Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
The MIT Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Design Issues.
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Investigating
Design:A Reviewof
FortyYearsof DesignResearch
NiganBayazit
16
identifiable and visible," consisting of materials research, developmental work, and action research. Architects and engineers have
applied these definitions of design research since the 1960s.
All design research reports are related to the history or past
10
11
12
13
14
activity of the subject area under study. Studies of the present are
part of the past because every research report has to prove its roots
in the past.4I will try to identify some instances of the state of the art
F.GrafindiAsJacquesBarzun
andHenry
catedintheirbook,ModemArastirmaci from some research papers as well as books on design research. This
fromthe Modern paper will provide a summary of design research history concerning
intoTurkish
(translated
Researcher),
(Ankara:
TUBITAK,
1993).
design methods and scientific approaches to design.
NigelCross,"Designerly
Waysof
Many writers5 have pointed to De Stijl in the early 1920s as
Versus
Knowing:
DesignDiscipline
an example of the desire to "scientize" design. The roots of design
DesignScience"inDesignPlusResearch,
research in many disciplines since the 1920s are found within the
diMilano
of thePolitenico
Proceedings
Bauhaus, which was established as the methodological foundation
Conference,
SilviaPicazzaro,
Amilton
Arruda,
andDijonDeMorales,
eds.(May
for design education. After the Bauhaus closed, most of the staff
18-20,2000),43-48.
moved to the U.S., Britain, or Russia, where they were well accepted
G.Broadbent,
of
"TheDevelopment
and took the Bauhaus tradition to other institutions. Moholy-Nagy
DesignMethods,"
DesignMethods
and
moved to the U.S., where he finally became the director of the "New
Theories
13:1(1979):41-45.
Bauhaus," which became the Institute of Design at the Illinois
NigelCrosshasseveralpublications
Institute of Technology in 1949. Gropius went to Harvard, and
invarious
in"TheRecent
conferences
of Post-Industrial
History
Design
brought a new line of thought to that side of the U.S. Le Corbusier
inR.Hamilton,
Methods"
ed.,Designand
described the house as an objectively designed "machine for living."
Industry(London:
TheDesignCouncil,
He envisioned a desire to produce works of art and design based on
1980).
objectivity and rationality. During this same period, Buckminster
N.Cross,Developments
inDesign
UK:JohnWiley Fuller sought to develop a "design science" that would obtain maxiMethodo/ogy(Chichester,
&Sons,1984).
mum human advantage from a minimal use of energy and materials.
N.Cross,"AHistory
of Design
In 1929, he called his concept of design "Dymaxion" or "4-D."
inDesignMethodology
Methodology"
withScience,NATO
ASI
andRelationship
Series,M.J. DeVries,N.Cross,andD.P.
eds.(Dordrecht:
Kluwer
Academic
Grant,
Publishers,
1993).
V.Hubka,
E.Eder,DesignScience
(London:
Springer
Verlag,1996).
N.Bayazit,
Endistri
Orunleri
Tasariminda
veMimarlikta
Tasarlama
Metotlarina
to DesignMethods
Girif(Introduction
inIndustrial
Product
Designand
Architecture),
[InTurkish]
(Istanbul:
Literatur
Yayinevi
1994).
V.Margolin
andR.Buchanan,
TheIdea
A DesignIssuesReader
of Design:
MA:TheMITPress,1995).
(Cambridge,
inDesign:
Doctoral
Education
of theOhioConference
Proceedings
(8-11October,
1998).
In1986,theDesignMethodsGroup
itstwentieth
celebrated
anniversary
withsomespecialreviewsinitsjournal.
D.Grant
editedtheanniversary
issueof
DesignMethodsandTheories
Joumalof
DMG
20:2(1986).
1 Winter2004
DesignIssues:Volume
20, Number
17
the Soviet Union's "Sputnik," which caused the American government to free up quite a lot of money to do research on creativity.
