meant that this piece was Il'Ss a
precursor of monumental architectural sculpture, but rather an enlargenlent of workshop art. ~
During Ihe same lXriod the new abbey church of Saint-Philibert was
buill in Tournus in Burgundy, togelher ",ilh what ils inscripticll1 called the
Gerlanus arch (phOIO, right). Capitals, coarsely chip-carved with ornaments and planls, each supporl a thick slab with a sort of impost block,
One of them bears a masklike beard~ man's head, while the .:.>ther shows
a man carrying a halnmer. The latter is frequently wnsidered to be
Gerbnus the archi lt'Cl himself. While Ihere is no way of \".!rifying Ihis
inlerpn.'{:ltion, there is &lill son,elhing quite sen"",;on31 "bout II. 3S ;t
258
,h.
,h. ",...
m.
BOTIOM
259
C"UfO"
260
OProSITE
TOP
A~I)
C ENTR E
BOlTOM
gallery. 1100
scrolls. They are the sole refcrence to the Last Judgcmcnt. The rcst of the
area is taken up by the twcntyfour elders. two on each side in the
top regisler, th~ on each side below, and the remamder underneath
the ~sea of crystal, ~ the wal'es al thc feet of Ihe sublime one. The unusual
meander pallcrn grow ing OUI of the mouths of beasls at Ihe edge of the
tympanum has bIoen interpreted as ,hc bonds with which Hercules tied up
Cerberus, the dog from 1lades. Below the rympanum is the door lintel o n
which wheds of fire symbolize the fires of Hell in the Apocalyr-. It i~
all supported by twO mighty door POSts, whose edges are unusual,
like waves poiming inwards; on the left one is a very long relief statue of
Peter, the patron saint of Ihe abM-Y, and on the right there is one of Isaiah.
MWhal were thcy and what symbolic message did they communicate,
those three criss-<:rossed pairs of lions rampant, like arches, each with hind
paws plamed on the ground, forepaws on the back of his companion ... ?~
With some license, Adso's vision describes the exterior of the trumeau, and
his question is the same as an)'one looking at the portal would ask. What
do these lions mean? The Ph ysiologcr (d. p. 339) describes their sides, the
ones relating to Christ. Here too they seem to mean strength, as they are
carrying the lintel. But on the trumeau thcy appear in front of a
background of the roselles of hellfire on Ihe archilTave, and this - in an
eX!Temely high quality piece of work -creates a whiff of evil. This example
demonslrates the cnigmatic ambiguit y of Romanesque visual idiom, and
the menacing proximiry of Good and Evil which it frequently reveals.
Of cxceplionally high sculptural quality are the figures on the sides of
the tmmeau, on the left Ihe apostle 1';IUI, on the right the prophet Jeremiah
(phOIO, p. 260). The latter, in particular, is the sculptural peak of the works
at Moissac. The figure is very long, to match the pillar, upright and quite
twisted, as-lin scarcely conceivable given the patterns of figures described in
Classical writings. The figure appears to be standing firmly on both legs,
but they are crossed in a peculiarly Wide manner, the left over the right, so
that he almost !;eems 10 be dancing. His Iwisled hip protrudes slightly from
the pillar but his upper body is si tting rather rigidly on top. His head is bent
down in a strong countermovement. and his hands are holding a scroll
across his uppcr torso, though nothing can be read on il. lne finely
structured elegance of thc head m panicular, WIth its long hair and beard, is
the dira:t model for the Isaiah II) Soulliac (phOIO, p. 265). The side walls of
the portal entrance each hal'c a double arcade with scenes in TWO registers;
above thcm are fricus with complementary scenes. To rhe left is rh e slOry of
la:l.lrus conna:ted to the damnation of Avar;t;a and Luxuria (ef. PI', 344),
while on Ihe right are scenes whose theme is the Life of Christ.
According 10 the inscription, the cloister of I\-Ioissac was completed in
1100, and it is the first one in which biblical stories and other scenes
appear on the capitals. There are ten marble reliefs o n the corner pillars,
and 88 capi tals, making it thc largest decorate<! Romanesque cloister to
have survivcd. As thcrc is an ahernation of single and coupled columns,
thc scenes Ihemselves vary in thei r proponions, and in between the
capitals bearing figurC$ others are interspersed with pallerns of flowers or
ornaments. The cloister is funher broken up by the corner pillars bearing
reliefs and the rectangular pilbrs in the middle of each side.
262
,0.
Moina< [fam...,tG.ronM), former
.b~ church of So,ol Pierrc. Two
capual. In (hod"",.,. 1]0(1
BOTTOM
263
TOP LEFT
] 120-IUS
~01TOM
tf.Ff
"fAb",ltam.1120-1135
264
Souillac
The former abbey church of Saime-Marie in Souiliac, built between about
1075 and 1150, had suffered extensive damage during the Huguenot wars.
The e:<Tensive figured portal was affected extremely badly. and the
remaining pieces were put back in position in the se"enteenth century.
Nowadays these fr"gments ;Ire on the inner weStern wall.
The former trumeau of the lost portal (photo, opposite, right) has
intertwined griffin-like fabulous crea1Ures depicted on its ouwr side, and
lions fighting other animals. At the very top, a man is being swallowed by
a beast. In a fashion similar to the trumeau at Moissac, the bestial tumult
is brought under control by the symmetrical manner in which the fabulous
creatures arc arranged; chaos and order are confromed with each other in
such a way that they balance each other out - thus obeying one of the most
dominant stylistic principles of Romanesque art. If one onl)" takes this
approach, the trumeau in SoUlliac can be considered the prototype of
bestial columns Id. photos, p. 336). The left sidl' depicts the sacrifice of
Abraham (opposite, bottom left ).
The Theophilus rdief (p hoto, opposite, tOp left ) is possibly a later
amalgamation of various fragments in the form of a triptych. The figures
at the sides ha,-e been interpreted as Peter and BenediCt, and probably
flanked the original tympanum in a way similar to the figures of Peter and
James who flank the Porte Miegc:ville in Toulouse. The central n:lief shows
the legend of Theophilus who was the administrator of the bishopric of
Sicily in the sixth cen1Ury. Angered at being relieved of his office.
Theophilus enters into a pact with the Devil in order to be re;nstatcd. In
his remOT$t he turns to Mary, who returns the paper with the agreement to
him in a vision. The legend is told in three scenes. The first is the pact with
the Oe"il which is shown at the bottom left, The scene next to it on the
right shows the D"'il attempting to grab Theophilus. Above them, in the
third scene, is the figure of ,\hry, the patron saint of the chnrch. She is
really the main figure in the relief, and th at explains why the Story being
told here is not of a saint but of a sinner. Stylistically, the center of the
Theophilus relief has more in common with the prophet Isaiah (photo.
right) than the saints flanking it.
The depiction of Isaiah is not only arguably the mal1l work in Souillac,
but also the l1Iost important depictIon of a prophet in RomanC';quc art. In
stylc it is dirKrly dependent on the figure of Jeremiah ill Moissa,"
However. there is onc main difference: the figure of Jeremiah is standing
slill, whereas the figure of Isaiah almost seems to be mQving. Is.)iah is now
walking, and this, together with his swinging garments, g;"es rhe figure a
kind of new dynamism. Nonetheless, chere is no sense of anatomical unit).
and if the figure were truly walking one would expect Ihe feet and the right
hand 10 be in different positions relative to the body. Another significant
detail is the wide cloak with its rich braid trimm ing, whi,:h fi lls the
background of the relief and in Ihe process creates a new means of
structu ring sculpture. The unusu ally violent and lengthy movement has
encouraged some critics to calk of an Mcxpression of visionary dynam ism. ~
Perhaps the relief expresses the moment when Jsaiah was ca lled by God.
265
(. II J6
(acoord,ns 10 1)r0Sft"t:
Ii
A~ls
7_10 'ThcEIw
"
Mor""'ofGod
27-30 A".,.....
"
T he West
Tht' landM:apes in the midwest regIon of I:rance, roughly /)etwn POilit'rs
in the north and Pun~roux In tru. south, posscss the richest rema1lling
Romanesque sacred bUildings and !>CUllMures. A number of characteristic
peculiarll1es de~eloped here in the way fa~adcs and portals wt'~ structu~d,
the most obVIOUS dlffermct' from tht' porr:als m other region s /)emg the
lade of a tympanum. In places other than Angoulime and POll1ers. whe~
the enme fao;adc IS a showple. the sculptural decorations art' restricted
mamly to the arch1"olts. OccasIonally, 111 SlIes such as the archt\"oh porral in Aulnay. M:ulptu~ and archlttural clements were trea ted as
equivalents.
Angoulcme
Tht' mOSt extcnsi~cly plannt'd fao;ade In Romant'sque art IS on the
cathedral of Saint-Pierre m Angoulcrne (figures, top ). It was produced
betwn 111 5 and 1136 under Bishop Girard II. and expounded a complica ted IconographICal program thaI was probably concei'ed during twO
di(fert'nt pertods. di~iding into the ground floor wnh the portal tympanum
and tht' hIgh arcades, and the upper floor wnh the cent ral a~a and :mgt'ls.
The central area is almost lll.:e a >"ery high tympanum 111 the way It
stretches above the portal and brgt' wl1ldow. In the centre Christ IS
standl1lg m a mandorla protruding from the fapde, and arou nd him Ihe
Evangelists' symbols hale beenlct 11110 Ihe wallm flat niches. The Var)'l1Ig
degrl~s 10 which th e M:ulptural clements are gmdua ted with relation 10
the fa~ade wall display :I. spial characteristic of Angou lcme, which is
rt'pe atoo 111 the forms of tht' angt'ls abol'c the wl1Idow. Tht' four angels
between the fnue and the arch are, like the Evangelists' symbols, SCt
into niches and face Christ. In conlraSI. Ihe angels 111 the spandrel projt
266
front the wall and face outwards. This creaTes a complex structure of
~1allonshlps which dOts, howel'~ r. open OUI as regards content. Standmg
111 front of [he waH, the twO spandrel angels are forntally related to the
mandorla With the standing figure of Christ; above him is a cloud which
has cle,erly moved beyond the wall, ISSUing forth from the church and
cOl'uing the peal.: of the mandorla.
What has bttn dt'plCled IS the Pf('("ISC begmnl1lg of the proc~ In the
Acts of Iht' Apostles (I, 9), where II IS WTltten: -As he s.ud [hiS he was
hfled up whllt' they looked on, and a cloud look him from Iht'lr sigh t.The tWO angels are those "tWO men In whlle- (I, 10) who tUrn to the
aposdes and say: -This same Jesus ( ... ) will come bacl.: in the same way( I, II ). On first SIght the framl11g of a rnandorla depicting the AM:cnSlon
with the evangelists' symbols appears unusual, bUI ,t IS nothing other Ihan
an allusion 10 his prophcsled return. tht' Last Judgement. of which the four
ang~ls in Ihr lltches art' part.
In this respt, we arc deahng WIth an almost word for word
con,'USlon of an important Ne .... Testamenl passage 11110 SlOne. As. result,
the relevant blbhcal figura a~ collecled ,n the side aTCades: wllhm the
aTChed areas are the Chosen of Judgement Day, in the doublt' arcades
underneath Ihe apostles present III tht' AM:ension. Thr)' are 10lned, 111 the
nllddle register to the left of the windo ...., by the Madonna. There IS
M:arct'l y anothrr example 111 ROl1lant'5que art whIch dt'monslratcs such a
singlr, sclf-containrd meanmg. And as thr apostles arc also present to
witness the L1S t Judgemcnt, Ihey are accompanied on either side by devils
and the pcoplt' Iht'y a~ tormentl11g.
While Ihr t'quesU13n statues of SI. George and St. Martin undernrath
the mner double arcades and by the t)'mpanum of the crnlTal portal are
nmeteenth century addillons. the I)'mpanums in the blind arcades on
priory church of
s,.,m-Norolu. Wco;t f"",dc. Second half
of the tw~lfth century
either side are the originals. While they stylistically pl"filate th e rest of the
fa~ade's sculptures, {hey also relate to the theme of the Ascension, for they
show the apos!les making Iheir farewells. The frieze in the blind arcade to
the right of the po rlal shows battles between hOf$tmen that hal'e been
inte rp.eted as scenes from the Song of Rola nd .
Poitier.
The three-storey f3~ade of the former colleg13le church of Notre-DamelaGrande in I'oilters (photo, p. 269) is SImilar to Angouleme, being determined by pronounced I'erlicallines; these are forml by a central portal,
a window abo~e il and an immense mandor13 in the gable sto.ey, all
accompanied by co.ne. IOwe. s. Despite this, the scheme of the fa~ade's
structure is not unified. While the lowe. storey with its central portal and
blmd arcades is related to a building wi th several aisles, the upper storey,
divided into twO registers with figu.ed a.cades, is shaped like the enlarged
wall of a 5.1Tcophagus or shrine.
In contrast, the iconog.aphical program is simple. The mandorla which
project. f.om the gable wall contains a standing Christ and the
E"angelists' symbols, and it is accompanted by the twelve apostles in the
upper storey. 1"ey are shown siumg in the eight arcades of the lower
register, while the fou r apostles above are standing. It has been suggested
that the two bishops standing in the outer arcades could be Saint-Hibire,
Saint-Martin or Saim-Martial. The figural ornamentation of the lower
storey is restricted to the area between the upper storey's arcade string
course and the portal arches. Above the highest point of the left blind
portal arch are the four prophets of the Old Testament: Moses, Jeremiah,
Isaiah and Daniel, neX I 10 them on the left is King Nebuchadneuar and
in the left spandrel is the Fall of Man.
On the prophets' right is the Annunciation, the stem of Jesse, and on
the right side of the por\althc Visi tation of Mary. In the right spandrel of
the right blind portal arch (photo, top) the Birth of Christ. the bathing of
the Child and Joseph sitting are depicted. Capitals, arches and archi"olts
are, more e,'en than in Angouleme, cOI'ered with such lavish decoration
tha t it forms an exciting contrast with the figural sculpture. Nonetheless,
there are many stylistic inconsistencies within the entire ensemble of the
fa~ade.
267
268
OPPOSITf
Po"'.~ (Vi.nne ), former collegIate
cllurch ofNo..... D'mt-la-C .. nd . Wes,
f"ode. Around Ih. mlddl. of,II.lw.lftll
century
s..,m ""'rrc~b.Tou .
170
Sou,h'ransq>l
!'ort.I."ruvoh,
Auln ay
The immediale sense of archiloxtu.e \Ind sculptu.e having merged wilh
ea~h other, which is a charaClertslic of ,he Romanesque in the west of
France, is expressed most succinclly In the archivolt portals of Aulnayde-Saimogne (phoro, opposIte) and Saintes (photos, tOp ). lb.re are four
\Irchi"olts in the portal of the soUlh transept of the pilgrimage church of
SainI-Pierre in Aulna)', and Ihe thr.... outer ones show a large number of
small figures arranged radially_ As each figure was carled separately from a
single StOne, every Slone in the archil'Olls has IIVO functiolls: decorative,
and supporting the arch.
This agreement of construction and doxoration is not \Ipplied on the
inner archholt. Here there arc only annnal and vine omamenlS twisted
across the arch. Above them a.e twenty-four figures with haloes, holding
books and containers and prooobly represeming apostles and prophets. In
the third archivol!, howe"er, there IS a seriOuS confhct between biblical
tradition_ the aesthetic arrangement and the requirements of architectural
construction. The crowned figures are holding instrumentS and containers
and allude to the Elders of the Apocal)pse. But only twenty-four Me
mentioned there, and here there arc a total of thirty-one figures. For
aesthetic reasons, the figures could only be a little larger than those in the
arch below, and In order to do JUStice to the architectural conStruction
of the arch, the number of SIOnCS. and with it Ihe number of figures.
was increased to thirty-one. All the figures in Ihest' two archivolts are
supported at the bottom by lillie atlantes, which are only visible frolll
below. In the founh archi"olt are numerous anim\lls. fabulous and hybrid
creatures, of which a few, such as the sphinX and the sirens, date back to
Dassieal tim~s. Others .der to locallegellds and myths or, like the donkey
wllh the IIIstrument. are an allusion to Ihe VICes. The emire arch is framed
by a torus, on which animals are arranged "tangentially, ~ with their body
axis touching the arch, facing towards the center.
Saintes
The fa~ade of Sainte-~hrie-des-Dames has IWO storeys and is divided into
three sections, meaning that it was following the Sl.:heme used throughout
western France. The remaining Sl.:nlpture is concentrated around the main
portal. and its archivolts are formed by animal and vine friezes. Here, roo,
the Sl.:ulpture is arranged both radially and tangemially. On the inside, six
angels arc moving tangemiall)' towards the highcst point, where tWO of
{hem are holding a lIledaliion with the hand of God. In the second
archivolt are the Evangelists' symbols surrounded by vines, and at the tOp
is the Lamb of God. There are many figures in the third archivolt, each of
them on its own 1'0I1s5Oi., and they show th e Massacre of the Innocents in
Bethlehem, while the number of the Elders of the Apocalypse is increased
in the fourth 3rchivolt, in accordance with the number of voussoirs, 10
fifty-four.
271
RIGHT
11.0,,,,), for"",r pri"ry church of
SalnlFanunal, Tympanum of Iht ",...1
pc>nai. End af lhe oIo"omh century
Ch3rli~u
BOTTOM LEfT
Semur-enBrionn.isIS.,,)nc~'LoI"'I.
OPPOSIH
Charl;"u II.<)"~), lormt. pnOl)'church of
S.in,Fonu",n. Tympanum and door
lintol of the nonh sid. 01 Ih. nanhtx; 10
Ihe lIght ncx110 II, the hnlel, I)'mp.num
and 'rch",,,I1$ o,e. the window "n the
nonh SIde of ,he nanl>tx. Mid ,wdfth
,omur)'
ROTTO.\! RIGHT
Burgu nd y
Burgundy always enjoyed a special position amongst the Romanesque
artistic landKapo:-s o f France, for the r... ason that thiS .;ecuon of country,
betw ..... n the Saone and Loir... , offered bot h extern al sccuruy and mlernal
stability. It is thert'fore no coincidenc ... Ihat this was th ... place where
monast icism revived at an early period and Cluny was bUilt, the la rgest
and mightiest monaste ry in the western world. This had a considerable
impact on ROlna nesque an. in particular sculpture.
Burgundian tympanum)
There are two reasons why the west portal of the abbey of SaintFortunal
in Cha rlieu (photo, top right) occupi ... s an important position in art
history. It is the olde5t remaining columned portal. in which all pans of the
portal are decorated with sculptures. And in addilion.this is Ihe first place
where Christ appears ~in M ajesty~ in the mandorla, a means of repr~n
tation which was later used for Ih ... l ast J udgem ... nt. ThaI Ihls in novation
should have taken p13ce in Burg undy has been explain ... d by Be rnhard
Rupprecht as a specific adoption of the Classical period. in which attention
272
comprehended as rtg.~ rds comem. This hiera tic moment is Ileightened by the
row of apos!les enthroned underneath arcades in the lintel.
This type of scene In a tympanum was frequently repeated righ t until
late Burgundian Romanesque sculpture, and underwent considerable
styllsllc developments. If one compares the early west portal tympanUln
of Charlieu with the lalt.. one on the north portal (photo. top) . it is
conspicuous just how nat the relid of the former is. The bod ies of the
figures are only slightly curved and smoothly shaped. the contours of each
figure being mainly accentuated by linear elements. The relid background
and the archivolts arching o,er the tympanum are completely plain. This
ghes the composition withm the rympanum a peculiar scnsc of dead
weight, cxpres!tO:d mainly by the angels holding the mandorla. T hcy arc
leaning slightly inwards and supporting the curved sides of the mandorb,
but thclr lower legs, bent equally slightly outwards, act as a visual support
for the mandorla which is delicately balanced on ir<> tip. Then there are the
wings of the angels, which lie at the edge of the tympanum and vault the
entire scene. The message for the observer - here the true lord, the Lord of
Heaven. is emhroned.
The structure of the north portal m the nanhex, which dates from
much later, in the middle of the twelfth century, differs very lillIe from its
predccessor. Columns and pillars SCt into the stonework suppon the
curving archivol ts, and the tympanum is carried by a sturdy lintel.
Nonetheless, the observer gams a completely dlfferclII impression when
looking al it. All the architcctu ral elelnents are co'ered with ornamen ..
tation to such a degR"t' that they almost seem tu dissoke into it. OrnamC1lIS
even appear amongst the figures, causing the two to blend. The figure of
Christ in Majesty in the tympanum, to which the Evangelists' symbols
have been added, is in considerably hIgher relief th an thai on the west
portaL Instead of linear drawings on the figures , there are plastic ridges
formed by the folds of the garments, which both co.-er the bodies and take
on an ornamental role. Therc is an even dearer change in the movements
of the figures. Christ in the mandorla is no longc. sitting enthroned in a
frontal hieratic position, but is moving on his eat, almost 3 variation of a
standing position. The violcm movcment of the 311ge1S, constrained by the
addilion of the Evangelists" symbols, goes beyond anythi ng seen untilthcn,
b) incorporating and dividing twO directions of movement in one scenc.
273
'0'
Autun (s"one-fl-Loire).ca,hWral of
SamtUu",. Choir capllal: Dream oltho
Magi. 1120--1130. Autun. Musk "Sail.
Capnul."c-
BOTTOM LUT
A~' D
RIGHT
Capoml.".",
For the hands fhat arc posi ti oned 10 support Ihe mandorla are inconsistent
wi,h ,he position of Ihe angels' bodies. They seem to be pulling apart.
almost as if Ihey are Irying 10 open Ihe mandorla. There are fUrTher
examples of this late styk in Sainl.Julien.de-Jonzy (pholo. p. 272. bollom
right) and Semur-en-Brionnais (photo. p. 272, left), and art historians have
invenled the term of Romanesque" Baroque" to classify thcm.
E"cn though the early tympanum in Charlieu predated that in ClullY. it
was finally Cluny, the most powerful center of Christianity after Rome al
the time. which was 10 spread artistic impulses in all directions. For its
tympanum, later destroyed, also contained Christ enthroned in a
mandorla supported by angels.
Burgundian capi tals
The influential importance of Romanesque sculpture in Burgundy was
also expressed in the design of figured capitals. Created around 1100. th e
capitals of the former abbey church of SaimPierre-et-Saim-Paul in Cluny
were preser"ed quite by chance; Ihey distinguish themselves through theIr
self-contained reference to anciem Corimhian capitals. This appears
particularly dearly in the two capitals bearillg the eight personifications of
the notcs of Gregorian chant (photo. bottom). While the basic form of Ihe
Classical model is adhered to, the sides are opened up by mandorla shapes,
which are not used here for the glory of the figures bill in order
to provide Ihem wllh a bowl-like area in whIch to be displa)ed. The
Cormthian volutes at the corners were lost from the musical capitals
when they were forcefully dismantled. but remain in other places, such
as the capilal with the Fall of f..lan: they dearly show a characteristic
stylislic feature of Burgundian capitals. T he tension between the
<1rchitcctural IIlterreJatlons and figural elemenls develops jmo an extraordinarily plastic design. which relates the IIldividual sides of Ihe cap!lals
10 each other.
One of the greatest sculptors of the Middle Ages was Master
Gislebertus, who inscribe<! his name on Ihe tympanum in AUlun. The
majority of Ihe capitals in the IIlterior of Saim-Lazare are also ascribe<! to
him; most of them are on pilasters and therefore remain firmly conllccled
to the surface. His sculptu res are some of the most humall. tuuching works
that exist in Romanesque sculpture. The vision of !he Three Kings (photo.
top ), originally on the east sidr of the northeast crossing pillar. shows !he
three crowned figures together under a large, round co'er. Two of them
are still asleep. but the third has alre ad y been woken by the mO"ingly
geutle touch of the angel who is poinring the star out to him.
The Flight inro Egypl (photo. opposite, lOp left). on Ihe pillar opposite. is
sometimes thought 10 be by a differem sc ul ptor; il shows Mary who is
looking at us in au almost personal manner. showing us her child. She
seems to be floating on the donkey rather than sitting on him, a position
similar to the emhrOiled Madouna and Child. But the sculptor has given
his own interpretation 10 the hieratic ~sedes sapientiae"; the mother's head
is slightly bowed, and her arm, laid protectively a round her child, creates a
scene of human profoundness and sensitivity. In contraSI. the suicide by
hanging of Judas (figure, opposite, top right ) is 3 scene of anger and terror
274
o~P'OSln
W~Loy IY.,.....,),
In accordance wilh the Acts of {he Apo~tles (2, 5 ff.l, the radiating coffers
deplCl the nallons tha t need 10 he com'ened; some of thtm depart from
normal human appearances. an idea that goes back to Ancient Gree. On
the right Side of the I"'tel, led b)" the Apos{les Peler and presumably P.lul.
IS a prOCessIOn of large-cared l'anOllan5 from Scythia Iphrno, top).
l1'grmcs and GIants. On the left IS a heathen scene showmg the sacrifICe of
a bull, :11K! behmd It are Romans and Scythian.., as reprcstntam'es of preChns{mn peoples. The affinity between the Old and New Testament is
mdicated by the monumental figure of John {he Sapl1St whICh 15 on the
trul11eau tn the same axis as Christ.
The theme of Ihe Vczclay tympanum, sendmg {he Apostles fO be missionaries 10 the world, and also {he cosmological dnl1ension of the signs of the
Zod,ac and Labours of the months m the surrounding archivolt, is an
extremely demanding theological concepl1on. This IS one rea'>On why It IS
Ilkcly that the sculptures, which arc usually dated around 1125-30, "'en:
:>Clually, gi"enthe iconography of Ihls Iympanum, produced in the context
or prepuatlons for the Crusade around 1146.
The figured capitals Inside n:producc Images of Good and Evil,
trequcntly With a dcgrtt 01 IConographIC complexity; Old Testament
themes m the nave and aisles are 111Icrpreted as predicltons of the New
Co"enant, and New Testamem themes complen~nt them in the narthex
and on the fao;ade. The person behllld the comprehenSI\'c encyclopedia of
knowledge realized in this cycle or capllals (whose sculptural quality is Icss
exalted) is thoughl to be the brother of Abbot Ponce, the Prior Pierre
de Monlboissier, who as Abbot of Cluny, under {he name of Petrus
VelM'rablhs, was 10 bome one of the most famous figures of the twclflh
century.
'"'
twolfthcrmury
TOP OPPOSITE
BOTTOM OPPOSITE
BOTTOM
Roussi llon
The earliest Romanesquc sculptures in France (an be found in [his
southern landscape ncar Ih e Golfe du Lion. This region also saw the
emergence of a nurn~r of 3nistic Impulses, mainly as a consequence of the
developing fortunes of the monastery of Saint-Michel-de CUXJ. These
were impulses which were to have a signifieam effect on the entire region
for a long time to eomc.
Serrabone
Far off the main roads of Roussillon, on a northern arm of the Prrenees 10
th e east of the Massif du Canigou, lies the Church of NOlTe Dame. The
church Ixlongs to the former priory of Serrabone; since the monasterr
complex to which it was conna:ted was destrored, the Church of NotreDame has be<:ome a lonely building that dominates the surrounding
countryside. Its relevance to Romanesque sculpture lies mainly in one
sculptural feature - the sculptural design of the southern gallery and
tribunes (photos, top left and opposite).
Era:ted around 1150 in the west part of the church, the tribunes were
moved to the center of the church in either the seventeenth century or the
nineteenth. They consist of three arcades spanning the na"e, and ther form
two bays and arc supported by pillars, columns and coupled eolumns with
figured capitals. The vaults are supported b)' sturdy, round rib vaulting.
The western face is covered all over with relids: those on the arcade arches
are flowers and vines, and in the spandrels are Christian srmbols. Between
the northern and central arcade is the winged lion of St. Mark and the
eagle of St. John, in the spandrel to the right of the central arcade IS the
lamb of the Eucharist and the angel of St. Manhew, while St. luke's bull
apIXars in the spandrel br the south wall of the nave.
Separated from the shaft by toruses, the capitals are in high relief. and
the impost blocks are surrounded with roselte, palmene and vine ornaments. The figures depicted consist of a varietr of grotesque crea tures
which arc standing on the tOTUses. The heads of these figures are mostlr
facing outwards, underneath the eorner volutes; in manr cases they flank a
human head or mask. Their eontent is predominantly set within the limits
of a traditional iconography depicting the baltle between Good and Eyil.
Presumably this structure is intended for the singers in a choir. Buill
from a reddish-white marble. the structure forms a fine contrast to the
otherwise plain interior. t ike the sculptures on the capitals in the solllh
gallery, those on the lTibunes are of high sculptural qua lit)', which suggests
that two masters were at work here. At the same time, it is assumed tha t
the sculptors who worked here were the same sculptors who worked on
(he cloister in the nearby monastery of Saint-Michel-de-Cuxa. It is possible
that the emire tribune was produced in the workshop there, transported to
Serrabone in individual pieces and then finally assembled there. Similar
procedures probably hapIXned in other places, whose sculptures closely
copy those in Cuxa. In general, this ,hoir tribune call be considered a peak of
High Romanesque sculptural art in Roussillon.
278
Th e ~ Master o f Cabcstany~
While-Ihe sculptures in Cuxa reveal a certain stylistic uniformity, the very
opposite is the case with the work of a sculptor whose name has remained
unknown to this day. His personal style is so mdividual that hi~, works arc
easily identIfied everywhere, and they are widely dispersed, from Italy,
through France and into Spain, from Tuscan y via Roussillon down mto
the Rasque country. The invented name he has been given deril'es from a
tympanum (photo, lOp left) which can still be S('('Tl in lhe ehurch in the small
town of CabeStany near Perpignan. Rolf Legler quite rightly wrote that:
~ lbc Mastcr of Cabestany is one of the most distinctive and fascinating
antstic pt"rsonalities in the entire Romanesqu e period, silmlar to
Gislebertus of Autun, Gil"bertus oflQulouse and Antdami of Partna. ~
This tympanum contains several scenes descTlbing the Ascension of
Mary. and unusually begins on the right with Mary waking from the sleep
of the dead. The central scene depicts Mary giv ing her belt to doubting
Thomas, who after his doubts about the resurrection of Chtist did nOt
want to believe in the Ascension of the Mother of God dtht'r, and was
given a belt by her by way of proof. T he sculplOr's unconventional style
becolnes apparent here, because his figures always have large heads with
nat foreheads, long massive noses and oblique almond-shaped eyes. Other
characteristics include oversize hands with long fingers, and robes folded
in the Classical style. In none of these characteristics, however, is there any
suggestion of the intentions of creating a Classical effe<;;t that are found in
th" sculpture of places such as Provence.
The Museo di AnI' saer;! in San Casciano Val di I'esa 10 the south of
Florence, which was renovated :1 few years ago, contains a sITIall column
which is surroundcd with reliefs (photo, top right). At the bottom is thc
Annuneial1on, and above It tht' annunctatton 10 the shepherds -the angel
is holding one shepherd by his beard. Like the scene showing the
Assumption of Mary into Hea"en, this one shows a human tntimacy such
as is rarely discovered in Romanesque SCUlpllLrt', though occasionally it is
manifest in the works of Gislebertus. Above it are further scen es from the
Birth of Christ; firstly, the baby in swaddling clothes twisted backwards
around the SIde, as if resiglled to its future bte; next, the baby in the stable
with the ox and ass, and in the final scene the baby is shown being bathed.
280
;0,
'''rn
c.:.bts,,,ny ( ~'...
Pyr.n<) .
p"Tlsh ,hu",h 01 Notr .... Dame,
""<"$""n wall ol , he north
".n"'pt. Second hall 01 fh~
fwdhh(~n'Uf}'
I!.IGltT
~ ,\hsr"r 01 c.bts,. ny. ~
sculptur..! column 01 a fOnl'
l",m ,I>c Blnh 010",,,.
S.n c.:...,;.no Val dl " ....
(Tusc.ny). Mu...., di Arr"",,cl"3.
Second hall oflhe IWelhh
c.n,ury
...,n...
-:- la5ler 01 CaOO.. n)", ~ Or coll".S".... group of ">,,,uls. RI~u~'~ hne"'''" (Au<k l.
church 01 L' A,,,,mp,;on-deNOfre-D.me. Second hall 01 ,hc rwdfrh "ncury
and
BorrO~t
There is a peculiar magic about this sculpture, which co rl\"eys both the
Nativity and a sense of perfection, but avoids bemg easily placed in any art
history ca tego ry. Its iconography suggC'5ts It could be the steie of a fom.
The Saturninus $arcophagus (photo, top ] in the small church of NotreDame-dcI"Assomprion in Saint-Hilairede1'Aude, which could alternari,ely be a predella, is one of the main Romanesque sc ulptural works in
Ro ussillon. It narrates the marty rdom of Sr. Sernin, the first bishop of
Toulouse, in all the energetic vividness charactemllc of th is master s visual
idiom.
His identity is nonetheless a mystery. It is generally assumed that he
was a travcling sculplOr from Tuscany, who produced most of his works in
Ro ussillon. As he did not have to follow any models, he could lI'anslate his
own visual ideas into sculpture; th is has recently led to the specu btion that
he was a heretic who was working in Calhar regions during Ih,: period of
widespread heresy in the last quarter of the twelfth century.
281
282
Provence
The name of tllis Mediterranean landscape on tile left and rigll, banks of
,he Rllone g~s back to the original Roman tcrm for this region which m
classical times extended far to Ihe wesl, ~provincia gallia narbonensis.~
Though th e countless pieces of art remaining from Roman limes were
important models for medieval architects and sculptou. Romanesque art
blossomed IIcre relalively late, albeil unusually maturely. h IS no surprise
that two of the main works of l'roven~al Romanesque are portals formed
in the shape of Roman triumphal arc lies.
thiS place ensured its importance. in turn reflected by its large population: al
the beginning of the thinec:mh .:emury around 40,000 people lived ,here,
compared with 9.000 today.
The fa~ade of ,he former abbey church (photo, opposite) is unique
within the Romanesque period, and IS d,~ided into tllrec sections by walls
sct between {he widely separated portals which are flanked by massive
corner lOwers. The cemral portal is cmphasiud by a raised lintel, a lIigher
tympanum and a trumeau. Here. the adopllon of Roman triumphal arches
is mixed with the effect of Classicallheater archita:ture, such as Ihe stage
fa~ade presef"ed in Orange.
The complex stepping of the enlire srructure is accompaniw br a frieze
which Slretches over rhe enrire front and is pickw up in the side portals by
the !imets one levcllower. Many figures arc portra)'w in what is both rhe
first completc, and the mosr extcnsive, C)'de showing ,he Passion in
medieval sculpture. I, starts in Ille leil jamb of the norrll portal witllthe
preparations 10 enter Jerusalem, and with rhe entrance itself on the
architrave, conlinues on the northern partition wall with the parmcnt of
Saint-Gilles-du-Gard
Similar to V(ozeby. Saim-Gilles was nOI iUSI 3 placc of pilgrimage - to the
legendary founder of the eigllih century monastIC community, the wealthy
Alhenian mercllant Aegidius - bm also ,he place where French pilgrims to
Rome set sail from, and a place where pilgrims to Samiago gatherw, 'nost
of them ha"ing tra"eled from haly via Aries. before conrinuing ,heir
journey to Sp..11n along Ihe ~Via Tolosana. ~ The multi-funcilon.JI nalure of
283
);
Judas and the expulsion of the dealers from the templt' and coneludes with
tht' propheq to Peter in the north jamb of the cenlral portal. hs architra"t'
shows the washing of the feet (photo, top) and the Last Supper, and in the
.outh jamb i. Juda.'. ki and the arr('$' . The scene before Pilate, and the
Flagellation (photo, opposite), appear on the southern partition wall and
the carrying of the Cross, badly damaged, starts right neXI to Ihem; Ihe
Crucifixion itself is spread OUI across the southern tympanum. In contraSt,
the frie7.e in tht' south portal shows the events after Ch rist's death. Some
scenes are added that are not part of the Passion and are therefore rather
curious; rhey are the raising of La~arus, in the section of wall between the
northern partilion wall and jamb of the central portal, and the anointing
of Jesus's feet by Mary Magdalene in the jamb of the south portal. Hans
Fegers explains these additions, which are subdivided into various scenes,
as the desire to incorporate the Proven.;-al saints, the three Marys of les
SainlesMariesdelaMcr, Lazarus and Maximinus, into Ihe 'Yelc.
The rect:l.ngular niches in Ihe partition walls and the jambs of the
ccntral portal contain twelve lifesize figures, some of which can be
identified as Apostles due to the inscriptions still visible on Iheir haloes.
The Apostle in the firs! niche of the northern partition wall is presumably
Manhew, next to him is B.1rlholomew, followed by Thomas and James the
Less. In the southern jamb are John and Peter (photo, p. 283, right) and
oppositc them are James the Great and Paul (photo, p. 283, left); the
remaining four Apostles in the southern partition wall can no longer be
identified. In {he outer northern niche St. Michael is depicted killing a
dragon, and in the southern pendant an archangel IS fighting devils.
Unlike the seventeenth century tympanum in the cenlral porIa I which
shows Christ in Majesty and the Evangelim' symbols and possibly repeats
what {he Protestants destroyed in 1562, the tympanums in the side portals
are original. T he relationship of the Apostles in the niches 10 the contem of
the frieze seems 10 be as wimesses to Christ's Passion. their presence as it
were confirming that e"ent's real his!orical basis, hut the tympanums are
removed from this scenic sphere. The theme of the Crucifixion. which was
284
Ari es
The nlOSt extensive sculptured portal after SaintGilies is anached 10 the
former ca{hedral of Saint-Trophime in Aries (photo, p. 287), Designed in
imitation of ancient single.arch triumphal arches, such as that in nearby
SaintRemy. Ihe portal is not set into [he wall as is usual, hut placed in
front of Ihe Olherwise undecorated fa~ade. The entire ensemble has been
remarkably well preserved. and Ihe restoration work, which was finished
in the summer of 1995, has restored it to its original condition.
The iconographical program alludes to the Last Judgement, without
having the urgency of that in Moissac or Autun. In the tympanum Ch rist is
emhroned in a mandorla, accompanied by Ihe Evangelisls' symbols; he is
su rrounded by hosis of angels in the inner archivolt. There is a continuous
large frieze at lintel level; in {he lintel itself the Apostles are depicted sitting.
Starting at {he northern outside edge. the Fall of Man is depicted, followed
on the front of the fa.;-ade by the Chosen, facing the center, whose $ouls are
being laid!o rest in Abraham's bosom in the jamb. In the jamb opposite, the
Passion of Ihe Damned St:l.r!S; they are moving away from Christ, pushed
through Ihe gateway into Hell. A small friezc underneath shows scenes
from the Birth of ChriS{. The apostles standing in the iambs are Peter and
John on the left and Paul and Andrew on the right, while James the Great
and Bartholomew are in the box niches on the northern outer wall and
James the Less and Philip in those 10 the south. To the side of the door on
285
'0'
ArI.,. (I!oOJChcsd~-RhOnt), So,n,.
Troph""". CIOImrg;olby. Sond half of
th~
,wdf,h "~mury
BOTTOM
the left is the chun:h patron Saim Trophime, and opposite him is the
stoning of S,. Stephen. The relics of rhe lattcr were kept in Aries.
The IX'rml complex, which dales from lhe second thIrd of the rwtlfth
century, has an extremely united appearance, due TO ils reduction to a
single portal. In addition, the frieze, which runs through all the levels, is a
strong visual1ink due 10 the almost monotonous uniformity of its rows of
figures. Nonetheless, this shows the Romanesqllc power of expression
beginning 10 ossify, and It has frequently been pointed out that there is an
element of stylistic dependence on the Chartres Early Gothic style.
The monastery of SaintTrophime also possesses the most e:<trav;agant
and lavish sculptured cloister in PrOIellce. The north and east wings are
the only remaining Romanesque SCCIions, dating from between 1150 and
1170, or poss.ibly IOwards Ihe end of the Iwdfth century. The iconographical themes of the scent'S on the figured capilals in the north wing
concentrate on the Passion. and Old Testament events are interspersed
betw~n them, as they are between the scenes from Christ's childhood in
the east wing. This, and the small frieze on the fa1;ade, gi\"es increase<!
substance to the Christian idea of rooemplion.
One featurc peculiar to Aries, and differing from lIIois5:lc, is ,hat each
of a pair of coupled columns has its own capital, and the pair is connccted
above it by the tmpost block in order to be able 10 support the weight of
Ihe arcade. As a result, the figures can take up the entire height of the
capilal, and ornamentation, similar 10 that on the portal, no longer
occupies the area containing the figures bl1l adopts an independent
function, prilllarily as a frame. These arc the aspectS emphasized by the
special nature of the adoption of Classical forms during the I'ro\"en~allate
Romanesqlle period.
There are also clear signs m Aries that there were intensive exchanges
of ideas with Romanesque sculptors in Italy. At the same time, the lions
that sllpport coillmns and pilasters, as they do in Saint-Gilles, are merely
an iconographical motif. Clearer evidence in fa\"ollr of this theory is the
capital showing the vision of the Thr~ Kings and the Flight into Egypt in
Ihe eaSI wing; ;t has been recognized as an early work by Benedel10
Ante1ami, who was 10 become one of Ihe principle identifiable masters of
the Italian Romanesqlle.
286
POlt~1.
287
288
TO'
UOn. Colq;iala dt San bi<lon,. Puena
<ld COrJ~ro.lymp.num.
century
Earl~
twdhh
WlTOM
LWn. COitgiaTa dt San J,idoro. Furna
<I~I P~rd6n. Earl)' twelfTh century
289
1066-108511()90
290
291
BOTTOM
aisles of the cathedral in Jaca. The one on the left shows Rilenm and his
ass, and on the right, again, is the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham. This is
one of the most popular themes of the Romanesque period, because it
symbolized a humble submissiveness to one's personal faTe as determined
by God. This capiTal is exceptional in twO respects. First of all, it shows the
sacrifice at its most d ramatic moment; Isaac is standing there fearfully, but
obedient and ready to make the sacrifice, his hands tied behind his back,
and Abraham about to carry out the worst deed of his life as a man and
father. In Ihis instant, God"s angel seizes his sword and releases him from
his pious deed.
Secondly, the sculptor is making a direct reference to Classical nude
figures. Isaac is srnnding naked on the capirnl's torus, and Abraham is also
naked, through draped in a large doth. Ancielll corporeality dearly
continues 10 have an effect here, Though the style is Romaf1esque. Here,
too, Fromista serves as a model, because the sculptor there designed a
paradise scene as a direct copy of an ancielll Orestes sarcophngus in the
abbey of Sallla Maria in Huzillos, now in the Prado in Mndrid, in which
the classical figure of Orestes became the Romanesque figure of Adam.
One of the most important work s of the Spanish Romanesque period
not connected to an architectural Structure is the sarcophagus of Dona
Sancha, daughter of King Rami ro I and the widow of the Count of Toulouse
(photo, bottom); it used (0 be kept in the convent of Santa Cruz de 13 Scr6s
not far from lata. On the frOllt, underneath arcades, are two scenes in
memory of the countess who died in 1097, on the right Dona Sancha herself
is depicted between two nuns or maids, and on the left is her burial. In Ihe
center, the soul of the dead is shown by IWO angels within a mandorla. an
image of salvation. On account of his sympathetic, naive simplicity.
Durliat calls the sculptor the MMasler of Donn Sancha. ~ The reverse of the
sarcophagus shows a tournament divided into three arcades; it tOO is
simply and powerfully vivid, but is clearly the work of a diffcrelll sculptor.
29'
"M."
294
OPPOSIH.
R'pon (Pro ....". of Gtron.). abbtf
church 01 n" M (. \'('.., f....<It.nd
po'13l: <It ,\. SKond qu:tn., {)I,h.
.welfth ",nrurf
29'
OPPOSITE
S,J"" (l'r""'~ of 6urgos). monastrry of
u11m.u.,
297
scene a sensc of spatial depth. While th{'" corpse's left arm is lying on th{'"
floor of the 5arcophagus, the right arm is lying along its lid and points to
the top left. Up there is the angel of the Resurrection. And behind the
TOmbstone, to one side bur nonetheless very much present, the thr~ Marys
of the Resurrection appear. Below the sarcophagus, occupying precisely
one third of the height of the relief, are the sleeping gu ards at the tomb.
'Ille scene of the Rcsurro:o;:tion is followed on the western sid{'" of the northwest pillar by a depiCTion of doubting Thomas (photo, p. 296, bottom right).
In accordance with older Romanesque principles of design, the sculptor
arranged the Apostles in three horiwntal rows. The rows are stepped one
behind the other. There is a subtle rhythnt worked into the representation of
their heads, for they are focusing attention concentrically on the eventS in the
foreground to the left. The scene unfolding there is the famous one in which
Thomas was invited to place his fingers into the wound in Christ's side in
order to convince himself that Jesus had really risen from the dead. Thisscene
culminates with Christ sayillg: ~You believe because you call sec me. Happy
are those who have nOt secll alld yet believe~ Uohn 20, 29).
While as usual the figures in the back row are reduced to mere busts, it
is p...il.>l" 10 ",~ke oul the 1",:1' ~"d feet of >UI"'" uf th", ~posllcs ill th"
298
second row in the small g.... ps between the complete figures in the fronl
row. This naturalism, which is also expressed in the treatment of the legs
and standing positions of the figures in the front row, reappears in the
~"eryday topic of the area above the arcade arch. Behind a crenellated wall
and bord~red by towers arc the figures of four musicians, two men
blowing horns and twO women with lambourines. This secular framing of
one of th~ principal scenes of Ihe Christian failh appears ralher unusual. In
one of the most fascinating essays on Rornanesque an, Meyer Schapiro
points out that this represents the s<"Cular power of thc new urban
surroundings of the monastery, which confron ted the absolufeness of faith
with empirical knowledge, a new historical quality of knowledge, a factor
the Church had to reaCt to.
Wilhout necessarily appearing <IS its representalive, Thomas follows
Christ's instructions and touches the wound in his side with hIS index
finger, an evem Ihat is not actually directly described in St. John's Gospel.
He supports his faith through a sensory perception of the risen Chris!. The
sculptor has, however, placed his antithesis in the "ery center of this
pictur{'". Paul, who was not even presenf on this occasion and never knew
J~)US when he was alive, is st<lnding on the left next to the o,'er life-size
.... rry
Ilta.~n.
'''''"ClI"eatl ........
Christ, SO ,hat 1"115 h..ad IS occupying th .. c.. nler of th .. en,ir" scene. 1-1..
reprcsems exempbry (auh, and by being depIcted next ' 0 the Apostles ,s a
eoun terpoint to doubting Thomas. At the same IIIne, ,hi) figure repreSCIlIS
,he reaction of the Church to the new urbane ,;c;uch for knowledge. Th ..
thltt rem:,uning reli.-fs show Omst as a pilgnm to the shrme of St. Jaml'S
m Emmaus with the d'SClpks,.he AscensIon and the m'Dd .. at Pentecost.
At the end of the per,od of ROffi3ncsqu.. sculpture m Spain is ,h..
..",cepl1onal work of Master Mal<'"() m Sanuago de Compostda, til.- PonlCo
de b GlOria (phOIO, opposite, left). [ts construcllon. whICh rndu.ded architectu ral (asks, took nearly half a cenlury. From Fcbru,ny 22, 11 68 Ma'eo
wu m receipt of a hIgh life an nuiTy from Kmg Ferdinand 11; out: of th iS he
nOt only had to suppon hlmsclf bm also bear Ihe COStS of manufacture.
The wurk WJ.. finally completro m 12 11 , ,he )eat ,he chureh Itself WaS
<:onsccra,ed.
A substructure Similar 10 a crypt was bUill to SUII the terraIn, and over
11:1 monumenta l nanhex whIch surrounded the actual l'onico d .. la Glolla
and th .. thltt en"anc.- portals. Only Ih .. cemral portal is covered by a
tymp;lI\ull1 which IS supported by a compound column with rTOany pans.
In frotlt of the trumeau IS a further column whose shaft IS decorated with
[nc Tree of Jr.;se, and 11$ caplt:il depicts th.. sea.ed apostle Jamcs the Grul,
,ne ~tron samt of the church. A banderole m h, left hand says MmlS11 n~
donllnus, the Lord sent Il\(.
In the cent.. r of the tympanum the figure of an o'ersizt, Christ IS
enthronro. This figure is surroundro by the f:'anltclists and thei.r symbols;
h,s hands bearing the Stlgmam are ralscd, and hiS rube is open 10 re.ealthe
wound in hiS side. On cnher side angels dispby the "arma Chnstj" whICh
3re the symbols of his l'aulon. Abo"e an: the hea'enly hosls of .he
Rroeemecl. In Ihe arch,,oh framIng the scene the Iwen lyfour .. Iders of the
Ap<IC:r.lypsc: are arranged m a row. The)" are (acong each other in p.airs and
pl3)'1ng mUSICal onstruments.
The side portals do nOl ha"e tym~nums, ~nd de"elop thei r ",sual
programs III three arch,,olts each. Va rious mterprem[lons conSld.. r Chrls[
to be shown on Ihe lell amongst the Chosen or the Jews, and on the tight
amongst the Damned or the Gentiles. Th .. r1'3S011 for thiS difference of
opltllon IS thai the enllre program can be onterpreted ellher as ;l depiction
of Ihe L.ISI Judgement, or as the lTIumph of the Redeemer o.er duth and
son. How ......., if one considers lhat a large amount of space m the
Iym~num IS taken up by the 1Im111 dmst/, an mterpre.allon of Ihe scene
a5 a Judgement becomes Il'Ss tenable. It IS more hkcly that th,s IS a
fundJmental change m [he way [he Son of God ,s perce,,ed, from the
Jlldge to the Redeemer of mank md. The extent to whICh this portal
heralded the dawn of ;1 new era of forms III the Span ish Middle Ages IS
shown by Ihe sixleen s.awl'S takll1g Ihe pla'e of .he 'olumn shafls m the
lambs.
M
'"
300
OPP051H
BOTTOM
Modena (I:nuliaRolII'Bna),,:a,hedrol of
San (;.,lIIlnl.llO. lion porlal un ,he we ..
fa~a<k. Beginning of the I,,"ell~h <emul)"
A, the end of the nave, bordering thl." choir, is the choir screen whose
present position is a fairly precise reconSlrunion dating from 1920. The
barrier-like wall is formed of five variously sized and painted marble
reliefs, supported by six columns, mOSI of which have figured capitals, and
four of which are supposed by lions. The reliefs depict scenes frCom Christ's
Passion, slarting on the left wilh Ihe Washing of Ihe I'eel. NeXI to it,
occupying a wide area, is the Last Supper, and Judas's kiss. TI,l." last two
slabs show Christ before Pilale and Ihe flogging, followed by the carrying
of the Cross,
Art historians have identified at least four d,fferl."nl masters at work on
Ihis important halian Romanesque work, which has been dated between
1160 and 1180; Anselmo da Campione IS considered to havl~ been the
main maSler al work on the reliefs. He is ,he first of the few Romanesquc
sculptors belonging to the famous Campionese group, from Campione on
Lake Lugano, who we actually know by name. These archite<:ts, sculptors
and stone masons are credited with preserving and developil~g ancient
methods of construction, and wilh being responsible for a large
proportion of the development of Romanesquc architecture that took
pl3ce in northem Italy, France and even Germany. Campionese sculpture is
301
TOP OPPOSITE
BOTTOM OPPOSITE
302
TOP LEH
304
,,,,hes.
sculpfllTC$ and SlOne ,nlay. Ollkr p'ellires sho'" Ihe equestrian statues of
the patron salll!, St. Marlin, III the TIght arch spandrel of the narthex, .n
the:1e1 of cUlling hIS robe In order to gil'e half 10 ~ beggar. For a long IInlC
th.s legend was felt to be so movlIlg that the statue was dothed with a cape
and ha. mad~ of valuable materials on feast days. Today it has been
replaced wllh a (ement cast danng from 1950. and the Romanesque
origlllal has been moved lIls.de. Its main nnportan'e in sculptural history
is thai it belongs 10 a scfles of famous Imlian equestrian smtues.
One of Lucca's mos! exceptional Romane5que sculptures is Ihe fonl
in San Frediano, produced around 1150 (photo, p. 306, left). The richly
5Culprured basm resls on a shaped round base, and in its ccnter is a column
in the form of a flame w.th lillie devils. It suplX'rl$ a round vasc with a
tcmp,eno. St"eral sculptors worked on this piece, including one Master
Roberto, who left hiS Signailire on Ih~ edge of the basin. He produced Ihe
figures of the Good Sh~ph~rd and the six proph~ls influenc~d by the
Byzantine sl)le. AnOlher SClilptor. probably taught III Lombard)', pmdlll:ed
Ihe series of Moses epIsodes., whIch narral~ stOTl" from th~ Penlateuch
IIsmg Simple bllt VIVid figures without an archlteclural framtwork,
Th~ rcltcn on Ihe fa~ade (photos, p. 307, top and bonom left) of th~
church of San PIetro fuoTl Ie mura III Spoleto, Umbria, w~rc probably
prodoced arollnd 1200. Ther~ are SIXIt'CTl recrangular reli~k sprcad 0111
across the entire fa~ad~, and th~ antral 5tlon aTQllnd tbc main ponal is
one of the oldest rcmamlllg parts. Above th~ porlalls a horst:Shoe-shaped
and flankmg eagles above decoratlY~ stnps.
lunetle wllh Cosmall
mou."
]OS
xuJpwrsworking ",,,h
c. ILSO
M3~'er
Robtrto.
306
hold fast onto worldl)' things. On the right at the top are the Washing of
the Feet and the Calling of SI. ['eler and S,. Andrew, and underneath it two
wolf fables. At the I'cry bonom is another lion, [l1e symbol of Cl1rist
fighting a dragon.
The greal colu mned portal of tl1e collegiate church of San Quirico
in Orcia (phOIO, p. 307. top right) is father oversize in its proporw,ns
compared with the fa~ade. It was created during the late twelfth century,
and is a well -preserved example of Lombard portals in the province of
Siena. Its characteristic features are a projecting structure supported by
two columns knotted together, which in turn sland on lions positioned
parallclto thc fa~ade. On either side of thc entrance the jambs are formed
out of groups of columns. Above the columns arc the archivol[s. While
most of the capitals are decorated wilh foliage, IWO of [l1cm depiC! animal
heads. In Ihe tympanum is a B)'lamine staluClle wl1icl1 is thollgl1 l ro
representl'ope Damasus II (1048). [T is abo,'c alltl1e battle between TWO
demons in the architra,e which enablcs rl1is Tuscan portal 10 convey that
terrifying dimension wl1icl1 is so fami liar from the great portal of the
French Romanesque period.
"ICIIT
Ott",
307
308
onoSITJ:
1l<>IM.I"I~ .. n
B(lOW
no.
Romt.San
r~oIo
flMlf"i k mllra.
Eal.~r
famIly. 1205-1241
(.1190
1215-1232
lOp and opposue. right). were bUlh m the first half of the thirteenth
cenrury by the Vau,11ello fam,ly. There is evidence that the father and son
were the maSlers who produced the cloister of the lateran Palace, which
was constructed 1xlween 12 1Sand 1232 and some of whose arcades are
supported by uflously tWisted coupled columns. They are frequently
cm'cred wjth ddicalC mosatq, and at thl': entranS [Q Ihe mner courtyard
are supported by ammals. There arc numcrous sculptural figures decoratmg lhe gUller cornrce. the arch spandrels and thc capuals. Abo,'c thc
arcades facmg the mner counyard IS a dorat"c mOSJ.1C fricze, characteristic of the Roman Romancsquc stylc. Thc clOIster of 53n Paolo fuon Ie
mura. bUlh belwcc:n 1205 and 1141. may be smaller, bUi IS cycn more
lal'ishly decorated.
Situated on the threshold Nlwcc:n thc Oncnt and the Occrdcnr, Apulia
produced a wealth of art from thc e""enth century onward!>, and apan
from architecture, thc mam oblects "'fCc sacred pieces of equipment. The
309
310
OPPOstTE
1159
312
al)'l rO~t
LEfT
aonO\l IlIGIIT
c~,hN,.1
as being that this person died battling for the Chun:h and had therefore
earned the righllO be buried in this place.
The trapezoid tomhSlOne of Reinhlldls in the village church of Horste!Riesenbe<:k near T.-cklenburg (phOIO, botlOm left} was possibly originally
the lid of a sarcophagus. The scene, framed by a band of foliage, shows, as
the inscription rells us,
the virgin Reinhildis, who was the heir of her
deceased father and who was murdered by her mother at the insrigation of
her second husband. She soon ascended in order 10 assume her scal in
Heaven, and has become a devout jointheir with Christ. Gerhard. The
yo ung woman has a halo and is wearing a Byzantine dress with wide
sleel'cs and a headscarf, Her arms are raised as she looks upwards, where
an ange! is bearing hcr soul to Heaven in the form of a child. The slab was
originally date<! around 1189, as this was th. year Itt which Bishop
Gerhard of Oldenburg rook o,'e. Ihe Osnabrlick diocese, and his is the
same name as the person who donated the 10mbslOne.lts style is, however,
more consistent with a date around 1135, meaning Ihatthe bishop has to
be ruled Ollt as a possible donor.
One of the mOSt unusual pllenomena in Ihe German Romanesque
period is rhe relief of the Deseenl from the Cross, eighteen feet high and
more than len and a half feet wide, in the Externsteine (Extern rocks} near
1lorn in EaSI Westphalia (photo, lOp}. This tS a monumenral piece of freestanding sculpture which see ms to have more in common wllh the huge
Presidents' heads carve<! inro the rock .11 Ihe Moullt Rushmore National
Memorial in South Dakota Ihan Romanesque sculptu re, which One would
normall y only expe<:t to find in connection with a man-made piece of
s'lCred an:hitecnne. And il is indeed an anciem heathen ceremonial site; the
Benedicline monastery of Abdinghof in Paderoorn gained the propt"rry
rights in 1093, a5 Abbor Gumperl wame<!lo build a hermitage Ihere. It
was finally the I'aderborn Bishop Heinrich ofW.r1 who decided to have an
M ...
ri
313
imitation of the religious sites in Jerusalem can'ed into the rocks here. The
cave-like chapel. which is behind Ihe relief and is considered to be an
Adam chapel, was consecrated in Il l S aceording 10 Its inscription. This
daTe also suggeSTS the date of origin of the Descem from the Cross. which
is occasionally thought to have been produced aT the same time 3S the
chapel was con!;t(;rated. Budde, however, considers il to be closer in style
to the Freckenhorsl baplismal font. dated 1129, which would date Ihe
rehd 10 around 1130.
In the cenler of the relief, whICh presumably served as a scenario for
EaSter festival productions, is a mighlY cross, in from of which the actual
e"entS lake place. Joseph of Arimalhea and NICodemus are depicted
recovering the Ix>dy of Christ, and his mother is standing on the left edge
of the relid. Opposite her, on the right side, is John hold ing a book. At
either end of the beam of the Cross are the sun, on the left, and the moon,
on the right. Beneath all of this, with Ihe serpent twined around them,
kneel Adam and Eve. Above the lefl side of the Cross beam is a bearded
figure with a cruciform nimbus, who is holding the banner of the Cross in
his left hand and pointing his right hand TO Mary in blessing. This figure
has been inlerpreled as either the Resurrecled Christ, or possibly as God
himself.
With a few exceptions. Ihere are no eounterparts to the extensive visual
narrath'es on the capItals in Spain, routhern France and Burgundy in
German churches. Most of the capi rals only ha,-e grometric shapes.
animals and plant decorations, masks or monsrers. The sculptors were
nOI, however, any less self-aware, as is shown by the signature on the
famous Hartmann column in Goslar: tIARTMANI'US STAruAl FEcrr RASISQUf.
flCURAM - MHartmann made the column and Ihe figure on Ihe base
{photo. opposite, bottom right).
w
314
3 15
8a~I.
SICp~
by three tabernacles on each side, arranged one above the other, comain
ing representations of muciful deeds. Above them is a type of aedieule
architeclUre with taller tabernacles containing the figures of John the
Ihpti51 on the left and the deacon Stephen on the right. At the Iery top, on
either side, IS an angel blowing the last trumpet, and the one on the right
dates from the early sixtet'nlh century. Small reliefs next to them depict the
resurrected dressing themselves. A profiled entablature with a paitnelle
frieze forms the upper conclusion to the portal. The Gallus gale was
noticeably influenced by Italian and French styles, predominantly the
laner. The EYangelists' robes in p.lrticular display a debt to Burgundian
sculpture, even if not entirely specific.
The entire layout of the north portal of the former Benedictine abbey
church of St. James in Regensburg is also reminiscent of an ancient
triumphal arch (photo, opposite, top). The actual portal is filled into a
'16
w
R~sbu~
(Ib""". ). formt:t
of SI. J~mtS.
North pon~1. (. 1190
JOTroM
Fr~lbo'll
Gold~n G~!~.
John the Evangtlis!. HIs nght hand is r;lIsW and he is holding Ihe Book of
Life, and Ramer Budde considers hlln \0 be ChrlSl l hc lucher pnxlaiming
the mcss;Igc of 531"alio". In each of the jambs an: three ornamented
columns placed In fronl of Ihe inward sr.-ding. and between them, OIl the
lOp and Ixmom. an: small crouchmg figures, one of whIch, wilh a point.
can be Identified as a Slone mason.
Despite us Unity, Ihls portal. umque 111 the ~rman ROnlancsque
period. shows ""gut mnuences from other regions such as Upper Italy and
southern France, and also from the Anglo-Saxon sphere. It is as.sumcd that
il was constructed towards the end of the twelfth century, though Ihis can
nOI be conclusl\'dy proved.
Onc of the last RomanCMlue portals in German)' is the west portal of
the pamh ehurch of Freiberg near Dreiiden (photo, oppoSite, bottom),
known as the Goldc>n Gate. ~ jambs of the portal art' graded m eight Steps,
and combme a whole variety of mfluences both m ItS Structure and the
style of ItS figure'S, and these can, above a ll, be traced to the srylc uf Gothic
cathedrals that had been dc>velopmg m France from the middle of the
twelfth CCTl tUry.
The theme of the entirt' ensemble IS the glorlfiC3t1on of the Mother of
God and the Child, and she appears m the center of the tympanum as the
enthroned Queen of Heaven wi th the baby Jesus. She IS accompanied on
the left by an angel carrying a scepter and Joseph, and on the right by the
Magi. T he glonrl(:auon of M ary is aided by the eight figures in the jambs,
whICh :He deplet ions of typological predecesl'Or5 of Christ and ,""Iary. In
Ihe left jamb IS Daniel, who beouse he survi"ed the lions.' den is
conSidered to be proof of the "irgmlty of Mary. The High Priest Aaron,
opposite him, should be understood In the same context. The: twO
women's figures standing opposite each Ofher, Bathsh.c:ba and the Queen of
Sheba, corrt'Spond to each other In their meaning. whICh is as the Old
Testament allUSion to Mary. The Kings Solomon :tnd DaVid from the Old
Testament appear as the pmiecCSliOrs of Christ. The mner figures m the
jambs, to either Side of Ihe portal, represent as It were Ihe life of Christ,
with J ohn the &lpl1st on the left and John the Evangelist on the ri@;hl.
The theme conunues in Ihe four arduyohs o,'cr Ihe jamb figures. lbe
mnc. one shows Christ, aecompamcd by archangels. crowning Mary. At
the highest pamt of the second archlvolt the rouls of the Chosen are being
brought 10 Abraham, and his lap is meant as the symbol of Hea'Tn. At Ihe
mks art' two angels and four aposdes. At the erown of the third arch"'oh
IS the dove of the Holy Ghost. also aceompamed by angels and the
rtmammg eight Apostles. The depictions of the Angel of Judgement and
the resurrected lea"mg their graves In the outer archlyoll has been used (0
argue that the theme: of the portal was Ihe LaSt Judgement. Budde qUite
rightly PO"1lS out that Ihe most important elements, such as the heavenly
Judge, the Damned and the jaws of Hell, are mlumg, and that, in addition,
the theme of the Last Judgment would rule oLitthat of the glorification of
Mary. ~Furthermore," he WTlles, ~the resurrected in the archivolts shou ld
be seen as the Blessed bemg led inlO Paradise by the Angel of Judgement
IMichael]."
317
o~ros,n
319
'"'
80TTO.\1
320
11110 one evenl. BOIh women arc kneeling bc-fore Jesus, begging him 10
really reSlOre Iheir brother 10 life in thiS world. The relid IS damaged, and
of all places Ihe areas affccled are the left hand and righl arm of Chrisi.
The damage seems so calculated that one feels Juslified in assuming that
thIS IS a deliberate act of iconoclasm, perhaps In order to remo'"e the
personal and binding nature of the fnendsh,p John writes about. The relief
of Ihe raising of Lal.3TUS was probably dl5plarcd ,"cry close by, for the two
reliefs are also ITlatN stylistically. Thc high lines of the robes' folds arc
emphaslzN by deep cutS, and the structure of the twO scenes with Christ 111
the Center. cither sming or standmg. dlvidmg the c,'ents taking place in
front ofh'm from the Apostles behind. IS Identical.
Begun 111 1091. the cholT of Chichester Cathed ral was consecrated III
1108. Georg Zarnc"ki considcn Ihe rood ",reen 10 have been ercaled
during the period of office of Bishop Ralph de Luffa. who died in 112J
and was presumably German. This would e"plain cerlain slylislic
s, milar,tICS to Ononian works in J-hldeshcim and Cologne. The reliefs
probabl)' datcd from between 1120 and 11 2S.
The tradmon of Norman archl1('("fural ornamentation led to some
of Bethany. 1120-1125
' 21
TOP OPPOSITE
BOTTOM UFTOPPOSITE
(.]]55-]]70
322
J2J
324
2. SIra.oourg
1566
ci.eul."on of Ih,. .,:e", "".nl Ih., Ihe
e.",h~.",,,,,.,,", ""'-5" lor mol."".1
observers .uch .s R. ymond was In'
escapabk. It i,. fae! thaI the 'pocal},pl1c
",~,on, of God, a~ ..ell as lhe e"pllCil
.epresentatlon of Ihe LaS! Judgemenl.
...... /:o.o",e IOplC' for medIeval church
punal~ In wCSI .. n Euro~.
The frequenc)' w;Ih w~ich both scencs
.p~ar h.. 10 t.. secn ,n lhe cml(e,,' of
lhe """" ,mpun.nt " .."" rtgul.rly '0
lake pl.ce III fronl "f .he church po,,~I:
_ulu .nd ccclcsi.."".1 ",.1 . Nume.ous
leg.1 reco.ds .1111 e""t Ihal tdl of ,udge
""",tS and .he .. b"ra"on "f conn".,
I.king pl.1 a, ,he entr. ""cs to ~hu.d,.,..
whether "In gahlea" (pe.recyIt.Forges,
1108), "suh port"'o" (Ferra r 11401, ",n
.mo" (Regen,burg. 1]83], "anI" grad~.
eccb.." (Frankfurt. 1232), ".nle
po".m" (F nkfu". 1248] o. "in mlo
"'Iio" (Goslar. 1256). Thi' legal trad",on
con be traced back 10 Ihe Onon"n and
Carollngt.n ..... In 81J, roy.1 Wle!
wa. iued fo.biddHl~ legalludgemenl of
secul,r ISSues 10 'ake place III Ihe a",um
In from of lhe m.. n po"al of churchn.;
IhlS .ef\n;" IUS! how widesp ..ad Ihls
convenllOIl W'$. Th. dr even had .0
t.. ",~a.ed on v IOU. o<ca""" . Thi.
IS ""hy a d<xumenl dJllllg from 943
4. FrankfurtCa'hedral.lhe rW door
walled up ,II. Ilde,hopel
5. l'aderbom Calhed.al. the.ed door
,h.,
.. ported
,he newly conStrUCIl
....,,,,,,,,,k .n I."", 01 ,he m~.n poMal of
Ih. church of SI. Sah'",or In We.den.
Wcslph.h., had hn bUIlt ~pif",all~
for hold,ng .ynod, (fig. II.
The practICe of carryIng oul secular and
dcsl.,lIc.1 1<g>1 b""ness by church
punal. was common Ihrougi>(>IlI Ihe
MIddle Ag... [n S.u,oourg, III lhe
Ih,rtten,h 'MI,ur)" lhe IOwll councIl',
cOurt was SCI up ",ar . he sou. h pon.l.
henea,h ,he "atue of Solomon, the Old
Tc;.alllen. klllg and judge (fig. 2). A
d",r(C III 1200 c<>mmandW Ihat ",f .11
ca.....
6. Au,un. Sain,-Laur~.
Dna,l from the ,yml"'num In ,h~ ......, pon.1
UI~l<d
m""....
..
,
"",;
...
11ft.
~.~
r',.
,~
I'
J.
,~
~~.
~
fA
'
~. ~
~";r
~nlra....,.
325
n...
II. Wo.m.G"l><d.al
!lank lhe .nlra""es of bUIld,ng. They
make" mOre d,ff"ulllO w~lk 'hrough.
~nd """,,,uso of th,s Ihey arc pla,.d
wherever judg., <It to pun,sh grtc'dy
reapl . " And 'I><re are ind...J many ~cts
of JUStl,. Ihal "'... dc<1d.d ",rer duos
leo1tN, (bet"'"1>IWO hons). One d.finilC
example is W.,den ,n Westphal,a... 'he
Church of SI. Ntehola. wh;..h was la ..,
OOI'O)-ed;
columns we pl.ctd In
fronl of 11. each ",,h a lion on II. R!gh'
,n,o ,h...ghl"1>lh cemury II wa, Ihe
CuStOm of Ih. abbey judge 10 ca.ry oul
offoci,,1 busu... ss be"'-ecn I~ Iwo
columns, and h,s aCl' d<cd w,th tb.
ph ...e,,,,,",,, ",ttlr duos Iw" . A .. mol ..
int.,p.".""" can be m.de of .h. 1"''''
""0
w".
326
,h.
n...
CO"'.
.,,11
). at.
sa'"'"
Sa," ..
16. Conques,
FQY, det.,l of ,h.
'ymp.onum shOWing 'h~ Iiless.ed
327
Bcauh~u;;urDordogn.
(Corliu ), . bbt-y
328
the twO ""orlds - continue In the IIfc beyond. Evcry dying person was
thereforc faced with the burning question of whcthcr he would I'CCCI,'C
mercy from Hca\'en or be condemned to thc tormcnts of Hell. The
Judgement that would make thiS deciSion would lake placc on Doomsda)',
whICh was thought of as the end of allage5.
[n the t)'mpanum abo,'c the ....'CSt portal of the abbey church of Saime
Foy In Conques-cn.Rouergue, whICh was produced In the second quarter
of the t..... elfth century, Chnst is enthroned In the centcr. surrounded by a
glonole (photos, pp. 329-3 1}. That In IUrn .s surroundcd by a wreath of
clouds and nars as a reference 10 the hea\'cnly position of the cnthroned
figure. In this sphere four angcis arc also depICted, tWO of theM holding
banderoles on either side of his head, and the other t.....o, by his feet,
catr)'mg torches.
In accordance wnh the \ision of the LaSt judgcmen! as narrated by
~Iallhew, after ChTist has placed the sheep on hiS Tight hand and thc goats
on hiS ]cit (Mall. 25, 33}, hc will with hiS outstrC'lched arms divldc thc
world be)'ond Into Paradlsc on hiS nght and Hell on hiS Icft, a division of
Ihc ..... orld mto Good and [VII whICh dominates the cnllre ChnSlian art of
thc Middle Ages and has been a determining fuctor In culture right until
the present.
III the tympallum of BcaulteusurDord~lIe (photo. opposite}, which
was crcated at roughl)' the same IIInc, Christ is also enthroned In the
ecnter. Sut he lacks a gloriole. and is only a"ompanied by two horn
playing angds. HIS arms arc extcnded horizontally, crcatmg an obvious
allusion to hiS death 011 the Cr()$$ ..... hich IS hdd behmd h.s right arm by
tWO angels. They arc assisted by a th.rd, who IS presenting the cross nails
behind Chnst's left arm. TogC'lher Ihey arc showmg the Qrma Ch"sll, the
oblects whICh tell of his Passion and lhe triumph o,'er death. They are
rather unusual m deplClions of the LaSt judgement, and should be
mterpreted as symbols of that triumph and Christ's malesty, whICh IS
confirmed by the angel above the nght row of apostles ..... ho is arnvlng
carrying the judge's cro ..... n. The enllre design 1$ 3 rderenee 10 the Parousia,
the Sccond Comlllg of Christ, which will usher m the Last Judgement. For
the Weighing of the Souls, the acmal pr()(:es~ of ludgl'ment. still lies in Ihe
future. At the end of time the !tving and !hosc who have Tlsen from the
vave will gather al the foot of the Throne of judgement.
The arch.trave, which is divided Into IWO regiSterS, depicts <kmonlC
bemgs at the bollom, including the SC\enheaded monner from
Re-ciauon. While this is clearly a depiction of Hell, there arc dis
agreen~nl5 as to how the upper reg.ster should be Interpreted. It is, on the
one hand, also conSIdered 10 belong to Hell. sho""mg the Damned being
swallowed b)' monsters. but there IS an alternall"e View that th.:sc events
could correspond to the ~ H ortus deliclarum~ or Garden of Delights of
Herrad of Lt.ndsbcrg {1 125/30-1 195), .n whICh II is wTlllen that ~At
God's biddLllg the bodies and limbs of people onee swallowed by wild
annnals, birds and fish will be brought fonh ag.'lIl1, so that the intact limbs
of the samts Will Tl!iC again from the holy human substance. ~ Earlier
sources also demonstrate the contemporar)' topICality of th.s .deo.l, accord
mg to whICh bemg swallowed can also be underSlood as being disgorged,
329
OPPOSITE
QUI towards Ihe begging SI. Fides - Sainle Foy. Behind the figure of
the saini arc images of chains hanging from arcades. nC$e are tht
chains which bound the prisoners who werc spared on her recommendation. In the right spandrel angels aTC opening Ihe graves whicll
the dead are rising from, in order {O gain admission to Paradi$e or
Hell following the Weighing of tht Souls. The doors to bOlh of the next
worlds aTC wide open; they are panicularly noticeable due to their
naturalistic mountings and locks, and arc separated from each other by a
slUrdy wa li.
The Judge's left arm is pointing diagonally down towards the Damned
in hell: ~Go away from me, with your curse upon you, to the eternal fire
prepared for (he devil and his angels" (MatI. 25, 41 ). The order of
Paradise is comrasred with the chaos of the underworld. And stiding
through the gates of Hell are the open jaws of Leyialhan, who is
swallowing the Damned and throwing them into Hell (photo, top}. This
monster, which originated in Phoenician mythology, was, in the Bible. the
monster of chaos. [t was this monster which God defeated at the outset of
creation, but (he same monSler could easily be woken and break OUI of
captivity if a curse was uttered against the existing order. In the Conques
portal showing the Last Judgement, he is depicted as the jaws of Hell,
behind which the Devil reigns. Crowned, and scated under the pediment as
a symmetrical coumerpart 10 Abraham, he is holding a second hellish
judgement, in which he allocates torments according to the severity of the
sins committed.
The hanged man with a bag around his neck to his Jef( is a reference to
J udas, while an exposed woman and a monk, in other words a man of the
Church, are awaiting their hellish tonures. And behind them a knight and
his horse are being thrown head first into Hell. [t is nor, however, justthc
torments of Hell that are being put on view; each of these tortures of the
human flesh is also an exemplary punishmem for human vices and sins.
The fallen knight embodies arroganee, and the monk and naked woman
are symbols of fornication. In the register above it, there is e'en a bishop
being accused of the misuse of his ecclesiastical office, and a glutton is
being hung up by his legs.
In Autun in Burgundy, wM,re the relics of St. Lazarus had been brought
in the eigh th cemury, the Cathedral of SaintLatare was built between
1120 and 1146. Here, too, the Last Judgement is on display in the
tympanum, and in its center Christ is enth roned in a gloriole held by
angels (photo, p. j32). Each of the sides is split into twO registers with the
archi tra ve underneath. The upper one shows the enthroned Virgin Mary
and two apostles as observers of the judgement. In the lower register, to
the Tlgh! of Christ, eight apostl es stand, facing the emhroned figure in the
manner of petitioners. 51. Pelcr with the keys is guarding Ihe emrance 10
the heavenly Jerusalem, which is represemed as an arcaded structure, and
into which the resurrected are laboriously trying to squuze with the
assistance of an angel.
On the opposite side, in one of the most graphic scenes in Romanesque
sculplure, the Weighing of the Souls is raklllg place between the Archangel
Michael and (he Devil, and behind them stands Luxuria with snakes at
330
her breasts (photo, p. 33J), Behind Michael's back, facing Christ, is the
twelfth apostle, who is opening the Book of Life thaI is being weighed for
Ihe Judge. The architrave depicts Ihe resurrected being separated into th e
Redeemed and the Damned by an angel in Ihe cemer, The procession of
tbe Elect on Ihe left, which includes two pilgrims, contmilS with the
army of the Damned on the righI, This frighlened crowd is apprehensi,-ely alld fearfully moving towards the spot where the poor smners
are grasped by Ihe hand of Ihe Devil and pulled inlo a dr'eadful Hell.
The medallions on the uuter archivolts, with the labors of Ihe months
and signs of Ihe Zodiac arc a reference 10 the larger cosmic C"ntext of the
Last Judgement.
The tympanum in Autun is especially vivid due to the dong,ltion of the
figures which, depending on the proportions, almost ",vokes their
corporeality. Added to this is a senS(" of drama in Ihe COlUra&! of Good and
Evil, for instance in the Wetghing of the Souls, which could scarwly be
331
333
334
Ch",u.n
335
into one of the new churches, he would be confronted with t:he demon
who would give him no peace until it had penetrated him and consumed
his heart and soul. St. Manhew's Gospel gives many examples of how
Jesus dealt with demons, by driving them oUI using Beelzebub (Man. 9,
34; 12, 24-27). Romanesque sculptors made use of this countermeasure in
their $Culptures. ~Demons were 3nached to churches in a stone: form, the
intention being that they would r<"Cognize themselves. as in a mirror, and
be scared off by their own appearance, ~ is how Bredckamp pUtS it.
Many of these prople suddenly recognized their unending loneliness in
the face of Creation and as a result developed something whoSo: existence
has been disputed especially since the ear ly nineleenth ccnrmry - Iheir
individuality. The man)' Romanesque artists' signatures are proof of this.
Many finally took refuge in rhe religious movements and sectS that were
springing up in many places.
Even if Ihe sculptured capitals of Saint-Pierre in Chauvigny do not
reach the high quality of the Toulouse workshops and their sUfl:oundings,
they are nonetheless some of the mQ~1 expressive works of the French
Romanesque period (photos, opposite). They rest on Ihe columns belween
the choir and ambulatory, and present a bewildering unil'erse of biblical
336
and demonic figures and scenes in over thirty sculptures. The Devil
himself, wearing a scaly gannem, stands with his lqj$ apan on the northern
crossing pillar holding a magical symbol of death. Between his legs the fires
of Hell, burning on an altar, arc visible. Another scaly demon is turning
towards him from the len, and on the other side a smooth-skinned demon
is bringing him one of the Damned (photo, top len). On the southern
crossing pillar two eagles, symbols of renewal and resurrection, are
lxaling their wings and holding little naked human figures in their claws
and beaks. These' arc the souls of Ihe Dead which have been redeemed and
arc being carried up to Heaven {photo, top right}. Every sinning Christian
was haunted by the terrors of the ine:<plicable powers in this world and
plagued by premonitions of an impending terrible punishment, and would
therefore hal'e secn the picture of the winged dragon swallowing the naked
souls of Ihe Damned as representing his own fale (photo, p. 335, bottom
len). The griffins, in contrast, which are a mixture of lions and eagles with
human hands growing out of their tails, arc an enigma {photo, p. 335,
bouom right}.
The sculptor in charge also len his signature lxhind in this ensemble.
Similar to Conques, he carved it inlO the highest ranking religious sphere,
337
the Ige of the impost block of the capilal showing the Adoration of the
Magi: GODfl\tIlUS ME fECIT - -Godfridus made me- (pholO, p. 257).
But the Devil was omnipresent. lie appears noting down man's sins on
the slOne side wall of a choir sf;lll (pholO, p. 336, top lefl) in the Minsler of
St. Manin in Bonn, the former collegiate church of Sf. Cassius and St.
Florentinus. Whil e Ihe demon's head an3ched 10 a human or apparently
human body was meant 10 fend off Ihe Devil, at Ihe same time his bookkeeping was meanl to remtnd membcT$ of Ihe clergy who used these stalls
of their own sinfulness. Nexl to il was something more comforting, however, because the same choir stall containl an angel noting down man's
good deeds (pholo, p. 336, lOp right).
Animal colu mn s
Animals in all shapes populaled fr..... -standing columns or olher supportS,
e:<lending the sculptures on the capilals and baSC!i across the entire shaft.
An emire demonic animal kingdom came together Ihere, either engaged in
battles or intenwined ornamentally, and frequently including human
figures. These: animal columns are a special form of Romanesque sculpture
found mainly on French chu"h ponals, where Ihey form the trumeau or
cerllral support such as the one in Sauillac (photo, p. 264, right), which was
moved inside the church of Sainte-Marie following Ihe destruction of The
portal during the iconodasm of the religious warsi in the .en of Europe,
Ihis form is comparatively rare. There is a little column of this type in the
fa,ade gallery of San Martino e San Michele in Foro in the halian IOwn of
338
<'e1!tury
lucca. The souTh Plmal of the church in Ki lpeck, Hertfordshore, III
I:nlliand. contains ;I similar colum n (phoTo. p. JJ7, right ). an((The only
rxample In Germany is 10 Ix- found in the crypt of I:reislng ealhedral
(photo. p. JJ7, lell ). The laller. dating around 1200, depicts .. dramallC
b;(lIle ~t".. etn TWO wmged dragons and kmgllls; TWO of Ihese ha>'e already
betn swallowrd and Ihe remamder are under threaT by funher .snake-like
dragons TlSlng up from below. The IConographICal IIlTerpretal10n of Ih.s
column on p;onicular. which IS execuled in a rather coorse style WIThout
dO$C parallels. can at beSt be made in lerms of a general symbohsm In
which Ihe dragon -figh t I~ IliusTratmg the bailie between Good and EVil.
The eagles in The capllal, sepa rated from the earthly sphere by means of a
magical rope. appear 10 represent ChriSI. The eaST Side show~ the halflength figure of a woman With pl:mrd halT, whICh Ramer Budde belie"M
rcp~nts The ApocalyptIC female figure of MarylEcclM,a.
Im:llge :lind Symbol
The Images which people m thc Middle Ages creaTed of the things ThaT
339
What is revealed is a specific peculiarity of medieval thought, which in contrast to its more normal cognitive means of recognition basN on a
sequence of cause and effect - is reduced simply to the associations made
with particular outward shapes. Umberto Eeo describes this phenomeuon
with reference to a rather shortened ability to visualize things: -In this
context people h""e spo ken of a spiri!Ual short-circuit, of a way of think ing Ihat does nOI seek Ihe relalionship between two things in Ihe
convolutions of the causal (orrelations between Ihem, but rather makes an
abrupt leap to sec them in terms of Ihe relationship between meaning and
purpose. ~
in Romanesque sculpture. Its core was probably wrinen by AI) 200, when
the canon of New Testament writings was already largely consolidated.
and it was, on the one hand, the product of ancient physical scieuce. BUI it
was also constantly reworked o,'er the course of the following millel1nium,
extended and brought into line with the Christian body of thought.
Animals arc descTlbed in simple language in fifty-five contemplative
and edifying storics, grouped according 10 their particular characteristics
and behavior, and thcsc form the groundwork for equating their qualities
aud behavior with an exemplary Christian lifestyle and even Christ
himself, all this narraled in a touchingly naive allegorical style. For
example, the nature of the -sun 1izard~ is described, and 1\ is said that it
becomes blind in old age. and slips into a crack in a wallrowards dawn in
order for its eyes to be healed by the sight of the rising su n. This passage is
followed by the following recommendaTion, addressed direcTly 10 elderly
people: -When you are wearing the clothes of old age, and the eyes of
The - I'hys iologerThis way of thinking found iTS expression in what is called the ~I'hysio
loger,~ or Kone versed in natural science,- one of the earliest exegetic
referem:e works that can be consulted over the world of animals depicted
340
Befor.11)98
Tor
Charl,eil (Lai",). former priory church of
S.intforrun.t. Cop".1 drpictillf: .n
:ac,oOOt. Twelfth ccntury
BoTIOM
~howlng .
c.mur ~
your reason have hecome dulle<! and stupid, go seek the rising sun of
ngh!Nusness which is Chris!," who will open ~Ihe eyes of :Iour he3n
and take away all the darkness. The Physiologer contains the S.oUTCe- of all
those famous Christian ammal allegories, such as the lion who ,conce-als his
tracks and is therefore the symbol of the Saviour who moves unseen
amongSt men. Another example is the phoenix, wrapped in precious
stones, which would fly up to the cedars of Lebanon every 500 years in
orde-r to fill its wings with pleasant smells, burn itself in the al.tar fire and
which, when pulled from the ashes by the priest In the shape of a worm,
would grow new wings. Like Christ, it could lose its life and then come to
life- again.
Romanesque sculptu~ contains numerous depictions of atnimals and
fJbulous creatu~s, which can only be comprehende<! by m,:ans of this
enigmatic - and by no means definite - symbolic and allegorical perception,
one which has been largely lost to modern understanding except in those
cases where it can be deduced by sources such as the one above"
M
341
'0.
Coml'Ol'.rla (G.lici~), call>edra) of
$an.iago. Pucr.. ok lo. Pla " , Id,
'ymp.num: "dull..... or Orlgonal Sm,
SttQruI d,"".<k of .... (wdfth cmtury
BOTTOM
342
c. 108511090
o~ss,ons
343
344
p. 290) acts as a type of snapshot of this process. Adam and Ese are standing
drew in the robes of God's creation on either side of the forbidden tr~,
and the serpent is winding ilself around its trunk. At the very "lOmen! that
EIe reaches for Ihe apple with her Idt hand, she plact:s herself and all of
humanity into a condition of sin, making her aware of her shame so thaI
they hal'e to cOI'er their nakedness. Adam expresses his horror by clasping
his right hand 10 his throat. And alread)' rhe demons that will accompan)'
them from now on are presem on either side.
The Eve of Autun (photo, lOp) is sensuous and seductilc lik,: no other in
Romanesque art. She is presumably alro a work of that Gislt:bertus who
signed Ihe tympanum, and is a remaining fragment of the Iintel of the
north portal of Saint-Lazare. The figure of Adam has been lost. Supported
only by her right elbow and knees, EIe is moving through Ih,~ Garden of
Eden as if she were the serpent itself. She is looking towards Adam, to
whom she is whispering instructions to do what she has JUSt done, using
her right hand, held against her mouth, 10 amplify whal she 1$ saying; her
left hand is reaching behind her, in order to pick the apple on a branch
which is being bent towards her by the clawed hand of her seducer. The
presence of her feminine nudity is heightened further by the anatomically
exaggerated way in which her upper body is turned towards the observer.
There is no other example of a figure of Eve lying in such a position,
and it would remain a puzzlc were one not to consider the contemporary
mcaning of this position. The liturgy of penance demanded that the
penitent should li e stretched out on the floor, supported by his knees and
elbows. The sculplor incorptJraled the penance that could be expected into
the process of the seduction, blll it IS a queSTionable connection, as the
position of penance seems rather like the movemenr of :1 Sllake. cuhninarillg in the seducti,e way Eve is whispering to and looking at Adam. In
this way, the meaning of this original example of a mortal sin changes into
an enigmatic play on the senses in whICh Gislebenus expresses something
quite outragoous. He uses this theme in order to provoke whal he is
actual1)' supposed to be warning against.
This figure of Eve is indeed the high point of a highly ima ginative epoch
in European scul pture, in which the freedoms of the as )'et unassimilated
power of depiction had been largely exhausted by what were by no means
anonymous sculplOrs. Soon, in the figures on the west portal in Chartres,
this freedom would be abrorbed by the Mspirituality of the l'irtual1y lifeless
body" and transformed into 3 weakened and affirmative visual conten!.
345
(>f
.b.
346
348
OPPOSITE
OPI'O,ITP
l'frn, from .M monaslC'f)' ChUKh of
Alp ...o..eh. UPPfI h..>lf. wood. p.tlntN.
Hfoghf SS Inchn. Mod rwdfth cmtury.
F............."'<If (~.Wum.m'-BI.
P.OIcs.~nl
""mh chu.ch
351
352
~INO<th Rh,,~.W~lpluhal .
An",1 from a Iioly xpukh.t iVO"P.
PorIar ",ood. p',n,td.
15 ",cion.
c. 1180.ik.hn. Sfa.,hc'" Mu~
Prrut>,,,,.... KullU'brs," Kulpl:urr
lit"",
",ll<ry
35J
B.on.e sculp'D"'S
Bron.e i,con.iderd.M mos. v.luable of
. ht: bue ",. Is. It 's nOl " Slnglc: metal.
howe"" bul an .lIoy of coppr. with
ei.l>tr flu Or .me; Ihe proponion. uood
vary according 10 .he do", .q:ion and
.'-en workshop wM~ Iht: piNes We"
p.odud. B.onte is Ihe mOS' popula.
metal among<t a.flsm"" bttau.. " IS
re1."voly t:asy 10 ""ork do.pilt: its hard
"""'. and bttau.. " ands up w"II,o ,h.
V.flOUS elf..." of Ih. we.lhn Alloy.
wi.h high proponi"". of fln or .i"" ha"e
'M advanlag. of being p.nicularly nuid
m tht:tr mol,en St.'e and can reproduce
"'-"" Ihe fj""". of do ,I. wht:n pourtd
,n.o .he mould .
The u,ual process for tht: c3Sflng of a
sculp,ure in Ih. M,ddk Ages c"" ...ted
of produc'ng a wu model whICh w
co,..,rtd wilh a laY"r of clay o. plas'er
(see 1M figur .. on p. 379). The finng of
,ht: caSt mado ,h. wax melt O"'''Y kaYlng
hollow OO~ ready rQ be filled with
molte" """.1 Th,s is known eln
perdu., or 1M I",.wax pr<.>CfiS. The caS'
wu SKurtd
bed of ",nd SO Ihal il did
nOl break. Nume.ous ,..ms ""surd ,ha,
when the moh"" me,.1 wa, poun:d in .
lhe alf could ....... pe and the ca" would
be ~lItd compie,dy.
In""PIIUn' on tWO mcd .. val asrs Sum
rna" .. Ihi, complex p.OCftS ,n cunci ..
,.,ms. One, on a lion's head door knob
00 Ttle. C..hedral, "Y" "\Vh., wax
cr ,ed. fire ha, ukrn and bron.e ha,
n:produttd.- Wh .. ",'as SO reword'ng for
In"
Two detaIls from the Bcmward door: doorknocke san ... f.om , h.lik of JfiUS (I.n).
Eltpulsion from the Garde" of Eden (nghl)
354
rn>d"""'"
_t.
,h.
"'''''I ...
""''''''J'S
".go
"'= ..
1,,"
355
356
357
358
OPPOSITE
(Apulla,.cathrdra1. Do<nof . ht
"'<s' 1"'rul. Qdc" .. u. olllt"",.".o.
B.onu. lle.ghl 146 inches. ",id.h
Troi~
8 1 i1k.ht..
11 1 ~
Church "<~'urcs
Gold and ,il, h~"" always bttn h,ghly
,alL>td. In .he l\hddl~ Ages, howe' ..,
thes.e priou. IMtal. could no. com"",e
wi,h ,he nlue ~""chtd to reliqua"es. As
a rc."it ,hey w~re romb",ed '" form a
"ngk h'ghly est.. med "Ofk 01 art. Gold
a1>ll 'ilver were 'he favon.e ."b.r"""es
used to make 'he romai"" ... of rel~_ It
wa. """.,nly 'mporun! that ,hese .......1.
~hon. ,,;,h spa.kle .h en".ncc<I
o!>st.ve ... , but e,cn more SO ,h" 'he
",0 of ,he", a mon .,ery or church
pos..-ssed. 'he gno.... waS its importa""e
and po". '. Thy also, howe~.r, exp,es
..-d .he <ks'''''o make .pprop.;ate Te<:ep""
,.cles for ,he bodily .. m.il1$ oJ 'amts,
~nd lessc.-wdo,,-.d mon .... "es had 10
romen, ,hemselves w,th lesser metal. lik.
bronle and cop~ . lIause tel,o:i were so
pue,ous, U Wll' panicululy diffICuit '0
geT hold of .he",. Howe,c . no .Iu. Of
church rould be COflStated wuhou'
360
CoI1O$SO,
J;>.n,',
"joy.
......, p..
bo comp.:".d to an}thl"l\ on
unh,' Th.e sptC1al h:.... ", of I~ ",I",.
wa, ,h.. ,hoe, ,,'cr' rorl"tkrN '0 be ,he.... bod ....... n' of 'M fir.. krnlt$ '0 pay
oomag 10 Chn", 'M KIna of K.np.
Glint... Grr"'....... ,,'00 dH.:rrbe1.
poI...... I- ",I.."., .........: -'1'lwy
rorl""'l ... nrly ben ...... , .........""".I0Il of
lhe- Or",".n kln~. 1l'hooM.." _'M<!
,fus Orn.,,,,,, ralltd,u ... and a.kn! tM
KI"' of 'M Qrim, for protMIOII. potsessed ,he- IU''-ru'lOII 01 1'111 Or""",n
rule. Th.e a",hbtshop of CoIosnt w~s
not; pan .. llb.\y ronumnI ",,h .heKrng<lono ,.~If, rat,,", ........ wtth ,hert1tn"on of h"", '0 "0"''' ,hef.mpor. To ,hIS mol M ,,,",,,,,n! 10
xqu.", tbt ...1"" of Ch.-a.ltnup. "'!>osr
tlInonl1-"'1Oft bt hau h.m~lf .nrrnkd ,n
1165. A. 'M c" y of ,bt Th..., Kon&,Colugnt Iu. ,h. "OW"" ,n "S co.>" of
m<lu .h .. V~'l <by.
... ,,1\01
.Er....
. . . a.
361
362
1,'Of)'
A nalural prodUCI. ",ory has I>n wI<kly
uS! In tM production of .maU works of
art rrom Ihr la.r C1u'IC.1 ~ra onw..d,.
Afr".n "Oil' Import~d ' ... Vent" and
O1btr Italian pon. w Ihe mOSt <om
monl)' uS!, Of equal importa"" . hOI'"
rvrr. " ...., 1M Ittlh of hippopotamI.
narwhals. .J't'.m whal.. and w.I .....,..
EVMl brown rhln<x~r()$ h<>rn waS SO
"mllar 10 iv0'1' Ihal " was ron"drrN an
equally ".Iuabl. rosoure.,
1M maIn soura of ",cork for "'<>'1'
c.rv.n " .... euly rued,.v.! book CO"""
whICh "~r. oftm decor:olN ",th mlni .. u",
rdid'. depIcting BIblICal 51<>ri... and
which ,,~ embrlll,hN "'lfh pri<>u.
BOlTOM
,h.
363
OPPOSITE
364
OfPO~IH
BOTTOM LEn
~I(, H
I"
Ens-bud. Rll{ou,,,bo,,um.
c.II60-1 170.
L.ondon. VlCto.U and "the" MuStunl
367
OPPOSITE
~r Saxony.
"kkd.
'"
Pro',,",al
370
371
372
37J
Aach~l1. Sh'l1I~
OPPOSITE
~.
"".t.
~.
374
Ehrenfried Kluckm
'0
".ge<
1'-'''''',
II\OIIk.
~'.dlcY.1
""Y
'01,11"
""np'ona of n .... d
t,f1'1'
IUGHT
..
,~
eta
~
376
wo.ksho~
./
11..,
....Uu
on
.""n
.ha,
" .0
'0
.ra''''''1
w.r.
."d.,...
m.,.,,,.nmtI,
a.
...
'0
If.
377
378
"<IX with
'hm rods 01 Wax and" plug, to.hcd, W
.h" 1..", .h. hot wax c"n .....apc. The
model i. ,hen .""...d in clay (2) f.om
wh>eh ,he rods and wax prOlect. Model
ond cl.y mould "r< .hen pl."d In 0 hot
kiln (J). When .he h.ot ,,'ax has ...... pcJ.
moh~n me,~1 is po~<e<l m'o 'he mould
(4). After .he me l ha, <ooitd,
mould" broken . nd ,hod. and bung
r<moved.
.h,
!l
,
Ni.:1l0
Th. italian word "ni.lla.." me.nS ~,o fin
,n". L.ad, coppcr or sulfur rubbed
m.o m..ral pl .... wIth pauerns engraved
tn'O ,hem. The metall", .lIoys .hen fo.m
black pattern on .h. polished me,.l
ground. Ahr the plo'H ....ngr,,'ed ( I )
,he metal Or sulfid .. is appl'ed (2) and
burned on (J) brfore ,he II\Ctal pial< is
polisl>ed.
Ch ing
The pnxHS of finishIng .he ,u.facr of
."he. me l caSU or ..
,,o.k IS
done by polL,lung and mo,,"g .mp<1f.... ions ,h occu".d during ",,"ing o.
repoussag for ex.mple ""h,n r.movlng
rod. from" me.al C'"st ("I). R.pou ....
work" <o.rrc,cd and wo.ked on ,he
reverse sode. In o.d.o do .h 1>t obi""
IS he.,ed anJ pbced on" soh pllabl. b...
(2) wl>tr. U IS th.n worked with h.mmer
.nd " ... 1pu""h (3).
pou."
Rq,o..... ge
Probably
379
380
381
Ehrenfri ed Kluckert
Romanesque painting
383
Gttmign~_<ks.Prk.
l '~l .
800
384
of thecrypl were painted. Only the scenes from rhe life of St. Stephen have
sllT\'ived - his condemnaTion, tOrture, aod stoning. When rhe paintings
were discovered 111 1927 they were 111 good condition, so that one could
gain a dear idea of the viv,d colonng and the outline and com(XIsition of
the figures. The colors used were ma inly shades of red, yellow ochre,
greyish-whire and greyish-green. Influences from earl)' Roman caTacomb
painting and from compositional pallerns of ByuntlOf mosaics in Santa
Maria Maggiore in Rome hal'c been detected.
The best-pre~rved Carolingian fresco cyde can be found in a remOie
"alley in Graubunden. 10 the monastery church of Mustair. llte church is
dedicated to St. John the BaptiST. and it is generally beliel'ed to ha" e been
founded towards the end of rhe eighth century, in about 790, and probably
by Charlemagne. His nam e-day, January 28. is still celebrated loda).
Morrover, the king is said to ha"e vowed Ihat he would establish a
monaSlery in the valley to offer thanks for his safe crossing of the
mountall1 pass of Umbrail in stormy weather. One can assume that the
frescoes were painted soon after the compleTion of the monaster)' church.
Located in the apses. Ihe paintings remained undiscovered until 1896 and
were finally completely uncovered by 1950. Parts of the frescoes had b:n
painted o\'er in rhe twelfth century by artists belonging TO the School of
Salzburg.
Cha rlemagne probably never returned 10 Muslair and may ha"e
forgollen about it altogether, for the artiSTS who executed the paintings did
not belong 10 his COUT! school. Extensive commissions like the one at
Mustair were usually taken on by Itinerant artiSTS who came from [taly
and were trallled in Ihe Byzantine style. The Byzantine influence can be
found nOT only in the shapes but also in the treatment of the pictorial
narrative, that is the manner in which the individual scenes are emphasized
by Ihe articulation of the architectural elements around them.
Quite dose TO Mustair in the Venosta region of south Tyrol lies Ihe
little town of Malles with its simple little Benedictine church. In the
Carolingian era, this chutch and the one in nearby Graubiinden belonged
together, the church of ,\l3lles being affiliaTed to rhat of Mustair. A series
of paintings were executed much later, probably in about 880, bUI a1llh31
remains in the apSt:s are the figures of Christ sianding, of St. Stephen, and
of Gregory the Great. On the narrow sirips of masonry between the apses
there is, amongst other things, the figure of 3 priest accompanied by the
noble donor, who offers :I model of the church to God (photos, p. 385 ).
Roman influence has b:n detected in these frescoes, blll their execution
and treannent of delail differs significantly from the style of the figures in
the Mustair church.
Further down the valley, towards lIIerano, lies Namrno. Its church of
Patroklus, built towards the end of the eighth century, contains a painTing
of the ~flight of I'aul~ executed in a ,-cry simplified manner.
The a(XIstle is depicted above a meander frieze: almost as if on a swing,
and the figure is executed in a nai"e and very reduced style. His body
consists of Ihe sweeps of his garment; his face appears flat and devoid of
contours and modeling with the ("ceplion of the eyes, noSt: and mouth.
T he meander frieze is the only dement that bctra)'s some of the ingenuity
A,...,und800
385
Sa'nt""'naord.St.....anItV'll"". Two
drullsof fmc.,..., angd.IM Fall of Man.
A,ound 1140
386
church built for the priory of Berze-I3-Ville, a few miles east of Cluny. The
abbot is reported to ha"c retreated \0 this lillie church in order to
contemplate the approach of de ath. Along with 51. Savin, the mC01lumental
paintings of Berze-Ia-Ville are among the most important works of art of
the French Romanesque peTlod (photos, p. 411). They were probably
painted at the same time as thoS(" of St. Sa"in, around 1100, although it is
possible that they were not executed until 1120. T he style, however, is
different, it is morc ~Brzantine.~ It is probable that Cluny arranged for
artists from the monastery of r.,\ontccasslno in southern Italy 10 come to
Bene in order 10 paint the fre$C~s [here. This does no[, hocvc,; apply 10
all the frescoes. Only fragments remalll of ~Chris['s Entry illlo J,:rusalem~
on the western wall of the church (painted around 1180}, bill stylistically,
this fresco is connl"Cted to the first group, the one cemered around Tours.
Such stylistic variety III the same place runs contrary 10 a prc-cise topographical classification, eSpe<:ially as so few examples survive. Nevcrtheless, one llIay tentad"ely establish two groups: the dark frl'SCoes WIth blue
backgrounds are typical of sotuhern Burgundy and [he Au\'ergne, while
the 5andy-colored paimings on a pale background are charaCieristic of the
loire valley.
Also among the second group are the fa.o;cinating fre.o;coes of St. Chef in
the Dauphine rcgion, east of lyons. An inscription suggests that they were
painted in the j'ear 1080. Also belonging 10 this group are [he wall
paimings of St. Julien III Brioude in the Auvergne, which date from the
beglllning of thc thIrteenth cent ury. The fre.o;coes of Brioude are sometimes
seen as being related to Ihose found in neighboring lavaudieLl, and arc
therefore classified as belonging 10 the third group. Similar 10 the paintings
of Bcr7.t-la-Ville, the frescoes of the tllird group ha"e a dark background.
They are, however, not connected with Clu ny or MOlltccassino, de.pite the
faCi that they e:<hibit sonle Byzantine characteristics. These are found ill
the heads of the Apostles with their di sti ncrive physiognomy, :lind in the
carefully modeled mu.o;cles of their faces and hands. The frescOo!s (photo,
TIght) are III the refectory of a former lknedlCtine abbey and we:re paimed
around 1220. Lavaudleu mIght well allow us to call this the" B)'"Lantinc
group
The fourth grou p is known as the ~Cat~lan group~ sillcc the wall
paimings differ strongly (rom the French type. They have more in common
with those found in the Catalan region of ROlIssillon. The painti:ngs of St.Martin-de Fenouilbr south of Perpignan, executed around 1150, should
also be mentioned here, as should those of 51. Romain in Caldegas which
date fronl about the s,1111e period. Another good example of this fourth
group can be found in the frescoes of St.-Jean-Ie-Vigne in St. Plancard,
about 30 miles cast of Tarbes (photos, p. 386). These paintinl;5, dating
frolll around 1140, are loeated in the only church in Francc that has tWO
chancels and arc in two different styles. The often sharp-edged style
employed in [he figures in the chapel of the chancel suggests 'l Catalan
arllSt, while [he strong emphasis on outl ines and the flat fa('cs of the
figures in the apses are 1110re reminiscent of a maSter [rained in the east.
This treatment of form is found in mally, often minor, frescoes in the
,"lIey< of Ih~ French Pyren....... They "I .... ""rve ~< remln,le of th~ lively
cultu ral e:<change thai took place between Ihe regions of northern Spalll
and southern France.
Spain
At the tllne of the Carollllgian Empire, mOSt of Spain was under Moorish
rule. It was referrt"d to as the Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba. The narrow
stretch of the Spanish Marches in the Pyrenees was partly under Frankish
administration, and partly under Frankish influence. During the ReconqUlsra, [he Chnstian Slates on [he edges of the Moorish empire, the kingdoms
of Asturia and Navarre, and the coullly of Barcelon", had to battle ag"insl
Isbm. By the mtd thirteenth celllury, [he "lIlori.o;cos, ~ the Moors, had been
driven out of the [benan Penlllsula, WIth the exception of Granada, which
remained the l3st Moorish state on European soil unti l 1492.
Today, the majority of Roman csque frescoes and paintings from [he
Christian areas llIentioned abo"e arc no longer in their original church
scllmg.
At Ihe beginning of this century, experts began the removal of the
monumental paIntings from the churches. sct III hand their resloranon,
and then distributed them amongSt the three 111051 important museul11s of
Calalonia - Barcelona, Vich, and Solsona.
Spanish Romanesquc painting can be roughly divided into two
(~'~e"ri~~: ,he <fyl~ inflllen(,NI hy Moori~h art, and thaI ;nflllenCM by
387
c..a]ym.
opposrn: MGE>
LWn . Pan.e6n dt 1"" R~~'''', {k, "]S'
rnurdtr of the In~n".t lIr,h]~h~m,
Christ In Ma~5ly (top), 1M Annunci,,,on
to tM shepMrds (below]. Around 1]80
388
Ol'l'QSm: PACE,
Cant~rbury Cath..dr.1. Wall.nd '-au!t
frescoes In th~cr}'pt (Samt Cabnel's
England
The close political conlaCt (mentioned aoove) between England and the
eastern Mediterranean region explains Ihe strong Byzantine influence in
Engltsh Romanesque painting. Unfortunately, only very few examples of
fresco painting ha,'e survi,'ed. An allempt to construct a topograph)' of
Ron13n.-sque painting IS therefore not possible. The only testimony
remaining can be found 111 the villages of Hardham and Clayton in Susscx,
in Copford in Essex, in Kempley in Gloucestershire, and in Winchester
Cathedral, as well as in the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral (photo, p. 390).
It has been claimed that the paintings in 51. Botolph's, Hardham, and
St. John's, Clayton, also show signs of continental influence, including that
of Clun)', Presumably manuscripts of the Carohngian court schools
reached the island, since in Hardham stylistic elements have been
discovered that correspond to those of work from the school of Rheims.
Germany
A strict formalism distinguishes Gtrman Romanesque wall-painting of the
eleven th and twelfth centuries in stylistic terms from that of other
European countries, II is comparatively easy to arri,'e at a topographical
division, since enough examples of monumental painting have been
preserved III the individual regions to allow this. The towns whIch extend
along the lower Rhine valley as far as Westphalia make up one of the
main centers. Remarkable pal1\tings were produced there in the twelfth
century, such as the wallpaintings of Schwart.rheindorf; the paintings in
the chancel of St, Gereon in Cologne; those in the chapter housc of
BT;,uweiler; or those in the collegiate church of Knochtsteden (photo, right),
There are also the vault frescoes in St. Maria lysklfchen in Cologne which
date back to the midthirteenth century and are in very good condiTion.
Fragments of Roman.-sque frescoes dating back further, to the late tenth
and early elen"nth ct"nturies, can be found in the chapels and monastery
churches of Essen, Werden, and Aachen. The paintings in Ihe Hohnekirche
{St, Maria 7.ur Hohe} in SotSt were executed around 1250 and are
examples of the Iypically Rheni sh late Romanesque sryle which is often
aprly referred to as Msoftly nowing.~ This Msoftly flowing" sryle takes on
monumental proportions m Schwartrheindorf and would be more suitably
described as MStaufen Classicism. ~ lbere is, howevt"r, a second style of bte
Romanesque pamtlllg III Germany - a somewhat affected, Mner\'ous~ zigzag style that heralds the transiflon to Gothic form. This st)'le win be
dlscusst.'<l in more dt"tail III the appropriate chapter (see pp. 414 H. ).
Another center can be identified in lower Saxony. The best example is the
ceiling of St. Michael III Hildesheim {photos, p. 392}. The only other
surviVIng example of a pal1lted wooden ceiling is in Zillis, SWI!Urland, but
neither in form nor subjectmalter does this ha"e any similarity to St.
f..lichael"s.
Olher paintings worth mentionmg ar.. those in Brunswick Cathedral
and in Ihe Neuwerkkirche III Goslar. They belong to tht" first half of the
thirteenth centllT)' and show strong Otton;an stl'l,stic influences. Both
Rheni sh and Westphalian painting had close links with FrancoFlellllsh
c"hure. lower Saxon)', on the other hand, extended liS innuence towards
391
"
......
1 1 ",
r ,I'
'\
f,
,"
"n
n
~
n
n
n
n
"
.... ..,..
n n
n
n
"
n
n
n
6
Scand1Oa"ia and e.'en fhe 8m'5h Isle's. The' ~lfuallon was eomple'[e'ly
different 10 south,wC'S1 Germany, where' Ihe' so<alltd MSchool of
Relchenau Meme'rge'd, [hough us e'xistcnce' is doubled by some scholars. (A
1110re' dera,led discuSSion of Ih,s school of painting and fhe associated
co,mo"trsy will follow 111 Ihe SCClion dealing with book Illustration.)
Gcrrn:l1Iy IS home 10 a cycle of pamllngs that has been immens.ely revealing
wuh regard to the STylislic development of Romanesque painting in Europe.
The pamtmgs In quesllon are the OHonian frescoes of tht church of St.
Georg In Obencll on the island of Reichenau on Lake' ConSTanCe'. Dtspite
careful restorallon efforts, they arc 10 a poor nate' of p'e'serv3110n. What
has remamed Intacl, however, is Iht cycle of paintings dtpiwng the
nllracles of Christ which run along the' Imcrior walls of Iht church n:lve.
Closely connected 10 ,hI' Rtlckenau pamlings are Ihe Sylvesler chapel m
tkt nearby .. ,lIagt of Goldb.ach and tht largt wall fresco m Burgfcldcn m
Wuntemberg.
Anothcr nnpoTlanf cenler 10 south Gennany was Regensburg. The:
Allerhelligenkapdle {All Sa10ts ChapelJ In tht caThedral (a round 1160)
and the Magdalentnkapelle (Chapel of Mary Magdalen ) in Sankt
Emmeran (around 1170) ha"e 10 be secn '" confext with Ihe paintings in
Ihe monaSlery church of Prufemng (around 1130). One: is sfruck by the
lmear and clearly contoured Slyle Ihat could be ",nuenced by Reichenau,
or by the- book Illustrallon of lhT!i3U. From Ihere, another link can be
P~rt .. 1.iew.
Around 1130140
393
394
395
V~ni<:~,Sl.
nartht~:
.himxn,h (;(:n,ury
haly
In Italy there are three cemers of Romanesque painting that can be dearly
defined in geographical terms: Montecassino in the south, Rome in central
Italy, and Milan in the north. Each adopted Byzamine art as their stylistic
ideal. AI that time the influence of the Byzantine mosaic schools of Trieste,
Venice, Ravenna, Rome, and of Cefalu and Palermo in Sicily was overwhelming, Its effect was felt for a long lime afterwards nOI only in the artistic
OOlten themselves, but throughout Italy (photo, left, p. 397). When i)esiderius,
the abbot of ,"lomtcasS1I1o durtng the second half of the eleventh century,
wanted to have the Provost's quarters of the monastery of Sam'Angelo in
Formis decorated, he even sent for artists and artisans from the Byzantine
metropolis, Constantinople, In the case of Rome, particular mention 1I1USt
be made of San Clemente. A fresco dating back to around 1000 can still be
seen in the upper church - in the past it used to be situated in the narthex of
the lower church. The crypt, the e"islence of which can be traced back as fat
as the fourth cenruty, is today regarded as a treasure-house of Romanesque
painting. It boasts ninth-century frescoes in the nave, depiCTing the Ascension
of Christ, and in the narthex a cycle from the early twelfth century representing the legend of Sf. Clement (photo, p. 398), A Madonna painted around
the year 500 in the Byzantine style completes the impressive array.
The work done b)' the Master of the legend of St. Clement and his
workshop had a far-reaching effect in Rome and far beyond. The Roman
school might e,'en have influenced Ihe paintings of the abbey of Castel
Sanr'Elia ncar Nepi (around 1100, photo, p. 399) and in the cathedral of
Agnani (around 1200).
Nothing has remained of the artistic center of h'lilan. One has 10 look
to the neighboring towns and villages, such as Galliano near Cantu (ea rly
eleventh century) or Civale (around 1090) north-east of Lake Como, in
order to find e"amples of the characteristic Milan style. The OtlOnian
influence that affected the places JUSt mentioned will be discussed at a laleT
stage. There are the less well-known frescoes of Sant'llario in Revello
(begi nning of the eleventh century; situated betv.cen Cuneo and Turin) and
of San Pietro e Sanr'Orso ;n Aosta (around 1150), aU of which were
certainly painled independently of Milan but are nonetheless remarkable,
Aosta could e~en be singled out as the Piemonlese center of painting. Of
iconographical interest are the paintmgs in the oratory of San Siro in
Novara which dale from the firsl half of Ihe Ihirteenth century. In a
colorful and lively manner they illuSlrate miracles and evenlS from the life
of St. Sirius. The scenes include elements of both reabstic and dramatic
design and arc enlivened by the use of brilliant blues and pinks.
Scandina via, Bohemia and Moravia
In art one should not refer to Mperipheral works~ - at most, one should
regard them as works of no particular consequence for future developments. At this point we therefore mention e"amples from Scandinavia and
from Bohemia and Moravia in order to give a geographically complete
survey of Romanesque painting and define its eastern borders.
The development of Romanesque painting in Scandinavia is closely
linked with the arltrade in England and in Lower Sa"ony,
396
Byzantine influences do not come ro the fore until the end of the twelfth
cenlllry and th e beginning of the thirteenth. One can assume that most
wooden churches of the eleventh and twelfth centuries were decorated
with panel paintings. Unfonunately, only very little of this kind of work
has survived. One example is the Ascension of Christ, painted around
1200, from the Swedish church of Eke (phoro, p. 397). The pa.nel is now
kept in the National Museum in Stockholm.
The earliest wall paintings found in Bohemia and Moravia date from
the twelfth century and include the frescoes in the eastle ch,apd of St.
Catharine in Znojmo painted in 1134. Work found in the church of S1.
Klelnens in Stara Boleslav suggests a connection with book illur.nination in
S;lb:burg. T he scenes from the tife of SI. Clement are thought to have bet-n
painted around 1180. Amongst the stylistically most mature w,:.rk of that
region are the paintings on the piers in the Mariageburtkirche (Church of
the ~ativjty of the Blessed Virgin Mary) in Pisek. The depictions of the
Passion of Christ contain a mixture of Byzantine and early Gothic stylistic
elements. This has led 10 the assumption that the work was done towards
the end of the thirteenth century by an artist from the Middle Rhine.
397
M.,..
398
OPf'OSIT'EPAGE.:
Book Illumination
HibCTno-Saxon and AnglG-Sa:<on manu scri pts
The significance of Irish book iliuminatiOll (the origins of which were in
Scotland, the home of the Irish) for the developmenT of Carolingian and
partiyeven Ottollian paiming was cOllsidcrable. The main reason for Ihis
was the missionary work carried out by Irish monks. Aroun([ 590, SI.
Columba alld his companions tra,eled [0 France. Germany and across
the Alps 10 Northern [m[y. [n the Vosges "'[ountains he founded the
monaslery of Luxeull and in Lombardy that of 8obbio. MallY of the early
monasteries later developed thrivillg scriptoria. Amollgst them art' the mOllasteries of Fulda (80nifatius), Wiirzburg (Kilian), Regellsburg (Emmeran},
St. Gallen (Gallns) and EchteTJlach (Willibrod}. Before 5t. Columba's
activity, his father, Columba the Elder, ],ad been invoked 111 founding
monasteries in ],is motherland - amongSt them DUTrOW on Ihe Hebridean
island of lona, and Kells in [relalld. These were tile mOSt im portant centers
of early medieval sc],olarship. They produced manuscripts which 'were soon
to be kllown at any royal or prillCe's palace in Europe as well as III all abbeys
and in the Vatican. Amongs[ the famous manuscnprs are what are t(Klay known
as [he Book of Durrow (sevent], century, photo, p. 401 ) and the Book of Kells
(around 8(0). Long after I],e first HibemG-Saxon alld AIlg[05.1X0I1 mission
0')' oct'v;.y dire<:ted south east h"d t"ken pl"ce, the "rtistic .rndi,-ion of .he
British Isles was cultivated and com[nued on Ihe continent. In t],is way the
aesthetic foundations of Carolingian painting had been cstabl,sh.:d.
Around the end of the sevemh cemury the artistic activity of the Insh
monks shifted from Scotland to Eng[and. The monastery of Lindisfarnc
was founded in Northumbria. Its unique malluscript, the Lindisfarne
Gospels, was produced around 700 alld inspired artists in German
scriplOria 10 adopt its use of sophiSticated pictor,al patterns.
[n the year 597 Ihe Benedictine monk AuguSline arrived in Canterbury
from Rome. l,.,is marked the beginning of the contlict with Iltte artistic
tradition of Rome, i.e. with the Byzanline style Ihe influence of which, it is
true, was present only in a restrained way and which was only gradually
making itself felt. [t is reported that he was carrying out missionary work
on the instructions of I'ope Gregory the Great and [hal he had with him
varions codices from Rome. Allother twO centuries passed hefore the
Byzantine form was accepted and modified in Ihe course of the eighlh
century. This assimilation took place mainly in the schools of Canterbury
alld Winchester. 80th writing schools were gainmg rc<:ogmlion at thaI
time, inspiring contmental artists to d"'elop novel combin.a.ions of
abstract figures and ornamentallettermg.
Carolingian alld Ollonian scri ptoria
The Palace school in Aachen formed the center of Carolingian cultu re. [tS
writing schools and scriptoria produced important manuscriJPI5 which
contributed to the de~dopment of the mature Romanesque style.T he
flowering of the court school began around the year 800 and Insted until
Ihe death of Charlemagne in 8 14. It was Charlemagne himself who
commissione<l the God~a1c Gospel (around 780/83 ), the schoc,)'s earliest
recorded manuscript. It was usual to name manuscripts either after the
400
place for whtch they were deSlined or the place where they were kept, or
after [he donor. Examples of such manuscripts produced at Aachen are the
Gospels of 5t. Mtdard of Soissons (phoro, p. 402) {which, incidentally,
contains up to 600 d[iferent ornamental motifs) and the Ada Codex of
Tner.
After the death of Charlemagne, the important task of communicating
and spreading the style of the Palace school fell 10 the scrrptorium of
fulda. The link between Aachen and Fulda was made possible thanks 10 one
of Akuin's pupils, Hrabanus Maurus, known as ~Praeceptor Germaniae, ~,
Mlhe leacher of German)'~, who was abbot of Fu1d~ un ti[ 842. The
Gospels of Wunburg were written there, a manuscripl that look up [he
profusion of form and shapes displayed in the Gospels of 5!. MCdard and
varied and adapted them further.
Another workshop acrh'e during the Caro[ing'an period was situated
In Rhclms and produced the Ebo Gospels and [he Utrecht I'salter. 80lh
manuscripts date from around 855. Following [he example of Reims, there
were founded further workshops and schools in Tours and in 5t. Denis
w],ich produced Ihe Lotha r Gospels (around 850) and the !i.1Cramentary of
Charles the Bald (around 860). The artistic centers of Merl and Corbie
should also be mentioned here.
The abo"cmentioned places point to 3 whol .. ne.work of "rti~"c
aClivity. so that there were a number of centers producing illustrated
manuscrrpts, not just Aachen. In the wake of the Palace school founded by
the Emperor Charlemagne, a number of other schools and workshops
were established. T hey, too, all profited from the HibernG-Saxon and
AngloSaxon traditions and fused them with Byzamlne elements, thus
creating new compositions and a new [allguage of form.
Carolingian book illumination retained its dommant posil,on well inlO
the tenth cenwry, with the result Ihal the Ortolllan scriptoria at first
followed in the tradition of the Carolingian ornamental and piclOria!
pafterns. 'mere is evidence that the first Ottonian manuscripts were mere
copies of Carolingian codices. which might also be accounted for by,
amongst other Ihings, a drop in ;lr!lstic produclion around the year 900.
Artistic activity declined as a result of nOT only the Viking invasions and Ihe
threat posed by the Magyars, but also by the decline of domestic policy
within parts of Ihe C.1rolingian empire. The imperial traditton was nOI
consolidated until the arrival of the OtTon,an rulers during the tenth and
e!C\'enth cenwries. There followed a cu[tural upswing which must also be
seen in the comexi of Ihe reform of Ihe monasteries during this same period.
The foundation of the monaslery of Clunl' in 9\0 servcd TO prOmOte the
aesthetic ideals of Johannes ScotuS who regarded pictorial reprcsemal10n as
the highest form of perception. According to Ih,s Carolingian philosopher,
beauty was Ihe perfe<.:t expression of berng. Th[S meant that an art form had
not only a symbolic significance bUl was also important to the sah'ation of
the human sou!. In this contexl, beauty is equated with light, and the
~image-light~ interpreted as a metaphor for hea"rnly, divine beings.
Such thinking migh t accoum for the inten$C colorlllg found in Ottonian
minialures. In the couT$/' of Ihe tenth and eleventh centunes, th cse ideas
gained momemum and led 10 Ihe fiN;! formulation of a theory of art.
3~
PHOTO P 4t)l.
"fOTOP.4(I)
40 1
402
403
404
traditions took place in many Umbrian and north- Italian workshops, one
example being the scriptorium of Polirone, situated on the river Po soUlheast of Mantua.
Spain constilUies a special case, not least because of the Arab in nuence
dominant there. The apocalypse manuscripts were a speciality of northern
Spain. In order to understand them, it is necessary to look to the
~Ashburnham Pent:lteuch ~ (photo, above), " codex probably produced in
northern Africa in the seventh centu ry. [tS pictorial language, ornamental
style, figure composi tion and coloring hale prepared the way for the
popular Mozarabic style. These apocalypse manuscripts are highly interesting both in iconographIC and formal terms. One of the centers where they
were crea ted was Ihe monastery of San Salvador de Tavara whose artistic
production reached iTO puk in Ihe oecond h"lf of the lenlh cenrury.
With this brief reference to Spain, we ha'e now completed a rough
outline of Ihe complex links that existed between the va riou s countries
405
406
was really only dUTIng Ihe Carolmglan and Ihe Hohtnstauftn dynasuM
that ClaS~I(;l1 antlqlllty II:lS I~alized for liS policiM and hlghl) n.lued
for liS culture. Today, there IS a tendcn'Y to refer 10 such cases as a
~Rena ,ssance,~ a ~ Proto-Renalssance,~ or a ~Renoval1o,~ terms which
will be dealt wllh at a later stage in thiS book. Our ;nilial concern is 10
descnbe 1he kdl o-BYZ;oIIItine style III order to define Byz:mline form and
give an outime of 1he efft 11 had on the stylistic development of
Romancsquc wall paulll11g.
T he early ChrlSllan mosaICS of Ravenna and Rome were a treasurehouse of form and deSIgn for Carollllgian monumental painling. Just how
strong this innuence was borncs nnpresSlI'ely obvious in the litllt
monastery church of M uSt:UT m Graubunden. The walls of Ihe aisles and
the apses 3rc dorated wllh numerous frescoes depicting subjccts from
the Old :lnd New Testaments, with :lrchllectural sh:lpes that dccor.atc the
background 111 an unobtruSII'e manner (photo, p. 407 on the left)_ The
palllred archl1ccturnl elements such as arches. col umn s and pilasters help
to articulate the groups of figures. Thus Christ IS often placed beneath a
semi-Clrcular arch which allows for the harnlQmous IIltegrnnon of hIS
halo. Columns and pIlaSTers are useful devices IQ separa te figures or
groups of figures from the backgruund. A certam spatial quality is
suggested by the overlappmg of figum and archItectural tleR1Cms, despITe
t~ faa Ihat proper perspcctllt has nOI )'ct been achlCl'ed. TIlls ~spallal
plane~ 5tr\td as the Slage, :IS 11 were. on which Iht figum slood or
performed the,r aCtlons_ Similar compos'l1onal systems and trC3tlllCnt of
figures can be found at Castclsepno !>Oulh of Varcsc (probably daung back
to the early eighth cenlury). Howevcr, the characteristics described arc al!>O
typICal of the Byzantine mosaics III R:lvcnna and Rome. It is conceivablt
that there werc evtn lmks to early Rom:ln wall or catacomb pamtmg.
Imporlanl examples of thiS are Sta. Mana Annqua (early eighlh cenwry)
and the catacomb on the Via Nomemana (fourth century).
Such compansons scrvc 10 Illustrate m gcneral terms how the B)"Lamme
style was adoptcd, It dots not however, account for the sheer weal th and
joy of detail a11d l1arr:l1Ion th:l1 is.so obvious 111 the apses of Mustair, The
figu res skippmg past columns, ducking under arches, and hiding behind
pilasters have a high,spmted but al!>O traditional element abom them
whICh scem$ best ~lIItr-d to the bllhful of a rural district. It is possible Ihat
pre-Carolingian book Illumlllat'on al!>O prOVIded !>Orne tnSpinllon, as IS
suggested by pages from the Ashburnham I'enrateuch_ It is worth
remcmbtnng here thai t~ laner codex, whICh was probabl)' wrmen III
Spam or northern Africa m the scI'enth cemury, IS reprcscnlatWe of a
number of early Byzan llnc manUSCTlpts whICh use a compar.able figurat,..e
and archltcctural pauern. A k1lld of model of thIS manner of reprcsentallOn so 1)'plCal of Byun1lne art can bt setn m a folIO showmg scenes
from the Old Testament StOry of Jacob and Esau (set photo, p. 405 ), liere,
1he slructuTing of figures and archltlu ral elements works on a Similar
lel'el 10 Ihat of Ihe MuSlalr pamtmgs. Spati:ll depth is suggest~d by
Ol'erlappmg a figure with a column. Figures lined up s,de b)' SIde." are
aTl,culatcd by round arches that setm to urge on the speed of the nanallve.
Here, tOO, the palace-like arChlfCCIIJre has tht over.all function of a stage
TOP K1Glrr,
BOTfO.'! IlIGlrr:
Mii"~l<. monalt(ry church of St. John.
Orna",.mal h.nd rita, ,h. ap$<' ""ndow.
Ar""nd 800
set which defines ,h,. space in which the figur,.s act, and dividt,S 11 up into
individual scenes.
AIS<.> of note are ,he window framings conistll1g of p:llnt'~ columns
with a threequarter circle profil.., imitating classical forms (photo on the
right, bo[tom). They dearly relat .. to ornamentation used in book
illumination produced at around the same time (photo, top right ). The
colonn .... " ....s are decorated with styliud flowers and entwined by spiral
ribbons. Such Brunt"'.... ornamemal motifs arc typical of the illuminations
produced by the Palace school of Charlemagne 111 Aachen. Th,~ folio with
the Evangelist Luke from the Ada gospel book (around SOO) depicts the
Evangelist ~neath a portal with columns. The arch is decorated with a
delicate sawtooth frieze, while the slender colonnetles arc (,mam.. nted
with spiral ribbons and small cartouches. It is possible that the anist in this
case wanted to indicate the existence of two levcls - one in the secular
world, represented by the architectural framing, and one in the hereafter,
.... I'r~<l'n.~d by ,h.. vi<ion~ry ~ppearance of the Evangelist who <it< on hi<
407
408
Form,s,
",,,,,,SlY. Around 1080
Sa~!"Angeio In
order to crown Ecclesia. Hovering above The S(ene aTe angels in various
degant. mannered or acrobatically disTOrted poses.
Although the subje<:t is Typically Byzantine, the style is not. II is softer
and more animated and imparts TO the divine couple a graceful
appearance. What this work dating from about 1200 makes clear is for
just how long B)"l3ntine af! served as a source of inspiration for many
artiSTS in the most diverse manner, in terms of both formal style and
subje<:t-maner. Typically, thIS kind of subject transfer with individual
stylistic design occurred in local S(hools. Ha vmg established a style of their
own, they nevertheless wanted tu use a time-honored system of symbols
and types sanctioned by sacred tradinon. In the first pl3ce this concerns, of
course, the main subja:t of Romanesque painting, the depiction of Christ
in ~hjcsty. Three such Christs in MajesTy pro,ide examples' those in
Sant'Angelo in Formis (around 1080), San Clemente in Tahull (around
1123), and Berze-la-Ville (around 1120). The starting point of thi s
typology is the church mentioned first, Sant'Angelo in Fonnis (phOTO,
right) which was founded by the Abbot Desiderius of Montecassino. It is
assumed that Iksiderius summoned the Master of the Christ in Majesty
from a court school in Constantinople. He would therefore have bet>n
familiar with the traditional east-Roman piCTOrial system. Nevenheless he
tried a novel approach. No depictions of a majesty with the Evangelists'
symbols are known in Constantinople. On the other hand, They have
occurred more freque1l11y in the west since the Carolingian period. II is
also of mterest that Christ does nO! appear with in the mandorla, the
aureole of d,vine light - an unusual, albeit not a novel approach. Perhaps
the artist had S"n the depictions of a Christ free from his mandorla which
had survived from the early Christian period in the apse mosaic of Old ST.
Peter's and in St. 1';1ul"s in Rome. Everythmg else. howe,er, follows Byzantine
traditions -the represemalion of detail, the strict linear parallelism of the
gowns, the sculptured quality of the bodies emph<lsized by d<lrk ~hading.
The deep purple of the gowns with their connotation of preciousness can
also be traced back 10 eastern models, as can the magnificent golden throne.
What is remarkable is that the artist obviously integrat ed north
Carolingian and Roman/early Ch ri stian pICtorial conceptions in order 10
create his Christ in Majesty. h is quite likely titat he occupies a special
position in the hislOry of su,h Christ images, since the Christ in Majesty of
SanfAngelo in Formis proved to be of interest to other artists in other
countries. This point will be diS(ussed in more detail later.
The political configuration peculiar to the north of Spain resulted in
the dominance of Arab-derived designs, and it is difficult to find there
evidence of Byzantine a1l. In [he course of the eleventh 10 the thineenth
cellfuries, the reconquest of The peninsula from the Moors - the socalled
Reconquista - was gathering momentum.Tltis meant, among other things,
that Christian and Byzantine shapes and designs gradually gained greater
significance. Like the one of Sant'Angeio in Formis, the Christ in Majeny
of Tahull (photo, p. 410) consists of two parts: GQd the Father is depicted
in the apsis calone, while the plinth area shows Mary with the Apostles.
This is, however, where the similariTy ends. Iconographical differences can
be seen in the presence of the mandorla, the segmental arches instead of
a~.
ChriSI in
the throne, and the pictures of the Evangelists, some of which are franled
in medallions. What the TWO have in common arc just matters of detail and
composition, such as the strict frontality and the axial symmetry of God
the Father, and the shading which emphasizes the hand muscles and parts
of the f;lce. These are exactly the poims al which one's at!e11lion becomes
focused: it seems that the Master of Tahull has made the Ryuntine model
even more Byzantine, that he further stylized what was already STylized.
The facial contours, which in halian e:<amples had been indicated gent ly,
are now given great emphasis. The face of God in SanfAngelo in Formis
turns into a mask in Tahull. Similar observations apply TO the treatment of
folds in the garments and to the gestures: what in haly is depicted in a
softer and more animated style appears harder and more rigid in Tahull.
This tendency can probably be explained by the arrival of the already
mentioned M07.arabic style, that fusion of Arab styliSTic e1cmc11IS and
Christian western ideas of shape and form. And yet it is not sufficient
10 characterize the Roman csque painting of northern Spain simply as
~Mozarabic,~ as the e:<ample JUSt cited shows. Despite all the differences
described above, there is uevertheless:l distinctive Ryzantine factor which
contributed to the stylistic development.
The Christ in Majesty of Bern-la-Ville (photo, p. 411) differs considerably from the examples just mentioned. In C011lrast to the strict and rigid
409
41 0
OPI'()SITE PAGL
1It"-~-I.Vil1e. p"o.ychurch. Chnst In
Mal.-sty (top), .pand.eI ftgu.~ I"'mom
Idtl. many.dom of 1I1J$'us (dcull.
bottom nghr). Around 1120
plan found in Tahull, in Ikrl':la.vilie we are faced with soft, flowing lines
and a sublime u,;e of color.
Apart from adopting a different konographicallayout (which will be
dealt wiTh in more deTail in The apprOpriaTe chapTer), The artist who
worked in This Burgundian Cluniae daughter-church is also very likely!O
have workN from B)"lantine models. And )'et he must have interpreted
them very differently. He seems to have examined the Byzantine style with
regard to its finer structures, to ils fine modelmg of volume :und its variety
of design. This becomes pankularly apparent in Ihe way he sha~d the
gowns, The dense folds of which wind Themseh'es along Ihe various parts
of Ihe bodies like an clongalN and eleganl linear pattern, forming flal
areas around the ~lvis, the knees and the elbows. This treatment of the
gown is apparent not only in Ihe figure of Christ but also in ~he Apostles
arranged around The sides. The frescoes on Ihe side walls of The chancel
were therefore presumably painted b)' the s.1me master, even if the figures
apptar more rigid and clumsy (see, for instance, the figures in the
412
M"""
Sc"w~.ulltlndorf. So.
and
KIe ...." .. apoorof tilt uppt.ehun:h.
Chn" M~pc>fy. A.ound 1180
Ezekiel who mentl00l"$ a p,cture which aroused Ihe jealousy of God) in the
Wl"$tero chapel has a clear resembluocc to Ihe figurc of SI. Mallhew on the
Aogel Columo In Strasbourg Calhedral. Incidentally, the sculptures of the
Angel Column are often cned as perfect examples of Ihe monumcntal style
of MStaufeo Classic1sm. MWhat is evell more astonishing is Ihe similarity
betwcco the figu re dressed In hocn in the northern chapel, and Ihc Roman
stalUC of the emperor Augustl1s. Surely this must be interpreled as an
example of the political nalUre of mu,h of the:m of Schwarzrheindorf.
With these compa Tl$OIlS we have completed our outline of Ihe
figurat1ve style of MSt~ufell Classiclsm.- By now the Brzantme eleme11lS
had largely made way for a Classical Roman style, or had at least been
modIfied by 11. The drapery. wllh liS emphasis 00 volume and long,
flowiog mO"emcm, deri'l"$ from late Roman monumental sculpture.
r~ther than from the ascetIC figures fouod m Bruntine mosaICS. The
figural,,"e Slyle of -Slal1fen ClassiclsmM manifested llself dearly m the
fresc,," of Schw01rzrhemdorf.
In France, the new and elegant formal vocabulary of Ihe GOIhie style
had already nncq;cd by thesccond half of the twelfth ctnlUry. Compared with
that. Germany's modem -SllIufen MSt)'1e appeared rather stolid and conscrva t,,e. There were, mdced. hardly any stylistIC ~ibllil1cs and Slanmg
I"
413
A"'~p"ndlUm
SI.
1lt'~lpurg;,
Wrs,fjl,\(I\(, \..;r.no.ksmu .. um
414
Kulrurbt-sl'l
early stage this is evidence of the beginning of the dissolution of the early
Staufen form.
Of couTS(', thi s example could be dism issed as merely an isolated case,
occurring, as it did, at Ihe end of the twelfth centu ry. However. about
eighty j'eaTS bter another Westphalian master painted an altarpiece
(around 1250) probably intended for the Wiesenkirche in SoeSt. In this
rerable (photo, above ) the jagged shapes are actually used as the main
structoral framework for the figures of the Holy Trinity. John. and Mary.
The garments look as if they had been blown OUT and then fr01.en. as
though the unexpected onset of a strong gUSt of wind JUSt as suddenl)'
subsided. The pointed folds project from the bodies in a rigid and
unwieldy fashion. 111e shapes appear all the more bizarre as they are set in
a framework of evenly rounded arches. The result of this combination is a
heighten ing of artistic represe ntation and of dramatic expression.
415
4 16
and leave little room for variation owing to the fixed thwlogical
meanings. Both these trpes are discussed in more detail in th e chapter on
iconography (pp. 428 H. ). With regard 10 groups of people, the situation is
different. The design and compositional possibilities are far greater and
more variable than with a single figure.
Two basic types can be distinguished, the additive and the integrative
principle. In the additi"e principle, the figures are placed next to one
another without significant overlapping. In the integrallve principle, on
the other hand, the figures are arranged both side by side and behind one
::lIlother. The resultmg overlaps are I'ery conspicuous and are supposed to
suggest a feeling of spattal depth. But such group compositions often
appear like a flat piling-up of bodies without conveying any spatial
connection whatsoCl"er. Romanesque painting had not ret succeeded in
cr~ating a space for the figure as Giotto later did, transforming the spot
where a figure was positioned into an aCllve spac~.
Group composition as defined by isocephaly, that is the arrangement of
heads all at the $3m~ Ie\'el, is a specific characteristic of Ancient and
Byzantine art. The frescoes in SanfAngclo in Formis which date from
around 1080 represent a kind of stylist;c and iconographical point of
intersection between Byzantine tradition and the Christian teaching of
form that had just been newly formu lated al that time. The various
princtples of formal design and conslellations of motifs that found
expression in Sanr"Angeio in Formi. can at least make an important
contribution 10 the definition of Romancsque monumental pain ting. The
group compositions of the Last Judgement on the western wall of the
church (photos, p. 417, top) are painted "ery much in the BY7A1ntine
tradition and refer back mainly to the formal ideal of Classical antiquity.
Clergy and faithful are depicted standing side by side and the same size,
raising their hands in prayer. Behind them, in the second row, only heads
are to be seen. All that is visible of the fai thful and the saints in the rows
behind is their hair. The "ddi,i"e principle meant that here a large numl1cr
of people had 10 be accommodated with in a pictorial space of uniform
definition that was "meant" to function as space. Given the Apocalyptic
subject, this was fully intentional. The order and the Slatic equilibTlum of
the picture also fit into the framework of meaning that the subject
commands. The counterparts to the faithful, namely the damned, have
been conc~i"ed in a dynamic, diagonally ascending composilion. The
wrelched ar~ rendered in a greal vari~ty of movement as they are pushed
mercilessly into the mouth of Hell by blood-red devils. The benl and
falling bodies overlap each other, arc huddled together or drift apart. The
turmoil of Hell has been captured til a quite masterly way in this scene.
This se rves as proof that the integrative principle is also dependent on the
subjt-matter. The additive principle cannot therefor~ be se~n as
conservative. nor the integrative principle ~ regarded as a progressive
variation of Romanesque group composition, des pile the faCt that the
latter principle naturally achieves a far greater "three-dimensional- effect.
Static equilibrium and dynamism, surface design and the urge ro
achieve the illusion of space; these pairs of opposites define the different
stages of development of Romanesque painting and at the same time aptly
417
df"SCri~
418
such a degree that the whole spandrel seems to undergo a sudden transformation into an illusionistic spheneal triallgle. The illgenuity of the compositl<'" is further heightened by the fact that the scene is divided imo smaller
sub-groups, each of which is involved in one action. The IOnnemors, for
example, are depicted in a staggered arrangemellt, onc ~hind the other in
an almost fan-like conception; equipped with spears alld swords, Iheir
right hallds arc shown hitlillg alld stabbing at the bodies of the damlled.
The group of the IOrmemors is fac ..d by an equivalent but smaller group
opposite, while ~low them there is a loose colle<:tion of the recumbent or
falling bodies of the helpless and dying, still re<:eiving mOrlal blows.
Within the context of the development of Romanesque painting, two
lelels must be distinguished within both principles of compositioll. On the
one hand, botb the additive and the integrative principle are restricted by
th .. appropnale sub;'"'t matter avaibble. On the other hand, it appears birl)'
clear thaI the lalter type docs represent an element of progress away from the
Strict and diagrammatic R)"l.3mine system. There is no doubt thatl.",en in the
Carolingian era artists have always endeavored to find a way of creating
the illusion of spatial depth on a flat pictorial space. A "ery good example
of this desire is St, Stephen's Chapel in St. Germain in Auxerre {photo, p.
408 ). The integrati"e principle is also illustrated by the group compositions of the legend of Clement as depicted in the lower church of San Clememe
in Rome, well known for ils use of R)"l.3nrine expressiv.. form {photo. p. 398).
This applies above all ro the group on the right next to thl." saint in front of
the altar, from which bent figures emerge and break up tM unit), of the group.
This group therefore SIl~estS a greater degree of spatial depth than the painted architectural elemen ts behind it, which look lik .. mere wall de<:orallon.
Now we come to {he unique composition of Mary enthroncd in the
vaulted ceiling of rhe apse of St. Maria zur Hohe in Sotst {known as the
Hohnekirehe, mid thirteenth century). Indebted more to the Staufen style
in its formal conception, the majesty definitely used the additive principle.
Mary's throne i. surrounded by St. John the Baptist and SI. John the
Evangelist, who both ha"e smaller ~secondar)' 3ngels~ assigned to them,
and by sixteen angels arranged in an arc formation {photo, p. 432 ). The
di>'ision of the angelic gathering into groups of rwo or three is determined
br tM vault segments. A comparabll." composition can be foulld in the western
chancd of the former collegiate church of Lambach {shortly before 1089).
Instead of angels, WI." find magicians kneeling in adoration before the
Mother of God seated on her Ihrol1e in the vault of the cemral bay.
Perhaps the group depicted ar SotSt should not even ~ regarded as a
homogeneous group, sincc the spherical shape of Ihe vault makes the
linedup angels appear like a decorative pailI'm. Whtchevl."r way one looks
al this ceiling painting - hi." it as a group composition or as a ~figurative
ornamental paflern~ - one thing has become clear: group composition in
Romanesque paulling is dl."termined primarily by Ihe subject-matter. In other
words. the formal structure i. always used to convey the iconographical
structure. The angels surrounding the thronl." of ~bry in such a novel
fashion repres.-nl, therefore, an unusual variation of Mary Enthroned.
YCt another composition of ev.. n greater iconographical ingenuity was
created by the Master of Rem;-la-Ville (photo, p. 411, top ). The arm of the
lord is seen to projen on the right-hand side beyond the shining boundary
of his sphaira or mandorla in order to hand to St. pe{~r the scroll
containing the Stalutes.
51. Peter is accompanied by five other Apostles and, like Ihcm, lowers
his head in humility. The Apostles are set'n crowding n... xl 10 and behind
one another, lined up in typical Ryzanline addili, ... style within the
spherical spandrd that extends be,ween ,he curve of the mandoda and the
outer edge of the apse. Artistically speaking, this is a ,cry deve. composition, ba:au.se the area showing the mandorla dominates the apse and
.separates off the spheres of the A(lQstles, at least as far as the viewpoint of
the observer is concerned: Oil approaching the chancel along the cel1tral
axis of the nave, all thai is visible is the Christ in Majesty, the godly
cosmos. Almost excluded, in terms of perspective anyway, by Ih,! spherical
arChitecture of the apse, the figures of the Apostles are diSl<)ned into
irregular linework and blocks of color. But if one takes up :) position
underneath and to the side of the apsis calotle, Ihe Aposlles can be seen in
their proper proportiol1s, whilst the mandorla now ~ms 10 contract, thc
cosmos of God is omnipresent even if it is invisiblc from our human world.
The combination of Majesry depictions and group compositions takes
on different fonns. The examples of $oeSt and Bene-la-Ville undoubtedly
constitute special cases. A typical and widely used system is the Byzantine
419
unknown. $. Marlc
Book illumination
Spiral ornament and interlace. The Hi bcrno-Saxon influence
11 has already been pointed ou! that the influence of Hibcrno-Saxon and
Anglo-Saxon book illumination on the co ntinellt was ullusually StrOllS
even before the Carolingian period. When the Irish monks traveled to the
countries both Ilorth and south of the Alps, they brought with them the
learned writings which now found their way into the newly founded
monasteries. T here, the teachings were examined and the traditional
concepts adapted. In this way, a cultural foulldation was established upon
which the newly founded court schools could develop .Ild flourish
towards the end of the eighth and throughout the ninth centur),.
In terms of atl istic development, three aspects of st)'le were of
impc:ltIance: firstly, the spi ral-shaped and uniform ornamemal designs
swirling over alld covering the surface like a carpetlhence the term ~carpet
page~); secondly, the i11lricately designed initial; and thirdly, the framing
of the figure by means of extremely skilfully arranged architectural
elements.
Early indications of the important features characterizing Irish book
production can be seen in the ornamental page of the ~Book of Durrow"
pictured on page 40 I (left; seventh century) and the St. Mark folio from a
later Irish manuscript (photo, p. 420 left). In the second example, The
dense spiral pallerns from lona (Book of Durrow) become ~disentangJed"
and reorganize Ihemselves into the figure of the Evangelist. The
Evangelists' symbols placed in the corners of the page are hardly
distinguishable from the dense vine scroll decoration in the other parts of
the side margin. Another folio allows liS to follow the metamorphosis
from ornamental framing to architectural pictorial element as it almOSI
unfolds before our I"ery eyes: this is the Arrest of Christ in the ~Book of
420
N.,.
KelJs~
daTIng from around the year 800 (photo, nght). The S<..""ene takes
bene:uh an orna~ntal ;u th conSlTUCled of abstraCt decoram'e
paltern~ th:u assu~ an archuCClura l shape.
Such orna~ntal arth,tectural ele~nts were employed as dichk, as II
wer~, for th~ p,clonal construction of Carolingian Iliumina'ions. For ,he
frammg of Ihe blessmg ChnSI of Ih~ God~so:ak Evang~hsrary produc~d in
Charlemagne's Pala~ School In Aachen (78 1-83, photo, p. 420. right ) the
:mist rneru oock to the Irish mterlace motifs as found in th,e Book of
Kells. An altempl IS made 10 IISC archneclUral elements as means of
ornamenlalion, similar 10 the SI. Mark folio and Ihe folio showing tht
Arrest of Christ: the wall running along under the Christ ill MajeslY
symbolizes a piece of the Heavenly Jerusalem, and alternates in ils arlistic
eKprcssion belwecn con$truCled archnecfllre and decorativc ban.:!'
Durmg the cout$C of the ninth ccnt ury. a clear dislinction was made in
the mmlalUrts of the Carolmglan 5CnptOfla belwecn arch neclUI"31 pallern
and mtcrlace. The 5ubhm~ outlm~ drawmg found m Irish ornamental
archilectur~ was a\olded. Instead, a clear commitment was mAd~ 10 the
combmanon of ml{1al and ornalTl('nt. Long after the Carolmgian period.
soch works from Irebnd were exemplary and unsurpassc:d in their anisric
variery. They ",'ere appreciated m any monastery on lhe Conllnent, an
aspect thai is eUlly comprehended e\'cn today. One Irish co<te;" dating
from the elghl Cffi IUry COntalllS the mllial ~Chi~, a reference 10 Ihe first
words of Matthew, 18: MChnstus au tem generano SIC eral M(MNow the
binh of Jesus ChflSt was on thIS w;sc M). The 1Il1uais combine int~rla~,
spital-shaped patterns, and slyh1.ed anHnal monfs. From the IIlI<:raCtion of
lhese pIctorial elements, the Inll;al develops InlO the framework whKh
embraces the words quoted from the Evangehst. This inirial MCh,."
incidentally, occurs agall1 and ag':lIn and m ever varying form in a number
of OIh~r Hiberno-Saxon manuscripts and 111 miniatures from Carolingian
and evcn Otlonian SCflptOtla. It must be unlkrstood as a kind of
Msignamre M of Christ. This II1tllllate combination of animal motif,
interlace and spltalshape. Ihe artlfkal loops and knots, soon ,)11 formed
part of the standard rCp<'rtoltc of all EurOp<'an book production. Growing
from an axial s~ mmctrical base, Ihe inlerlacing uncn branches OUi Imo
\'cgelatlv~ StruClllrl'S, capmrmg. as il were. the leiters. Ev~n in Otronian
manuscriplS there I~ still ev idcnce of the popular cXp<'rimenta,ion
combming kller and ornamenlal forms with thl' fram~work of thc
iliuminallon. In fact, there IS eVIdence of thIS keen aesthl'lic
experimentanon m vlriually every codcx. This appllcs not only 10 the
ariistic design of text iIIustraf10ns but also 10 the texiS themsc:hes. An Irish
form of pDCtry known as ~HlSpenca Famina Maoondons the meaning of a
""ord 111 favor of the effect produced by words. It is con~moo with the
effect of sound whKh IS created by means of lmaginam'e word-plJy and
which anempts to captivate the realkr or listener by its usc of truly
Iabyrimhme 5yma". One can IIldttd refer to thIS poetry as an ~imerlace of
words Mor a ~spltal of words. MIn thc same: "'-ay as the sc:arch for meaning
in the poetry of ~HI5p<'r;ca Famllla Mis pomtlc:ss and unproducriv~. the
spiral shapes and mtcrla~ m the book Illustrations must also be rc:garded
largely as a dccoralll'e pattern. It would be nccc:ssa.ry to cxaminl'
pla~
411
"",rr
422
hDvc been emphasi1.ed by Iheir coloration. arc III this WllIext a reference to
Ihe four Evangelists, who. incidcnf;llly, arc also included in the canon
table. The four columns furthermore refer to The fou, rivers of paradise
and the four corners of the world, Thus Ihe gOpcl book represcnls, m
pictures :lnd words, a lIIcans of 3CCesS to God's cOmos.
The combinanon of architWIl' and figure, and the diSl1nction
between pictori~1 architecture and architectural pictures, we~ matters of
prime Importance for the artIsts of Ihe Ortonian period, This, of coursc,
also throws some light on their ~peclal fondness for Carolingian mil1la'
lUres, Towards the end of Ihe lenth cenIU1)', the MCodex Wilt1kundeus~
was produced In Fulda. The foho shOWing the Evangehst Mallhc:-w (phoro
p. 425. nght) can be rc-garded as a varoal1on of the picture of the E"angchSI
painted In the Ada Gospcl Book of Aachen (photo, p. 407), executed
almOt 200 years preVIously. The columns and arches framing the pletull',
and the meanmgful construction (I-Iea"enly Jerusalem) rising up behind
423
the throne are so close to the Carolingian modellhal one can assume wilh
some certainly Ihat the artiSI in Fulda based his composition and design of
detail on such earlier codices.
This assumption is also natural bause a Carolingian writing so::hool
had been active in Fulda. The Olton ian illuminators and so::ribes were
therefore unlikely to be shorr of appropriate models.
The example just cited is an extreme one and must not be applied to the
development of Orronian book illumination in general. Apart from copies
and modifications of the Grolingian models, there were also artists that
explored novel and individual ways. Famous examples of this development are the manuscripts produced in Trier and in liS subsidiary
monastery in Echternach. Amongst the most magnificent and artistically
refined codices of the Olton ian period is the Gospel Book of Ono ][]
which w:as produced around the rear 1000. As mentioned before, there is
a dispute between Reichenau and Trier as to the place of its Heation. The
folio depicting the ~Washing of the Feet of I'etcr" must be mentioned here.
since its combination of figure and architecture is so surprising and the
result so astonishing that it deserves a closer look (photo, on the left).
What one notices first is ,hat the separaTion of pictorial architec,ure and
architectural picture has been largely abandoned. There are no architectural clementS framing the picture. And yet the green columns with the
archiua,e (which is developed into a ~palace city") form the boundary of
an area of gold leaf in front of which appear Christ, the arms of Peter, and
the secondary figure of a water-carrier. In conceiving such a constellation,
the artist might have intended TO create ~a picture wilhin the picture" in
ordcr TO show Christ clearly belonging to the sphe re of God. In such a
context, the columns may be understood as clements of pictorial architecture. Operating on the principle of reversed perspeclive, the building
sections, towering up over the area of gold, form themselves inlO a Mpalace
city,~ anOlher reference TO the Heavenly Jerusalem. The diagram shows
thai if a central axis is applied 10 Ihe picture, it divides the city and
intersects the head of Christ. If the lines of the outer sections are rxtended,
they run parallel into Ihe cenler of Ihe picture and also intrrsect al the head
of Christ. Whilst not opening up three-dimensional space, the systcm of
perspective applied here brings out the link between the works of Christ
on earth, and the promise of the Heavenl y Jerus,llem.
The use of pictorial architecture in OIher pages of this codex is sparing
but effective. Columns, arches and archilra,es are defined as architectural
componentS, and assume framing and symbolic functions al the same
time. The architectural elements are frequently employed as means of
articulation and combined with depictions of the city. The boundaries
between architectural picture and pictorial architecture bome blurred,
with the former transforming itself inTO the latter in order 10 mark Out the
godly sphere. Alternatively, pictorial architl'(;ture may turn into architl'(;Tural picture, when, for instance, figures are placed in front of columns. As
they overi3p, a dist::l.nce is cTealed between architecture and figure, in other
words, spatial depth.
The different treatment of piclOrial architecture and architectural
picture in terms of overall design and composition is a typical charac-
/l.b.ThtoI.LoI.IoI.1
425
426
,",,,.1,
,.bIe-
1"hc ;n;,;al
A d""nC'IIon " madt bnwt'C'n ,he body
or ou,h..." and ,he " fillong" or confrnU
of an ,n,,,al. Tlw: body or oUllonc oi a
Itlf" of"," ConSI,,, of IwO parallel gold
1m.. ,hal In"f5t and may uke ,h.
,h.p<' of variouS ornamental fo.mallonl.
Their .'" "filled" w.,h ,n .... o. dnall.
u.""l(y.n , .... ,h.1'4' of .. ..., ""rol! dc<:ou"on. n.. do$'lP' l'O'"b,l",rs .rr. how
c,'C', 100 ""atlhal II" .,"""lty Imf'O'S.ble'0 .. uhhsh fixrd co'egonH. n.. follow
ng ,h.t'C' ~umplts aT( c~n '0 convey
wont Klta of , ..... och vocabul.ry usN ,n
,h(,dtcor.. "", of lut Inlll.I.:
1. Gosp<'1 8001< from TflC"f: lUI 1",,,..1
"N" (phoco, lop, ng.hl l
n.. .",,,.1 " N" IS dt<;or.,rd wllh ,nlul.ott knotS boIh " '"h,n III maIn S'IOII'
and
fol",gt' "'rolls, sym.......""
along I...... ax,!.. JPfOIKI f.om
.... of, .... Im...
2. Goopel 8001< from Cologne: ,ex' "'111.1
"N~ (fi.gu.~. ",n'ff, nghl l
Th .. ,rulUl .ppurs ~ cn.::1otC'd. .1.......
u .quart, The d...gonal .... of ,he "N-
mol."".
II ~L II
II
7::.:.=
"'It """'tt
seq"""" choistn.
427
Iconograph y
Wall painting
The subject matter of sane<! Romanesque wall painting is determined by
iTS very location within a church building: the walls of the nave between
the arcades and the clerestory windows, as well as the church ceiling
(either barrel vault or flat wO<.>den ceiling) were often intended ro be
decorated with narrative cycles from boTh the Old and New Testament.
The LaSt Judgement with the mourh of Hell is sometimes depicted on
rhe interior western wall. The east is the direction aswciated with
ResurTCction and Redemption and therefore equates with the position of
the chancel in a church. T he apse wall in this section almost always
contains an image of Christ in Majesty, while the plinth area is filled with
angels or Apostles, or is dedicatcd ro particular saints.
The side walls of the chancel occasionally depict legends of the saints,
usually in connection with a specifically local context.
The pictorial subject matter of Romanesque art thuefore corresponds
fairly closely 10 the respective significance of the particular section of rhe
sacred bUilding it decorates. [tS iconography is therefore pre-determined.
And yet it was this very fact that ohen led to allcmpts at undermining the
general principl e by including a greater variety of motifs. The aim was to
break through the influence of Christology and balance the theme of the
doctrine of salvation by introducing more profane subject-malTer. II was
also a means of expressing the belief that a life devoted to God could
certainly be reconciled with a leSt for life. And it is even possible that there
was also a deliberate intention of overstepping the mark, as it were, by
employing little-used marginal areas of the church for small exaltanons
and drolleries, whkh found expression in grOtesque ornamentation and
figurations, or in the shape of monsters and fabulous creatures.
The profane subjects created in the Christological comext are among
the mOSt faSCinating examples of Romanesque paiming. Of course, they
were repeatedly denounced as blasphemous and damnable since it was
impossible to integrate them into the sacTCd context. In the year 1124, the
strict Bernard of Clairvaux was moved by a visit to the monastery of
Cluny to deliver th is now well-known, passionale speech against the
excessively luxurious nature of the building:
~ Moreover, in the clOISter, before the reading brelhren - what is the
purpose there of such a blasphemous monstrosity, such deformed shapeliness, and such shapely deformity? What is the purpose there of unclean
monkeys? Of wild lions? Of monstrous centaurs? Of hunters blowing their
horns? There you can see many bodies 3!1ached 10 one head, and many
heads attached to one body. Here you see a quadruped wilh the tail of a
serpent, and there a fish wirh the head of a quadruped. There you have <)
beast which has the front part of a horse and the hindquarte rs of a goat;
theTC an animal with horns at the front bUllhe shape of a horse at the back.
In short, every space is filled up with such a manifold variety of astonishing creatures that one prefers to read the blocks of marble rather than the
codices, and to spend the whole day in bewildering wonderment at such a
display rather than contempla te the law of God. God forbid! If there is no
shame about such foolishness, at least one should consider the expense! ~
428
Gudf. 105
Majesry and the Virgin Enthroned were assigned their proper place in the
most imponam pan If the church - the apse of the cast sanctuary.
C h ri~t in Majesty and the Virgin Enthroned
The dearest way of breaking down ,he iconographical constellations of
these two types of Majesty in monumental painting, is by means If examples
from book illumination. If we compa re the apse fresco in Sant'Angdo in
FQnnis (phOlo, p. 409) with a miniature from the gospel book commissiollOO
by Henry II around 1020 (thar is, aoout fifty years previously; photo, aoov.,
righr ), the similarity betwn them in term s of subjecr-martcr and lay-out
are immediately obvious, and mark rhem out as Majesry depiclions. There
is, however, o ne difference which at the time was quire revolurionary:
whiisl in typologica! and formal iconographic;alrerms we are confronted
wilh a Majesty, it is the image of Henry J( that sits en throned in the
mandorla mstead of Ch ri st Qr God the Farher. The dove of the HQl y Ghost
is seen hQvering above his head, and rhe three-quarter medallions al the
sides :and the rectangular spaces in the margin shQW the Virtues, alluded 10
by means of human gestures. A scene If judgement is seen taking place
beneath the image of the emperor. There can be no dQubt as to Ihe 1l1cs>age If
this miniaTUre: as he passes judgcmenr, ,he emperor ~Dei gratia, ~ Inspi re<!
by God (the dove), is represenred as a personification of ,he Virtues.
BefQre an anempt is made tQ clarify what appears '0 be an act If
5.1crilege, it is wQrth considering the motif If the circle. Here there is an
allusion to the earth, the globe, and thertfore 10 the worldly empire
granted by Ihe grace of God. T he figure of Ch rist as Ihe Ruler of the World
is fam il iar frQm other cQmpositiQns. Christ in Majesty is often depicted
within a ci rcular mandQrla ,ha, idenrifies itself as sphai ra of stars. This
motif can be traced back to Classical antiquity where it was used 10 depict
Zeus or Jupiter as ruler of fhe cosmo in the midst of the signs of the
zodiac. The transfer of meaning is obvious and compelling: the
interconn~tion of a claim 10 power derived from antiquity and divine
righ, allows for a dialogue between anciem and Christian motifs and
demonstrates a new self-assurance In ,he part If the medieval ruler. This
image of the MRuler If Ihe World~ appears in many variations: in the Liber
Floridus (Flanders, around 1\80), for cl<am ple, Ch rist is represented
between Ihe fQur elements (photo, p. 4291.
429
430
to thdr belief Ihat they could receive the imperial crown direcrly from
God. When depictoo in miniatures, they therefore used symbols that
would magnify them, such as the dove of the Holy Ghost, or the hand of
God. This amounted to a dedaral!on of the absolute power of the Godgiven Empire, and was achieved in a way that was almost offenSIve to
Rome, since the message was that it was nm the pope who dominated the
world, but the emperorch~n by God.
Whether before, during, or after the hll'estiture Contest, the tension
betwc.:n emperor and pope lastoo untIl well into the twelfth cenlury. II
express.ed ilself sporadically in the form of severe conflicts culminatmg in
the MStaufen confrontation," when Frederick II raise<! an army against the
pope. At the Council of Lyons in 1245, Frederick was banished by the
pope, declared a herNic, and deposed.
In the crypt vault of the cathedral of Auxerrc there is an extrcmely rare
but highly remarkable yariation of Ihe majesty image. Set at the point of
intersection of a cross, Christ is depicted on horseback, holding a SCeptre
in his right hand and raising his left hand in a gesture of blessing (photo,
left). The four marginal areas ollIside thc cross show angel medallions.
The paintings were probably panlled around the year ]]50. According to
the words of the Prophet ~ I abchi, MEece adven!! dominator dominus ... M
{Behold, Ihe ruler and Lord is comrng ... }, we might here indeoo be faced
with a majesty variation which follows, howeyer. along the lines of the
Cbssical rukr typology. The significance of the so-called ~Adve1Jlus
Imperator" could possibly be explained further by passages from the
Apocalypse which also justify the whtle horse: ~And I $31'.' heaven opened,
and behold a whne horse: and he that sat upon hun was called Faithful
and True, and in righteousness he doth judge and make war ... M. This then
establishes the link to the fragment of the Gospel of Lorsch, in which the
symbolism of the ruler was derived from the adoption of the majesty
image in its Classical context.
Apart from the example abol'e, the typology of the Majesty offers little
variety. This applies abol'c all to the range of motifs and to a lesser degree
to its formal design. Christ is surrounded by the fOUT Evangelrsts. angels
and saints. The universal claim of faith, the Ol'ercoming of evil, and
redemption linked to the entry into paradise, arc all different aspects of the
message of salvation.
The standard allribUies of the Majesty are the four Evangelists, often
representoo by the beasts of the Apocalypse: the angel for Mallhew, the
lion for Mark, the bull for Luke, and the cagle for John. Within the
Majesty, the winged beasts and the wingoo man or angel playa double
role: they inspire their ~partnersM to write down the Gospels, while at the
same time embodying the basic characteristics of their Lord. The man
refers 10 Ihe incarnation of Christ, and the lion to {he kingdom of the
Lord. The bull symbolizcs strength of faith, and the eagle soars skywards
as a symbol of the Ascension of Christ. The Evangelists are frequently
depicted gathere<l around the Thronc of the Lord in the order JUSt
mentionoo. Usually this subjcct-maller IS represented in Ihe chancel aps.e.
virtually above the altar, proclaiming its mcssage of $3lva{ion and
redemption from the liturgical center of the Hous.e of God.
431
0""""
SI. Chrf, .bbty church, Ch.1ptllt
Con'entuellt,ce,hng. Ch"'l In :-1'1<:SIY
an<l the Heavenly Jerusalem. Aroon<l
1080
~". Marl. zur Hoke, dom.,. TIl<- Virgm
Enth'<>n<d. A,.,..,nd l t20
visual terms by combining the woman of th(" Apocalypse witll< tile figllr
against tile dragon. It epitomizes tile message of salvation and tile c("rtam
knowledge tllat eternal life Illay ~ gained througll tile sacrifice of Christ.
In tllis Majesty, the ideas of redemption and paradise are expresu:d amidst
a scene of battle and sacrifice.
The image of Christ in MajC"5t) surrounded by the heavenly host
appears in yet anmher iconographical context in the ab~y church of St.
Chef in Dauphm':. east of Lyons (aro und 1080). The picture in the vault of
the Chapelle Conventuelle shows the Illandorla depicting Christ enthroned
on a bench covered with cushions and with his arms raised in blessing
{photo. p. 433). Above the crown on Christ's head the Holy" Lamb is
placed rather awkwardly upside down as it ~Iongs 10 another section of
the vault, namely the narrow, spherically sloping part. On turning around,
the viewer will thus find that the Lamb of God now represents rhe lOp of
the heavenly castle which rests on the lower rim of the vault. The Virgin
Mary and the host of angels are arranged to the side of the Hea"enly
Jerusalem and around the mandorla in such 3 way tllat the heavl~nly c3stle
with the Lamb of God, the majesty, and Mary are aligned along the central
axis. If this axis is continued as far as into the apse of the chapel, it leads to
a second Lamb of God and another majesty in the calott(" of Ihe apse. [t is
perfectly natuml and in no way unusual to find two majestty images
rdating to one and the saille iconographical context, and distributed over
various parts of the church.
There is no doubt that the vault at Sf. Chef is defined as the divine
cosmos. The arch of the mandorla contains bands of elouds shaped like a
curved sawtooth frieze, and can ~ interpreted as a cosmic reference.
Continuing these iconographical observations within our dialogue with
Ihe church building, one realizes Ihat the hea"enly vault rests on the earth
- in other words, the illusionistic presence of God is convered by means of
the pailllings on the walls. There we find the Evangelists, the Prophets and
432
Mary establish('s thIs link in h('r capacity as th(' Mother of God and h('r
ro](' as intercessor. The image of th(' Virgin Enthroned is therefore much
more strongly related 10 this world than that of Christ in Majesty. The
absence of a mandorla and the lower positioning of the Virgin at the
~cosmk margin~ of the ~Ordo Angelicus," that is the ('dge of the dome,
should therefore not h<' interpretl as denoting a lesser value in the
iconographical system compared 10 that of the Christ in Majesty.
T he sole purpose of this interpretation is to establish their place within
the sacred sphere of meanmg. A similar constellation was notl in St. Chef:
surroundl by angels, Mary is depictl standing at the edge of the dome
above the triumphal arch of the apse. This establishes a visual connection
with the altar h<'low her, placing her firmly in the liturgical context.
Another variat ion in the posi tioning of !I.-lary relative to Christ in
Majesty had been noted in Civate. There she was represented as the
woman of th(' Apocalypse, and therefore as a symbol of the conquest of
('VII, sacrifice, and rlcmption. In sacred terms, Mary and Christ/God the
Father were put on the same level. Expressed in a theological and
t<:desiastical context, Mary is given increasing SIgnificance in her function
as a fighter for the cause and intercessor by the SIde of Ch riSl and God the
Father. Her position within the divine cosmos as hea,enly queen is thus
complete: the uncrowned Christ places the crown on the head of his
mother, as depictl by Jacopo Torriti in his apse mosaic in Santa Maria
Maggiore, Rome, in 1295. Mary's coronation in h('aven can be regardl
as the synthesis or result of the mtellectual lmks betwe('n the images of
Christ in Majesty and the Virgin Enthroned.
Mention has already been made of the host of angels surrounding the
Mother of God, a cOnstantly rt<:urring motif in the depictions of the Virgin
Enthroned. T he compositions in Soest and also in St. Chef are pallicularly
impressive. The angels ar(' an allusion to the divine cosmos. It is, however,
unlikely thaI the choir of angels might represent the equiva]('111 of the
majesty mandorla. Mary is too firmly connt<:ud to this world to h<'
depictl within a mandorla when shown in majesty. In her role as the
physical Mother of God and as intercessor, she is a figure that the faithful
can directly relate TO. The angelic choir is more concrete and much
~closer~ 10 mankind than {he sphaira or mandorla, suffused with the light
that surrounds God the Father.
The combination of the Virgin Mary and th(' choir of angels constitutes
a cI('arly defined subject in the panel painting of the Italian 13th and 14th
centuries, where;t was stylized into a highly significant pictorial sysum. In
the work of Duccio, Cimabue and GiOIlO, this type was refured 10 as
~Maesta-. There are clear differences both m terms of motif and style
when compared to the Maestas of the Virgin examined here. At th e time,
the new majesty contributed greatly to the popularization of a new
generation of painters. Using th e majesty as a vehicle, Duccio and Giollo
developed the concept of the figure in space, and were therefore heralding
the arrival of modern painting.
434
IIpper church. The believct can thus estabhsh his own MaXIS of heaven or
rtdtmpuon. ~ Sianding before the Mgate of the Lord, ~ thai IS, in the wesl
beneath the nea"enly en;y, he can look up towards the cast - Ihrough the
Mgate of Ezeklel~, as II were_ He I1(lW finds hllnself lookmg up to lhe Image
of Christ In MalCSly in the apse of the upper church_ The image IS frame<!
by the oo:;tagon and the surroundmg representations of the Hea"enly
Jerus.alem /S<"C also diagram on p. 437 ),
The o:kplclion o f Ihe Henenly Jerusalem and Ihe prcstntauon of
archl{ccture featUring the bIMh or nnracles of Chmt arc popular themes of
Romanesque pamtmg. On Ihe one hand, they provide a means of
structuring both piclorial cycle an d narrative, whilst al Ihe same lillie
cont:linmg references [0 the heavenly Clty_ Secn m lIS biblical conleXl, on
the other hand, Ihe New Jerusa lem alludes 10 Ihe POSSlblllly of
redemption. 11 IS also possible Ihat Ihe theme of the clly was so popula r
ballse II ref1c.::led Ihe IIKreaSlllg urballlzallon taking place 10 the Iwelfth
centufy_ ~ foundmg of new Cities always " 'enl hand in hand wllh an
.ncrease III populallon and an upswmg 10 Ihe economy. Nalurally, II also
affecled (he pow~r structures bctwttn Ihe cily populalion and their
bishop. In Inc fonner Carohnglan reg.ons the lower ariSloo:;racy frequently
formed alliances wilh lhe city people agamSI the sovereignty of Ihe church
III order to lake away power from the bIshop. Such COnnlCIS were
encouraged by the wntroversies that raged on a hlgh(r levellx-tween the
chllrch and Ihe empire. For the king, the slluation was very u.scful, as il
enabled him to win alltes against Ihe clergy as well as 10 gain taxes from
the empire's economy. For Ihls reason there was also an ambivalent
clement 10 the depiction of Ihe clly wllhm the sacred place: accordlOg to
Augustine, Ihe hea\'enly cil) IS presente<! as the beller al{ernatl"e {O (he
wordl)' city. particularly as lhe lauer adopted an anticlerical altllude. On
Ihe other hand, the king or emperor liked Ihe Idea of being represenle<!
through an urban environment wl[hlll the sacred surroundmgs of the
church especially smce Ihe ruler oflen aCled as donor for the church.
Produce<! around the year 1220 m a Bohemian scriplorium, thc Codex
GigaS Contains two full'page miJ1iatures which, amidSI a weahh of allusions,
compare the Heavenly Jerusalem and the dcvil cowcring in I-Iell (phOIOS,
p. 437. bonom). As is well known, in ml'dl~val limes Ihe opposition of
Hea"en and Hell referred to the whole of the cosmic syst(m. Man was
lOeICtru:;l bly bound up wnhin that $ysttlll and had 10 prove hml~lf, by
Iookmg barh upwardS:l.nd downwards_ ~hn'$ contt3dlClol'}' POSItion wllhm
the universe IS the sublcct of {he Codex GigaS and lIS encyclopedICally
eXlended Bible. 1loc dcpicrion of the Clly as a to\\'Cnng, monStrous construclion i~ remlnISCeJ1{ of a medie\",,1 Manha[l;ln. Presumably a reference {O Ihe
pollllca l, social and religious d~velopment of Ihe cily in [h~ twelflh and
thlrlctnlh centuries, such an Image mUSI be seen as the anmheslS to l-lel1.
435
>0'"
436
n...
1 Ettbe1's YISIOn
2 The Hea"cnly Jeru .. km
J Octagonal optnlll8 In ,I.e Io""er church
4 Christ In Majes'y In ,I.e upptr church
437
438
8(1.011'
Sou,,,,,,,,
Around 1220
_
-_--- .-----.......
-------_
... --..----._-_._- ----------_..--_..- ....
..
=,j
.... --~
....
_1_-,,40
1 !i.., ...--~
-_.....
~
,a
'---
W<1!~m
440
"""'00900.
Panl, Bob!. N G'XC. 119,101. 41h
to be told m sccnes reflccling an equal usc of all fou r gospel stories. ThIS
means not only Ihat omiSSIons arc necessary, hUI also that combin:l.tlons of
Image and ICXt ha,e TO be created whIch arc mdcpendenl of lhe $lory told
by the E"angel,s' m question.
Th~ Ihlda Codex is marktd out by another peculiar iconograpillcal
featur~: the PassIon of Christ appeus only as a foomore in the scene of Ih~
Crueifi:.:ion, :and the e,.-ems after his dea th arc nOf Illusuattd at all. It IS
posslblc that the arllS. was followl1lg th~ Iyplcally Ollonian traditIon
whIch pbccd gr~at value on Ih~ representallon of Chnsts miracles. For
pohllcal reasons thc l1Iiracies cenal1ll y proVIded a more effcctl ve scenario
than the I'asslon of our Lord. The cholc~ of K~nes also suggrstS that it W;\S
Ihe artis"s inl~ntion to produce a complct~ illustration of Christ"s enure
hf~. The !,-ltrons whocommlssloncd the work were :abcne all conc~mcd that
Ihere should be an dfccti'~ presentatIOn of positIve Kenrs from Ihe Lifc of
Christ, Th,s v~w is further supporttd by Ihe layoUi of ,h~ codex, whIch 111
lerms of formal drsign :l.nd rypology follows the topoi of forms and Ih~mes
popular .0 Carohnglan and Byzantmc art, Scholars ha'c, for C1lamplc,
dlscovCred that the folio depictmg the ralSl1lg of the young man of Nal1l
c:an be naced baek 10 3 scene of identical desIgn .0 Ihc Carolingian Arnulf
CioorlUm from the Court School of Charles the Bald (a round 870),
Incidentally, the same Kene is eXe(:uted m a ,'cry SImIlar manner 111 th~
church of St. Georg, Obcrlell, on the Is)and of Rcichen au (around 1000).
Obviously, Ihe scenc is represented accordl1lg to a single iconographical
sia ndard, and IS proof of th~ clOS<' amsnc rebllonship bclween CarolingIan
:and Onoman book Illummallon. Such a standard can also be rcgardtd as
symplomalle of Ih~ MaesthetlC conmlerclal exploitallon of th~ Ch rlsuan
message of sa"ation, It is in tum a reml1lder of ,he Church's Slrong
IntefCSl m Ihe effccti" e operation of what IS now calltd public relations.
At Ihat tmle, CarolingIan and Ouoman codices were rcgardtd as
reliable sources of popular formal paflerns and monk vnam paru of
p,ctures showing. for instance, landKape forma llon" are qUIte cI~:l.tly
derovcd from cast Roman mim3turrs of Ih~ laiC classical and ~3rly
Chrl$fla n period. The smooth walls of earth wnh their little furrows, and
the hills rising up lik~ dough, arc tYPIcal featu res of the Bp.antlne
landscape, Both can be secn in Ihe AnnuIIC13110n scene of ,he Hltda Codex
(photo, p. 443, right). Standing m pallenl humllllY, ~hry is approached by
an angel whOS<' foot and wmg prolCCI beyond th~ Idt border of the picture.
On the wall of earth rising up abo,c Ihe angel we sec :I. city, probably a
reference to the ea nhl y realm of Ihe chosen one. ThIs styhzauon is dcnvtd
from th~ plClonal Id,om of th~ Byzant1ll~ penod. A simila r landscape
formallon pro,ides the scllmg for the depICtIon of -Hannah's Prayer(photo, left ), found .0:1. Greek ps.alter dallng from :l.round 900,
The an lSIlC outpLl! of th~ Olloman scnpt orla was :limed at a IImltcd
aud,encc, Th~ abov~ ~xamples show how popular motifs and design
clem~l1fs wer~ used to ensu rc that the s,1Cfcd message contained 111 Ihe
i mag~$ was expr~ssed in an unambiguous manner. Because Byzantine style
and form were the arstheticall y accepted sta ndard, the links 10 Byzantllle
art made a dccim'c conmbution to th~ I ncr~as mg popularity of contemp
ora ry scrlploria and the codices they productd.
W
442
rule. If the issue of religious intolerance is in any way relevant, then it is the
alttitude of the Christians towards the enlightened Arabs that must be
examined. The Moors were, moreover, far superior to the Christians in
terms of culture and scientific knowledge. It also seems unlikely that the
much-ci[Cd phenomenon of Mapocalyptic fear Mof the imminent turn of the
mIllennium could have been a seriou s source of inspiration for such
subject-matter.
The isolated position of northern Spain at the lime was also .eAceted in
the extreme paucity of contacts to the humanistically inspi,ed courts of the
Carolingian rulers or to the scriptoria of the Ononians. The Sp<lnish
therefore concentrated on the limited amount of scholarly knowledge that
had been achieved in their own co untry. This manifested itself mainly in
the form of the Etymologiae by Isidore of $cville wrinen around the year
443
44.
a p;lddmg, son~hing to fill a void III the pictorial Sp;lce: and ensure :I.
balanced composillon. The Beallls Commenlary was widely read and
must presumably ha\e been known to both scribe: and anist alike.
NeYenheless, there appears 10 be: a lack of mterest m translatmg the
admIttedly romplocated situallon dcscnbc:d III the: text mto iconographical
form. Fu from bemg II1SPlrcd by a mere na,,e pleasure in narration, the
Sp;lntsh anlsts and scholars who worked on the Apocalypse manuscnpt
also anned at communiC:lung a paTlicular theologiC:l1 perspecllve by
means of the picture.
These manu~ripts relating to Ihe commentary on the Apocalypse arc
often referred to as MMourabic, Ma terril denotl11g the Moorish IIlfluence
quite obvious in Ihis illustration. Although, as IS well known, the Chmllan
Sp;lntards concerned themselves very Imle w1\h the culture of the Moors,
styhsl1c II1fluences did nevenhdess secI' through. The influence: of
Moonsh models C:ln be scm in the pages full of rich color and contraSt,
and 111 the Nsie colors of a golden yellow. a deep and glowmg red, and an
canhy dark brown. Some ooalls such as the $addles of the horses, some
bUlldmg fornlallOfls, and some robes arc also borrowed from the cultural
mIlieu of the neighbormg Moors.
The ArabiC saddles and gowns an: verr obVIOUS in a picture of the four
riders of the Apocalypse from an early manuscript (around 980, figure, p.
445, left). The rich bands of color were laId down by the artist with gre~t
skill in order to mdicale the spatial depth of the riders arranged behind
and above one another. Ju st like hiS colleague from Burgo de Osma did
later, he remamoo entirely fallhful to the text of the Apocalypse (6, 2-8)
and even followed the mSiructlons given on color. The fourth rider (below
right ), Mand hIS name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed WIth
hlm,~ is shown 5111mg on a "p;lle horsc:~ Cl<actly as described m
Revelation. The first rider is described as slllIng on a wh,te horse, and M...
had a bow; and a crown was given untO hIm ...... Filled neatly mto the
comer of the picture at the top Iell, an angel WIth blood-red feathers peeps
out and "crowns~ the rider. The InclUSIon of such n:ahstic delail adds
viv idness and drama to the story of the four riders who come warmg out
through the first four broken seals of the book with seven seals, III ordcr to
destroy the world. It is quite possible that such a colorful and vivid style of
narrallon was actually encouraged by the -learned Ignorance" of the
amsts and their isolation from the cultural ce:nters of Europe.
Finally, Moonsh influences can also be detected m the: panned
architectural clements and in the design of fauna and flora. Some
Apocalypse manuscnpl$ Include Moonsh ornamentation as well as
stylized ornamental birds and plants. There are also a larger number of
churches built in typically Moonsh style that can be recogniud by the
restricted semicircular arches.
Bolh the: anists and the scribes workl11g in the Spanish scriptoria were
probably far more interested in Arab culture than their Christian religion
allowed. The rich variety of form and the iconographical quality of the
folios make the Spanish manuscripts appear superior to comparable works
produced in Ouonian scriptoria.
four
hor~mm
PAGf. 6U47
,~
445
..-""T
os '-11' 1: ~
1, '-1 m
1-' '''
, 1 0 'l11 llo ~T
1. U(,,().
.h~
2554.fol.l.
BOlTOM
8~.
448
o.,....
"
All astronomical-compmisl collecl1ve work produced ill Cologne in
805 conr:!.Ins ~ighl diagrams alld lexls relat ing to Ihe writ ings of Isidore of
Seville .Ild Ih~ of the Venerable Bcde {photo, p. 448, bottom}. The laner
IS conccme<! wuh the cakulatioll of the phases of Ihe moon and Ihe four
scaS<)Il$ alld also comains speculations aboul the COJlstruction of the world
which is held together by the four clements.
This speculative imerprelalion of the world as all evellt rela ting IQ the
doctrine of salvation and the attempt to repr~nt il in the form of
allegories or diagrams, undcrwcm a decisive change ill the treatmem of
Isidore of Sevilla'S Etymolograe. Compiled around the year 600 or soon
after, and produced at the suggestion of one of Isidore's friends, the Bishop
Ilraulio of Zaragoza, the ~mOSt impo.>rtanl handbook of the Middle Ages,
COlltained the whole wealth of contemporary Lmowledge in collected and
classified form. For the Spanish scholar Isidore it also provided an
opportu nity to g;lin access to Ihe knowledge of Classical antiquity ill tM.
midst of the busy cultural scelle of the Moors. Bralliio ediled Ihe work alld
published il ,n twenty volumes.
This "ery e"tcnsil'e work was written and illustrated by monks in a
scriploTlum In !'rUfening between 1160 and 1165. Of the original twenty
volumes only the first nine hal'e surviled. Another ~Isidore m,,"uscrip'w
(Bcncdiktinerstifl Gortweig, around 1180} coma ins a ske"h showing the
Spanish universal scholar, balancing a sphai ra model on his raised hand
(figure, above). In the lOp circle Ihere appears a small cross, repreknring
Terra, wilh the world revolving around il. According to medievallhought,
the planets, including the moon (LUII'I} and the sun (Sol}. revol"ed around
th .... earth. The divine cosmology of the firmament and irs planetary
movcmenl$ found concenrraled expression in the simple sha]J'CS of Ihe
circle and the sphere. Man felt himself 10 be pan of this system since he
W3S able 10 observe fhe nlO,'cmems in the sky. He therefore regarded
himself as an integral part of ,he SYSlem, of the plall of creatioll, and
therefore as a creature of God.
The corrapondence between man and the universe has its origins in
I')thagoras. It is thanks to Isidore of Seville Ihal this idea alw became
known 11\ Ihe high Middle Ages. The in terplay of world and man, of
macrocosm and microcosm, is illusnated III the system of Ihe so-called
~macrocosm man (photo, right). The model is based on the following
idea: Mall who carries God's creation wilhin him must be identifiable as a
kind of reflection of the world. Growing out of the tree of life, he receivcs
his physical form from God, or one could say he rcceiva his elementary
existence \'ia hands, shoulders and legs from th .... four elements, fire, air,
water and earth. These correspond to the four temperaments of man ,
namely the choleric, rhe sanguine, the phlegmatic, and Ihe melancholic
tenlperalnents. His head is su rrounded by the heavenly sphere in which the
planets rc\"Olve and relate 10 his senses: Luna and Sol originale from his
eyes, Jupiter and Mercury from his cars, Mars and Venus from his nose,
and Sarurn from his moulh. Tracmg the senses back to the characteristics
of the planets would be IQ go tOO far, although it is absolutely possible, as
the se,'en planetS do represent the seven ages of ma n. In th at capacity they
arc linked ro Ihe four elemenls as well as to the twelve signs of ,he Zodi ac.
449
ru.
WlTOM
The SlOrm on
r~
I.k. (3)
450
R~nIO'-ll
5c.~,
U'allp.a.ntlngaround 980.
7 TlI('lltah"soflht\l'omanolht,
lll00dy ImM:
S Th~ R''''''8 of J'''u,', cloughl" .nd
lhe ROllonS of Lazaru.
Thus the lellons of Chrisl and his disciples rake place m d,{ferem spots,
although allltlthe same geneml area, Accompanll:d by Ihe observer, Chrisl
proceeds 10 ~rform his Intmculous healtngs,
A scene on Inc !iOUlh wall shows Ihc l!calmg of thc Lc~r (photo, p.
450. nllddle), At Ihe righI-hand edge of Ihe pl"ure. Oil<' notices a slender
linle lOwer whICh might ~ibly be a bell tower or a lower In the town.
The same lower. aUJelt somewhal Shorlened. ap~ars on Ihe lefl-hand Side
of the picture wlIh the Sea of Galill't'. This is presumably a way of marking
chaplers as reg.1rds subln:t maner: Ihe ~slorm,~ the ~ 1I13 n bom hlmd,~
and the ~Ieper~ arc allusions 10 fauh, orlgmal stn, and the forgiveness of
sin, respecllvely, On the boot, ChTlSI causes hiS diSCiples 10 be ashamed
(~Why are )'e fearful. 0 yc of litde fallh~R). With the ~man that was born
hlmd~ Chmt makes a st:1Iement about the eoncept of ongm.al Sin by
exonerallng all blmd people from sm, SIIlCC they wtll ha'-e thetr Sight
reslored on the day of tnc judgelTlCflt, HowC\"er, he reminds the doubling
PharlSCCli of the" own sms. In rhe scene of rhe Je~r. a man whom rhe I3ws
of Inc IlnlC dn:brcd fatally ill and fOf'Ced 10 remam outsIde the city walls IS
healed by Chnstthrough the unerance of the words: ~Bc thou clean!~
Tht' IWO rowers divide the whole cycle 11110 Ihrt'( pariS. The first part
conSISI$ of Ihe IWO plCtur('S dealing wllh the ~caSllngout of Ihe demons~
and ~dropsy, ~ Thest' of course represent suffermg Itt both bod)' and soul.
The sc.-cond part IS (Oncerned wilh the Issue of o n glllal Sill, as described
abo'e. The thlTd pan rt'presc'nrs Ihe 5(;enC$ where Chnst IS raising various
people frot11the dead,
It now becomC$ apparent thai the p3tnted archnt.:lural elt'mcnts fulfill
an Imponalll functton wilhtn the narrat,,'e, They structure the: overall
5Cenano accordl1lg to aspeclS of Ihe salnllon SlOry. At the s.anlC Itrnt rhey
lT3n5(;cnd, as II were. tnc boundaries of tht' aC"lual church archlll'Cture
bringtng the scenes together as a homogmcous chapler 111 Ihe LIfe: of
ChriS!.
Archltt.:l ure also serves as an Imponant means of aniculation wllh
regard 10 the dclatled narrallve Structure, Chrm IS almost always shown
emer~lIIg from a baldachin-like construction, followed by his di SCIples,
The baldachm with Its turned-up curtalllS proVides a SUitably digl1lfied
framework for Christ and his followers. Then he: would moct Ollt: or
somel1mes several people who are poslltontd tn fronl of a cily backdrop.
In thiS way two places whIch are planned In a chronologICal sequence. art'
brought mlO a chronological relationshiP with each other, TIll: piclure
Illustratmg Iht' SIOry of Iht' ~man who was born bll1ld~ provides a
partKubrly good example: of thiS kmd of ~archnl'Cture of su.:cess,on. ~
The young man ap~ars to emerge from a bUlldlllg. allows Chnst 10 PUI
clay on his eyes. and follows his Instruct ions 10 go to 51103h in order to
wash hIS e)'es :l.nd ga", his SIght. Immed"lId y 10 the Tlghr of Ihis partial
scene. tht' 53mt' youlI~ man IS depicted a 1-C'C0nd tllne. Nor o nl y does he
seem to have turned around, but Ihe bOlldlllg, too. It is ncow pbced
perpendICular to Ihe adl oining bUilding and Ihus sepa .... tes tW() chronological periods. The same narrallve 5Cheme can bot obser",!d in Ihe
~nultnn3te fr~o (pholo, above), Here II 15 Ihe: artlSI's cOllcern to put two
5Cenes whICh are mJ)l:ed up wllh one :l.l1other, e,'en 111 Mallhew's gos~l,
11110 Ihe sanll: sphere of a",on: while Jesus IS calltd to Iht' supJl'OSt'dly dud
daugltler of jalTUs, a woman suffering from blood)' I<;.SUt' IS reachms OUI
R
fOf" hiS garrtlt'llI: ~And jesus turned uround and healed her, and
Immediately wt'm on 10 dedicale himself to the lillie daughter of rhe
worned j3trUS. Th,s -tum"'g maneuver. ~ represemed by a change of
figureli. IS slJged In a "ery dramatIC wa)'. wllh Ihe buildmg sectIons
emphasi1.lng the two spheres of aClion.
The calculated interplay of figure and archltccture ach,evt'd pc:rfn:llon
at Rdchenau and wa s ne,'eT eq ualled m Ouonian painting, Even book
t1luStr:lIlOI1S deal ing wilh comparablc sublt.:t matte:r exhibit nt'lther Ihe:
narTat ... e drama nor Ihe sophisticated Interplay ben"cen figure: and
arehltccture prt'S(nt to fht'S( fTCliCocs. 111'5. morco'er. is anOlher reaSOll
why It 15 hard to bdic:ve Ihat works such as Ihe Gos~1 Book of 0110 Ill,
for ex~mple, or the Egben Codex were produced on the Island of
ReIChenau: their narTar;"e conStrl1Cflon USC$ simultancous images,
narram'e: scq"ellCt'S set to umformly constructed spaCeli, ~nd falls far
behmd the mastt'ry of the Oben.ell frCKOe!i. Indeed, Iht're are only rwo
sources which could be clled as modcl~ for ~uch a narrall,'e style:: the
Carolingian wall paintings of SI. Johannes 111 l\'luslJir (phOIO, p. 407), and
the Rrlantme mosaics of Ravenna or Rome. Since at Miisl air, toO, the:
lIy1.anl llle "'([lIence is vcry obvious, one I11USt cOl1clude Ihat Ihe lIyzant ine
codiCes were the true aniSlic source of the p1clortal narrati ve. This will be
dl5(;usscd further 111 the followll11: pa!lt'$.
4"
i"
bchmd hIS own reclining image, and E..e mo ..es 10:.11 seml<ircle around Ihe
tree of knowledge. nus IS a typICally Byunllne system of narrallon. It
appeal'$ 10 thIS specific form prob;rbly for the first IIIne m the SO<alled
Vltnna GenesIS (pIlOtO p. 456, bollom), a Byunllnt manuscrIpt dnmg
from the- last third of the Sixth century.
With regard to the construction of the narUllve sequenc~, Byunllne
and Olloman style are very SimIlar. N,,enhclcss. an Individual ~wcstern~
slyle of narUllon developed whIch was IlluStraled, for example, m Ihe
Ollonlan frescoes on the island of Relchenau. At St. 5.1"111 SII11I13l1l1es wllh
Ollonlan frescoes and mimatures Me ohservable in lerms of the
comblll~l1on of architecture and figure. In [he cycle of Jost'ph whICh
utends along the malor pan of the southern arcade st rip , for eJ<ample, the
aerion of the figures is linked to the accomp;my1Og archllC(;lural clements
In a SImIlar fashIon 10 St. Georg 10 Obenell, The narrati"e begms wllh
Jacob who sends Joseph to "'SII hIS brOthers.. and ends wllh the triumph of
Joseph. Pans of the-; frescoes are so badly dal1klged Ihat Ihe accompanYIng
archllcnur.rl smp cannot alW;lYS be follo ....-ed. llIc story of Jowph and the
WIfe of 1'0l1phar is framed by lhe great vaulls and arches and the lillie
turreu of the archllectural sclllng. POllphar's WIfe IS sho ..... n makll1g
advances to Joseph and holdmg on to h,s garl1lenl as he is Irying 10 escape.
A h"l~ 'u .. h~. '0 .he lef., :tg:."n n:tnd".s ""n~a lh an arch, we $<!C her
handing Joseph's gown over to her husband and accusing the young man.
The narrall ..e SItuation is full of pIquancy: wllh her left hand, the woman
pomls to Joseph as he flees from her m the preceding scene, whdsl her
other hand pomlS to the gown already lymg on POllpharslap. Thus lhe-; he
1$ made dIrectly ~Islblc for the Viewer, bUI nOl. howel'er, for POllphar who
wllh h,s nghl hand points towards lhe pilson.
As III Olloman wall paml1ng, lhe role of archncnure herr 15 alw
desIgned 10 pl'e slruerure 10 the successIve Kmes - either by scparallng
connecrmg elements, such as j oseph ~nd Potlphar's wife, or by conncnmg
separa tmg elements, such as the woman who appears [WICe, and the
Joseph of the first scene:. Since the narrallve sequence does 001 follow the-;
read ing dIrection of Ihe cycle, the conllnuous succeSSIon of aCllon IS
broken up. The architectural features can therefore be regarded 3S mere
represtntative allnbutes of indI vidual e..ents,
The scene of "joseph mrcrprcllng the dreams of Pharaoh includes '"
magnirlCent example of city archlla:ture whICh is developed 11110 an exedra
$lml13r 10 the on~ already $<"Cn III C::Irohnglan minIatures (photos.. pp.
423-25). In front of the exedra, we !ice Pharaoh smmg on his Ihronc,
leJ.mng on hIS scepter and, head shghlly mchncd, hstmmg to Joseph'$
reporn. Rent forwards and full of lC'Verence, lhe laller stands outSide the
J.rchllcnural (raIRe. One of the guards lakes hold o( Josephs tied h3nd~
and points 10 the Phar:loh In a grand geslure. The followll1g scene,
~joseph'~ Advancement," lakes place III front of a similar cily scenario.
I!cre, Joseph cnlers Ihe scene from the left and lurns his back on [he other
Image of himsdf. which had jusl bn seen bendll1g over 3nd intcrpr~til1g
the I'haraoh's dreams.
As $Uted hcfor~, the narrall ve snuallon IS 3 complex one. The general
sequeo of the narration, the- ad ..ance from one pICture space to the neXI,
W
----~
n..:
,=
brothers
2 1 Josoph" sold by his brothtrs
22 Joseph and the wife of rotipha,
23 Poupha,'. wife accu ... Josoph
24 J~ph in pr,son
25 J~ph imerpretli the drtam, of
Pharaoh
26 P""rauh puts lhe: ring on JO$(:ph '$
fing..
27 The tnumph of Josoph
28-29 Thee,,,,,,ingof the Red Sea
30 The p,lI.r of fire
31 llt,.,pilt..rofcluud
32 God honds the Ttn Commandmen"
to Moses
453
oPI'QSm:PAGE
St. s..ym",uI'Canempt. f'MOOcyd.. In
,h aul, of .he mona~to'l' church
~R
No.Ih .. A.k
454
from
t0546. foL j b
o.....
lOp, on the left, Eve is shown standing IlextlO the trcc and reaching for the
apple. She !urns around and hands it to Adam. This figure turn, th is
suce<:ssion of scenes, is one of the standard themes of 8)7.antine picloriaJ
narrative. A particularly dear example of this can be found in the Jacob
cycle of the "Vienna Genesis.ft In a folio conlaini ng the scene of "Jacob
and the Angel, ~ the same angel figure is depicted back to back with
himself in order to bring Oll! mo~ clearly the drama of the fight in such a
brief sequence of scencs.
Th('" same narrative theme is also found in Ouonian book illumination
where it occurs in many variations. Only one example will be referred to
here, the Gospcl Book of Otto III. One folio depicts Christ lurning to his
disciples (figure, p. 457), and then turnillg round and kneelillg down to
pray at the Mount of Olives. The abrupt change in scene and time of the
act ion is marked by a small, delicate tree, In this miniature, simultaneity
and ch ronological succession are connected with one another in the mOSt
ing('"nious manner: Christ sel5 out on his way to the Mount of Olives. He is
followed by his disciples who take" rest by the mountain while Christ ~is
sweating blood and water.~ The artist wanted to capture the momem in
which Christ, JUSt before climbing the mounl"in, encourages I'eter to pray
so that he would not ~ led into temptation. Peter looks up at his lord
while the disciples arc already sleeping, an act iun that is supposed 10 lake
place later in time.
Inc bringing forward of chronological evems and drama"c sequences
brings out the mcss.1ge of the story, namc1y Christ's "dmon"ion and his
fear of death, a fear that remained unnot iced by his discipl es. This use of
limelap5e within the dramatic Slructur.: of " narrattve sequence is a
typical fealLlre of medieval pictorial narrative.
As we have secn, timelapse and figure change belong to the most
dominant narrative t<'chniques used in Ouonian book illumina tion.
Usually they are employed when it is rendered Ilecessary by the biblical
story, for example in the scene showing the storm on the Sea of Galilee.
Apart from the miniature in the Hitda Codex, there is probably no other
Book illumination
Simultaneous imagC$ in Carolingian alld Ollolliall milliatures
Reference has already beell made to the important role played by 11y7.antine
codices in the devdopment of the narrative style found ill Carolingian and
Ollonian book illuminalion. Without the iIlusrralions in !he "Vienna
Gellesis, ~ the !>Cents from Genesis in the Grandval Bible from lours
(around 840, figure. above) would not have beell possible. In th" cycle of
"Jaeob and Rachel, ~ the Ilarrati'e 5equene<: is strUClUred by means of
strips of carlh, groups of trees, and sections of buildings shown in
elevation. The differences are, of course, obvious: the dramatic and
impressionistic style that char:lcterizes the Byzan!ine modd, was
translated in the Tours manus.;ript inlO an incremental narr:ltive sequence
thanks to the clear layout of the pictorial Slructure. The strips are arranged
like lincs of text mak ing the "picture text~ more easil) legible. The U5e of
trees and figure changes as a means of structuring the individual ,;cenes is,
on the other hand, a typically Byzantian device. In the lhird strip from the
456
am 4453
I.UT
Gt,h""mat>t.
depiCtion of the Sea of Galilee which does not make usc: of these principles.
We have already looked M the picnlre in the church of St. Grorg in
Oberlell in which this subject is interpreted in a masterly sryle (figure, p.
450, cemer). [n the miniature from the Gospel f:I.ook of Ono (figure,
above), the S<lrlle scquence of events was designed accordingly: ChrlSl is
seen resting in the stern of the boat. Above him we sc:e Ihe billowing sari
hinting at the imminent storm. Now I'eler bends down to him to waken
him. Next to Peter, on his righl.hand side, we see Ihe awakened Christ as
he calms the pale, horne<! gods of Ihe wrnd.
It is the boat which enstlres stich a clear sinllJltancity: simullancuus
actions depicted visually can only be IX' made 10 appear consecutive by
repeatedly depicting individuals or groups of people. The ~SlOrrn on the
Sea of Galilec~ therefore constitutes a special casc. Simultaneous space
always requires the depiction of a hornogeneous landscape, which in rnost
casc:s is articulated by hills, trees, or architectural elements.
In addition to its function as a stage sclllllg, the combination of
landscape and architecture also plays a narrative rol<'. Not only can it
scparate two successive scencs in order 10 indicate different poinls in lime,
but il also stretchcs the narrative now emphasizing the sequence of
aCTions. This means that one scene can be divided in such a way Ihat the
progress of Ihe action is illustrated quite clearly as an event happening III
time. The Golden Gospel f:I.ook of Henry Ill, produced around the ycar
1045, contains a depiction of the ~Raising of the Daughter of Jairus from
the dcad~. Christ and his disciples approach the house of Jairus who is
SI<lnding uUlside the door. He points inside, allowing Chrisl [0 enlcr.
fol.14~v
Christ is already engaged in raising up the girl laid out on her deathbed,
her eyes already open. The ISO-degree figure change exC(:uted by Jairus is
marked by the door jamb. Christ keeps up the direction of both his walk
and his gaze, as if he were already contemplattng his n<'XI miracle. The
inSide and outSide. or, the before and after, become langible by means of
the figure tum, by Jairus's rotaTion in the cerner of the composition. Both
architccture and landscape are mere aids for the representation of periods
in time.
Any event is defined by a temporal situation and a related spatial
s,tuation_ In th is sense, the biblical alpha and omega must be understood
as the cumbi naliun of space and time: at the end of all days, when time has
lilerally run Out, Ihe space is folded up. This is indeed how thc last days of
Ihe world are reveale<!lo John in his famous vision on Pattl'os.
The marty varialions and possibilities of represerning biblical eventS.15
successive action might, indeed, IX' .seen as allusions to this space-lime
continuum of salvatiun. E.lch event within the space-tmlc conllnuum
brings man duser 10 the throne of God. Pcrhaps it should nOlix> rrgarded
as a mcre accidcrn that the lime factor within p'ctorial replTSCntauon
gained such significance JUSt around the turn of the millennmm.
457
,iN.
'0
,gh,
,h.
,h.
458
.bov.
",.",J
459
.It,.
d""'It""
460
Appendix
.....
0 6"
".
"'"
'.'"' .
" OJ
..,
_.-......
,, , ,
Duchy of Brittany
, """'
,
,
,
""
" ""'" " """'"
_.
County 01 An;ou
County 01 Tounoine
County 01 PoiIou
0ucI1y 01 ....",
AquItaioe
"""'.County 01 Toulouse
Ouctly 01 Borgoocty
CounIy 01 ChampafTOl
CounIyol~
County 0/ Artois
462
,.n
......
"""'
_."""
Ouctly 01
s.a.~
Duchy 0/ I'I>rner1IniII
"n" KlnIJdom
"'""
",., """"'''''''''
""
""'tria
"
01 BoIlemia
LandgraviaWo of Thuringia
0ucI1y 01 ~ Lorrar.e
Duchy 01 Upper LomW'oe
Ouctly of FnInc:onia
Duchy 01 Swabia
Duc:hy 01 &av.rIII
Duc:hy 01
,,,,,
_._._.-
""
" ......
"'" """"'"
"
,.""
""
Kingdom 01 ArIes
DI.dIy 01 PJOYenCe
Ouctly of T'-'Y
Romagne Mel P8otapoIis
Papal Stales
""
""
.,""
""
"
U
_.""'"
0u::fIy 01 ' * - 0
Duchy of Salerno
KIngdomol~
KIngdom of "''''"''''''
PmdpPIy 01 EdesN
PTtncipaliIy 01 Anlioct\
County 01 Tripoli
KIngdom of Cyprus
,
1
<
--.
.-
t;;j
,,
,,
,,
v-
463
li'
\~
r
<
"
<
hWl! I
<
.,
,
,
,
.!
"
rJ I.}!
t-j
in!' ~
I' ~!
II I
<II(
&>
+.
_'- ....F.- _..- .
.--'
_.
-
<:l
2
-.
-,.-.
_.
(?,
~.
"
,
"
2
I ,,,, . r~
465
Glossary
1"" of a c<>p,tlIl.
CORSlam cross-Kcnon.
mOflf 00 Rom;tnesq,",
~ .. p'Clk.
a monal.lory.
Iq.. ) or chQ"
Iq.v. j.
"""".
dupds.
<kct>ral1Or1 on a wall.
"""'~.
_.ron
ul'ldetground.
~lrar al'(:
weK
and chocr.
B.:u.lica.
ApR', a seml-c ....:ulu Or pol)1:onal
v.ulted
cburch.
Archivol.,
'.'Tie<! on
aD
d"'pds (q,v. ).
In .urn makes
II ",,"Ible: 10 da.c.he
..'00<1 used In bu.Id.118S pr'!lCIT.
tlbs.
S.OIIO, Of
Wdfph.ol~.
Gahltt.
466
Ih~
p>rtem, a oonnnuous
deplC1ed.
ot'tUmcnt
01
III
a.
balJ8d!." or ~I book,.
IIIurpcal book C.... ndwnllm In II",
III
0.
med~vallrchlteClUn.1 K"UIPfu~.
Radi~.in,
vaul! .
10
lhe lides of
0.
na,tuuy wnhon
normall,
III
III.
lnORI'Ituy,
oppmlle.he church.
of a Ulllt.
1M
number.
10 a
III
med...... 1
habnallon.
I'cdimc11I.
normally anaehed
bo.llld,,,,"
Lntne, 0.
supporn", drum
belo.....
a~n
or app.;arendy on columns.
10 a
h'f,he. wall or
(wOOlC'n, noblemen).
pllul~r
smp, a yerlical
R~.able,
altarp,ece, an a nlsllcally
decorated back
~""llhat
.,
alf~',
III
ReY~:aI.
wall.
II
t:;1potal.
friele5.
tinld. homonral
~lOnc 01'
tlmbe. a.
honzontally.
11<1".,
but no
abo~
1Offi<:nrne5
.he fa~ade.
467
468
,"""".
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~ur ANtc des 14. Jahrhunderrs.
Worms 1983
Borindd, K., Doe Anukc on PQOf{lk und
Kunud\e(}roe.2 voIs., Darmstad. 1965
Bornheom; Schilling, W. Bemalle und
gtnYltc urollnllKhc A:rurckrur, In:
DtuIK~ Kuru( und Omkmalpflctr:
J6 (1978). 7-20
BalV'", L. Doe Hunmidskon,gon dnApobIYl*" on dn- Kunst des
Mltf(lahcn. 1937
!konUJ. 0 .. RonumKhe
WandnulerC1. MunICh 1968
Dod,,cll. C. R.: Turner, D. H.
Rcoch.mau Ronsldc,~. 1965
Frodl, W. Austria. Medicval Wall
Paintings. New York 1964
GUts. j., M,"ct..he,hc:he Wandmak,cl
on de. pfalz und on Rhc.lnhesscn. In,
Goes. f. mlltn,heonlKhe
KJ:~hod!tc. 1981
Hamifdlfcvr, E... Doe Bamlxrgv
Apoblypw. s.:Ultpfl 198.
"T"bt: ~ Ap' of the: Anglo-Suon
An 966-IOU, uhlbnion ClItIJosuc.
BrJlJ.h Museum. london 1984
Hauck. K. Karohngosc:hc Taafpfalun
1m Splt&"l hofnahe:r DlChlung.
Gotnngen 1985
Hh J. K., Die fruhmonelaltcrliche
Wandm.lercl dC'll 8o<k~gebicts.
SogmulngC1l 1979
(1978).29-78
KObler. W.; Mulhcrid. f., OM:
urol.ngtschcn MmJaIUfC1l V.
Betltn 1982
Kuhml, E... Drachc:nponale. on,
ullschnft fu, Kunsno.~ssenKhaft vol.
<4 (1950). 1-18
Kuder, U. Oo:r TcpplCh von R.:oycux.
F,ankfurt 1994
Kllpfn. M lI.omanesquc. Wall
PAonnng In Ccmral F"once.
Tho: Pol""", of Narranvc.
New Haven 1993
LanflOKh. K. Poviile des la,nnlK,,",
Mlllcbhel"$. Dannsudt 1965
ManiA. K.. OM: ottonuchcn
WandffC$kcn dcr s.:. Gwrpkin::hc.
RelChcn:ouOhcrull. Sigmanngcn
1975
MayroHaning, H. OnonlK""
Suchrnalerci. Darmstadt 1991
Maul. 0 .. Suchkunst de. Romamk.
Gran! 1978
Miithcrich, E. S.ud,en ll1r
mllldahcrl~hen Kllnst. 800-1250.
Fntsch"ft fUr f. Mutbcrich.
MunICh 198.5
Mllrbadt, E., Zilhs, Zurich. freloo"
I. Sr. 1967
Nitschke. A.. Doc Wcgc <kr TOlen.
Ikobac:hluncm iWr inschcn
Ornamenl1k. on: Fnucrum M.
GoKbruc:h. MunICh 1984.49-60
I.csnct". A. (ed.l. Ornament<> F..ccbou.
Kunst und Kunstler dn- Romanok.
Exh,bition cataloguc Schnu.gcn
Museum. Cologne 1985
No,dcnhagcn. P. J.. St:lldJO"S in
8runton. and Early Medlcnl
Pamnng. London 1990
Index of
artists' names
An~lmo
da Campione JOI
Amolfodi Cambio lOS
Bari... n"$ of Trani J5S
Bemdel10 Antdami 280, 286. J02,
306; ill"$. 302, 305
Ikrnardu$ Gdduinu$ 258
Bo,manQ ofP, ... Ill, 355
Srunll. of Samt-G,lIes-du-Gard 284
Campm,
Ro~rt
30'
Leo of Momccasslno 405
L,uthar of RelChenau 404
Lochner, Stephan 325, 327; ,lIus. 325
CarnplOflrse 30 I
C,mabue 3113, 04
257,335
lI.hgmardo74
lI.hgistrl KAmdam," 302
Magistrl Keomaemi" 79
Maner Alpa,s ilius. 367
MaSTer of ,he Archangel Mi(:haei of
Sainr-Gilles..d,,Gard 284
Maste. Ikmhard 1M Elder of Sanllago
<k Composlela 289
Master Ikmhard of Sanllago <k
Composlda 289
Mane. Bourln"s of MO<kna 30 I
Mane. of Cabesuny 257, 280-281:
,lIus.28o-281
MaSle. of Ihe C"",,,.,nl levnd 396
Master of Dona Sancha 292; ill"s. 292
Master of SI. Donn,nus of Fi<knza 302
Maue. Mateo of Sanllago de
Compostda 208, 209. 299; ,lIuo.
298
Mane. Matulo of Pomposa 300; ,lIu.
306
Master of Uncasrillo (Ihe $CCond) 293;
illu . 294
Mellini family 308
Neumann . gnat MIChael 46
NlCColod, An~lo 308; dlus. 309
NlCo(a P,sano 305
Nicodemu.of Moscufo 310; ill". 311
Odens,us of Ikne~en,o 355; illus. 359
Odo of Men 32
Otto of A"gsb"rg 355
Pelrus Dumba 214
Ren,erofHuy 3SS
Roben ofJumieges 416
Robert ofSanllagode Compostcla 289
Robenus of Moscufo 310; ,1Ius. 311
Roge. of Helmershausen (Theophdus
Presby,er?) 325, 377, 379, 381;
,1I"s.369
Theoph,lus Presbyter, sec Roge. of
Helmarshausen
Torrili,Jacopo 434
Vusaleno family 308, 309; ,lIu . 309
Vassaleno, Ponro 308; ill" . 309
Vassaleno, fa'M' and son ill" . 30S
300
476
BO
Index of place
names
A~c""n
17,32,33,35,44,70,74,
216,233,382,383,384,385,391,
400,407,412,421,422,423; ilJus.
33,374,402,407,420,412,423,
425,427
Abinger 250; ,lIus. 250
ACUfO ,lIus. 351
Agnam 396
Aix-.,n-Proven 166, 169
Akos (Ads) 254
Akt-IesBains 165; ,lIus. 165
Akxandru 78
AlmennoSan Bartolomw illus. 29, 81
Alp;rsb~cb 57, 346, 460; ill .. s. 56,
346,350,460
Allon Towers ill .. s. 367
Ah'astra 253
AnagmJ08
AlICona 74
An<krnach 66
Angers 225
AngOtJIt'me 156,
156,266
Alluoch 422
Allly-le-Due 133, 141; iliu,. 31. 13]
AORa 186,396
Aquilel379
Ardmore 248
Areuo 74, 75, 102, 1 14, Illus. 98
Arbus 252
Aries 120, 166,283,284--286,301,
30S; ili ..s. 30, 286-&7
Aries-sur-Tech ]64,256,258; ,llus.
lS7
Ashburnham ilius. 40S
Ashby de la Zouch 250
Ashley 250; ,lIus. 250
A,,'~'103, 106, 107, 114, ,lIus.103
Ath~ns 406, 422
A.hlone250
Augsburg 355
Aulnay-de-:).),mogne 1S3, 271, 342,
,lIus. 270, 342
Autun 8, 84, lJ 1, lJ3, 274, 2n, 284,
321,330-331,345, illus. 27, 132,
274,275,325,332,333,3-45
Auxerre 120, 1n, 384. 408, 418. 430,
,lIus.ln,408,430
Aval.;," 133
A~ebury 320; illus. 320
Av,gnon illu$. 177
Avila 201, illus. 206, 2!J!J
Babel 453, illus. 453
&acharach 66
Bad Miinslere,fel n
Bad Wimpf~n n
Bambe-rg 40, 62, 325, 326, 404, 444;
iUu . 61, 318, 445
&arlona 180,387,388: ,lIus. 346,
348,353,388,4 10
&arfreSIOO 244; ,lIus. 245
Ball 106, 107, 108,310; illu . 106,
3 10,340
I:\:Isd 40, 60, 61, 62, 110,314, iIlus.
61.316
Sanle Abbey 16, 21!J, illus. 21!J
Sayeux 217, 248. 24!J, 250, 458, 45!J:
,lIus. 218, 458, 459
CatalaitaZQr 180
CaunesMlntrvo" 165
Cefalu 111, 111,396,412,419, ,lIu .
'"
Centula 36
Ceri.y-!a-ForeI140, ]44,ilIus. 143
Chapa,u 122, 123. 124:illu. 123
Charlieu 272-274, 342: illus. 272,
273,341
Chartres 286
Chatillonsut-Scme 121, 122
Chauvigny 153,336,343: ,lIus. 257,
Cheb255
ChepslOw 250
Chert..,y 240
Cherval illu . 29
Cht"S[~r 219, 235
ChlCh.-slC' 219, 233, 320, 321, illu$.
235,321
Cbristchurcb 238
c'leaux 68, 119, 134,207
CiVllle 396, 405, 43 1, 434, 444; ,lIu .
431,436
Civ,dalc 79, iltus. 79
Civray 153,267, illus. 267
Clairvaux 210, 2B
Clayton39 1
ClermontFerrand Ill, 149, ISO; illus.
'"
Clonicf1 248
CLuny 7, 8, 9, 12,46,53,56,68,84,
102, 118. 121. 122, 124, 126, 130,
131,133,134. 164,166,180,187,
]96,207,212, 2n, 274, 277, 386,
387,391,400,428; iIlus. 274
Cluny 11 56, 121, 122, 126, 130, 13 1,
133,139,164,228
Cluny 111 102, 1 ]9, 126, 129, 130,
131,133,139,142,166,225,233,
258, illus. 118,128,129
Coimbta 197, 198, 199, illus. 198.
'"
n.
44"
'"
477
DaZQvice 255
Diako'"~ 255
DijQn 81, 121,216; illus. 122
DiMn2S0
DiStntis 3S
DQh:!ny2SS
DQI2S0
DQnzio illus. 361
DQrct.e.lec 2 19, 222
DQ""'laFomai"" 174,250
Dresdtn 317
Druyn-les-Bdles-Footames 176; ,llus.
'"
Dryburgh 249
D...,iias 288
Dunfermline 248; ,llus. 249
Dunwich 238
Durham 219, 235, 236, 238, 240, 248;
,llus. 27. 236-237
Durro388,400
Eberbach 68
Eboucum 225
.chillais 154
Echtemach 400, 404. 424
!:ger 254
Einsitddn 56
Eke 397; illus. 397
1'.1"" 10, 16'1;illus.10,278
Ely 219, 228, 238, 24 1, 244, 321;
,llus. 228, 229, 323
Embrun 164
Emmaus illus. 362
Empolt 102, lOs; ,nus. 95
Ephesus 78
Erron 325
uStn 44, 391; ,lIus. 26, 42
uslingen 12
Eszlerg<>m 254
~tampt'S 174
Eunate 210; illus. 210
Ev<"$ham230
~vora 197, 1",205
Ex"'er219,240
Externsteine 313; illus. 313
Frcamp 222. 238
Feldtbro2S4
Fenooux ,lIuI. 10
Ferrara 84, 302, 324, 326; illus. 302,
325
Fiden .... 302; ,llus. 303
Fieso'" 97
Finstrom 253
~lav'gny.ur-Oura'n 120; ,llus. 28
Florence 91, 94,95, 97, 102, lOS, 108,
114,280; illus. 91, n, 93. 117,304.
Fontdroide In;illus.ln
Fontenay 119, 134, 170, 112,244;
,llus. 27, 134,246
fomevrauh 154, 156, 157, 159, 177;
illus.157
Founta,ns 244
Founta,ns Abbey illus. 119,246
frankfurt am Ma,n 16.35,324,325;
illus.324
f=kenhorsl 34, 314; illus. 38
Freiberg 317; illus. 317
freiburg 62, 12, 317, 326; illus. 12,
317,326
Freising 339; illus. 337
Fr<'jus 166, 169
478
3<3
Fulda 35, 400, 423, 424; illul;. 36, 425
fumeS!5 248
c,....a 308
Galliano 396, 405
Gdnhau~n 70; ,llus. 70, 314
(1 ...,,'a 120
c",r illu$. 353
c",rasa 450; illus. 450, 451
c",rm'[tJIy-Pm 35, 128, 3M, 428;
ilIus.384
c",rnrode 37, 40, 43, 312-3 13; illw_
39.40,312
c",rona 388
Girono 183
G,sors 174
Glastonbury 244
Glendalough 248
Gloucester 219, 227, 230. 23 1. 232.
235; ,llus. 23 1
Gniano254
Goldbach 392
Gomorrah ilIus. 453
GosLar 70, 233. 314, 324, 391; ,llus.
71,315
Goth<:> 250, ,llus. 250
Gonwe'g449
Grafschaft 16
GraSS<" 166
Gra,"t'done ,1Ius. 23
Greal Malvern 230
Greal PaxtOn 217
Guebwiller61
GumlOsa25J
Gu.k393,415
Gyubfehirv~r 254
Haguenou61,n
Halberstad. 62, 63; illus. 62
Hamar 252
Hammarland 253
Ha.dham391
Hastingll08, 217, 218, 250, 459
Ht'darrd 2H
Ht'dingham 250
Heidelberg'llus.326
Heiligenkreuz 405
Hdmarshau~n 38 1; illus. 369
Hen Domen 250
Hereford 219, 216, 232; ,llus. 226,
227,233
Herfan 219
Hersfdd SO; illus. 50
Hildesheim 16, 17,40,42.4,1,44.48,
H. 63, 84, 312, 321. 391; ,Uus.20,
21.25,40,41. 315, 354, 357, 3n
Hirsau 50, 56, 57, 62, 63, 67 . 392;
illus.56
Hi.\chst35
Holub,ce 255
Houdan 174; illus. 174
Huriel174
HU$,lrby 253
Hyere 164
Jfney 244; illus. 245, 312
Igu'kel288
Ingelheim 70, 384
Inver fO,"I2S0
lssoire 149, 198;illu$. ISO
J~ca
373,3n
l.incoln 219, 222, 235, 243, 250; ,lIus.
221
."
Lsblerg illu$. 366
Lisbon 197,198, 199; ,Ilus. 199
Lleida (Urida) 212, 214. 215; illu .
'"
Nonr.3'n
Noyon I ....
NuremberJ 326
Nylbla 253
Nykfr 252
Nylarsker 252
OIxrt.hnSle,n 72
Obmui72
Old Saturn 222, 223. 240; ,lIus. 222
OIoron ,lIus. 325
0101: ,lIu,.348
0lskfr252
Opa.6w255
OraOW 283
Owa 103.306; ,1Ius. 307
Orclnl 14':1; ,UUl. ]49,352
Or5fansJ5. 136.384
OrvlC1o 114
Oska 254
Osl3yany 255
Oslo 252
0s$q8255
Osfabn 146
Osr<:.larskfr 252; IItUS. 252
Onmars/>e'm ...... 216; illus. 43
o"Jedo I n"lIus. 179
Oxford 241. 244
Padrrborn 44, 313, 325; Illus. 45. 324
Padron (In ~1a""II46
Pa~rmo 108. 110, III, 112. 114, 205,
38S. 396, 406, 412; IUUI. 110, 3~,
'"
8S
Pa~nM:
Pobkt 212
POI"en 146, 153, 156, 159,205.266,
261.408; ,lIus. 23, 159,267,269
Po1tro...,405
Pompota 78, 79, 81, 82. 85. 95, 114,
300; ,UUl. 78, 300
Ponngny201
Portchem'. 250; IJIUS. 251
Porto 198
Porto Torrn ,lIus. 99
Poman254; dlus. 254
Pra81>e 255. 405; ,UUI. 255
PrII079,94, 102, 114; illus. 95
Provlns 174;,lIuI.175
Prufffl'", 393. 449
"""nlede la Rtma 146, 188;,lIul. 188
Pur" 438; IIIUI. 438
Puyperoux 266
Quu"Rle 164
Quedlmburs 62, Illus. 62. 315
Ramsbury 222
Rarosne IUU'. 351
Ramborl,lIus. 67
Ravenna 17,33, 74. 75, 79,32.102.
114, lOO, 3~, 406, 451; iIIus. 7$,
72,316.324.
392,400,404; ,1Ius. 72, 317, 429
Reidlenau 34. 392, 393, 404. 424,
...
Rl\Chenau Mlllel~dl
44
R'np.e.:I252
Roou1l267; ,l1us 268
R,p255
Rlpoll 180, 181. 183.214.293; ,lIul.
180,295
R,vol,a d'Adda 342; IlIu$. 24, 339
Roche 144, 248
Rochtsfe. 219, 223. 224. 228, 240.
250: IIIUI. 222, 223
Rome 17,34, 3S, 74. 75, 79, 82, 108,
114, 1l0, 140, 146, 18 1,220,308,
334,382,384,396,400,405,406,
409, 41l, 411, 418, 422, 434. 451;
,lIus. 89. 90, 91. 114.lO8.lO~, 351.
398,412,43~
Roma253
m
S;IlRlDrnl' 17, Ill, 144,220,227,
400.460; illu$. 460
Sa1ll1Dona.164
s..llll--G~bllellllu . 167
S,"nlGm.. -defonlaUitl 165,257,
258; .lIul. 258
Sa1ll1Gllles-du--G;ord 146, 166, 188,
283-284,286,300.301.324; ,lIul.
282-285
Salnl.(;uilhem.... D.:sert 146, I~:
,1I,,1. 162, 164
Sa'n'Hlt.i...IAudr 281; mu . 281
Sa1ll1Juhen-dt.}QlUy 274; ill" 272
Sa1ll'Ju,d,r.Vakabrmillus.160
5.o,nlMartln-deBoschtrvdle 144
S:oln.Mar"n-defCnouilla.d 387
Saln,Marnndtlondrts 166: illu$. 25
S:o,n,Marlln-d,,Cantgou 121. 164;
.lIu 162, 163
Sa1ll1M~"rlCe-dApune 121
SalmMocheldr-Cuxa I~. 180, 186,
278;,1Ius.182
Sa1ll1Mochd-d'En''''rgucs Illus. 20
Sa,nlNraa,.., 149, 150; diu . 151
Sa'n'.PIlllben-de.(;"'ndl ..... IlI,145
Sa1ll1P't.ncard 387: dlus. 386
Sa,n,Qu.mlln..oe.Rancannes 342
S:o,n,Rfmy-deProvtrlof;l: 284
SarnlSavtn.urGanempe 153. 164.
386,387,452,453: illus. 152.
453-455
SalnlSe.'c. 24; m"s. 2 4, 446-447
Sa.mes 146.271; ilIus. 17,271
Salanuoca 199,200,201, 202, 205,
214.215: ,lIus. 29. 201. 205
SalemCl IlIul. 362
SalISbury 219,222
Sallb"... 384, 3')3, 397. 448
S:on CaKiano Val d. Pesa 280; ,1Ius.
28.
m
Sedl 255
Stgovia 209, 210: ill"$. 210. 2 11
Selby 240
Sell.'Stal61
Se1tgrnsudf 3S, 36; IlIus.3S
SeIJq219,233
Smtu,.".,8rionna's 10,274: ,1I"l. 10,
30,272
SENnque 170, 172;.Uus.l70
Sentis 144
Sen,248
Senabone 165, 184. 278; ,\Ius. 183,
278,279
$eo dUrgeli 388
SIIe.bo.ne 216. 2 19. 222
Sqb"rg 16; IlIu5.360
Sigena 388
S'glun~ 253
S,]~h451
,HUI.. 36
SfOckbolm 39', ,llUll. J66
Slow 217
Sln.sbou'140, SO, 61, 62, 324, 413,
,Hus. 324
Srrulno255
S... b'aoo 301
S... kJ6w2SS
S... I~b"''144, ,II ..... 31
Suktsfehlrvar 254
Szcksdrd 2S4
Sum8ouh',d 254
Talmon.,II ... ,.I55
Taralron 167
Ta,broJ87
T.rngona 212, 214, 21S: ,litIS. 214
Tan~II250
2J2
Thnfotd21~,2JI
48.
Vckhrad 25S
Vtnuque 169; ,lIlK. 168, 169
Vena 76, 78,84.106,1.56,159,363,
396,406; ,lIlK. 76, n, 158,396
Venou 108
Verdun 120
Verona 8S, ~I, 302: ,llus. 8S, 304, lS8
Vent'uulltktr=t 254
Vkzprim2S4
V~lay~, 133, 14], 146, 188, 208,
2n,283:,Hu. 133,276,2n
Vibo'1 252
VIC 180,183
VlChJ87
Vttnna 3n. 422, 435. 4.52. 456; ,Uus.
422,448,4S6
V_IX 120
Vipry 136
Vi,oIo Man:hest 81. 82: ,Hus. 80
Vikwy" lS2
Vi1hnscn 72
Vy""hard40S
Wachok 255
W:ahh,m 21~, 240: iIlus. 220
Warcham 217
Waverky244
Wnrmoulh421
Well,219
Wcnlex-k228
Werden 44. 324, 326. 391: oIlus. 324
Wmmln'lll...- (London) 217, 218, 219,
22.
Wimbome 243
Winehe5lcr 219, 225. 228, 23S, 244,
388,391,400,416; ,111,1 225, 226
Wincrtn, 217
Wolfellbund 3n: illus. 380, 429
Zibori 255
Zamon 199.200,201.202. 20S, 206,
208,21<4,215, ,II.... 200, 201
Z,ILt, 391, 393: ,IIUl1. 393, 394
Z,~2S4
Znoimo25S,397
ZUmbt!k 254; 1111,11.
Z~d40S
25~
Acknowledgements
the museums. arch;",:. and pholOgraphers Ihal ha"c assisted III 1M preparaIIQn of rlu. book and have gIVen kllld
permi.OIon for
photographs 10 be
"prod"""d:
'M"
'1'
481