18,19,20
15 "Foundation
oftheFuture:
Doctoral
inDesignConference"
Education
at La
France
Clusaz,
(9-12July2000).
16 Thisconference
brought
togethertheHfG
peopleandstate-of-the-art
reviewers
of
designresearch,
DesignPlusResearch,
of thePolitecnico
Proceedings
diMilano
Conference
(May18-202000).
17 Inan interview
withHorstRittelinthe
1972issue"Sonof Rittelthink"
in The
DMG5thAnniversary
hegavethe
Report,
basicreasonsfordesignmethods.
18 D.H.Edel,Introduction
toCreative
Design(Englewood
Cliffs,NewJersey:
Prentice-Hall
Inc.,1967).
19 J. R.M.AlgerandC.V.Hays,Creative
SynthesisinDesign(Englewood
Cliffs,
NewJersey:Prentice-Hall
Inc.,1964).
20 M.S. Allen,Morphological
Creativity:
TheMiracle
of Your
Hidden
BrainPower
(Englewood
Cliffs,NewJersey:PrenticeHallInc.,1962).
21 B.Jerrard,
R.Newport,
andM.Trueman,
Managing
NewProduct
Innovation
(London,
Philadelphia:
&Francis,
Taylor
1999).
22 H.Rittel,TheDMG5thAnniversary
Report(1
972).
23 J. C.JonesandandD.G.Thornley,
Conference
onDesignMethods
(Oxford
University
Press,1963).Thisconference
wastheturning
pointof designstudies.
24 C.Alexander,
"TheDetermination
of
foran Indian
in
Components
Village"
Conference
onDesignMethods,
J. C.
JonesandD.G.Thornley,
eds.(Oxford
University
Press,1963).Themethodin
hisPh.D.thesiswasexplained
forfirst
timeatthisconference.
25 C.Alexander,
NotesontheSynthesis
of
Form
MA:Harvard
(Cambridge,
University
Press,1964).
26 S. Chermayeff
andC.Alexander,
andPrivacy:
Community
Toward
a New
Architecture
of Humanism
(NewYork:
andCo.Inc.,1963).This
Doubleday
bookcontainstheradiospeechesof
andalsoAlexander's
Chermayeff
method
forpatterns
onthehousingneighborhood.
27 S. A.Gregory,
ed., TheDesignMethod
Butterworth
(London:
Press,1966.
18
published under the title The Sciencesof the Artificialthat same year.28
He proposed applying the extensive scientific approach to the
sciences of the artificial in economics as well as to engineering and
other disciplines, in which the design of the artificial is the subject of
its own discipline. The artificial here includes all kinds of the manmade things and organizations. He and his colleagues presented
artificial intelligence (Al) in design at Carnegie Mellon University.
During that period, research approaches to design became
common in Europe and the U.S. The conference/course, "The
Methods in Architecture," was held
Teaching of Design-Design
in HfG in Ulm in April 1966, and following that at the 1967 Design
Methods in ArchitectureSymposium29 held in Portsmouth. Organized
by Geoffrey Broadbent and Anthony Ward, the symposium looked
at the design research approaches to design.
Broadbent commented on the symposium as follows:
The 1967 Symposium was held at a particular moment in
history when general change in consciousness was taking
place of the kind which Kuhn (1962) would have called
paradigm shift. This was having profound effects on society
and on social organizations in general including-which is
important for us-the role of the designer in society.30
28 H.A.Simon,TheSciencesof the
1 (Cambridge,
MA:MITPress,
Artificial,
1968).
29 G.Broadbent
andA.Ward,eds.,Design
MethodsinArchitecture
(London:
Lund
Humphries,
1969).
30 G.Broadbent,
of Design"
"TheMorality
inDesign.Science.Method(l981),
309-328.
inDesign.Science.Method
31 G.Broadbent
(1981):309.
Design methods people were looking at rational methods of incorporating scientific techniques and knowledge into the design process to
make rational decisions to adapt to the prevailing values, something
that was not always easy to achieve. They were attempting to work
out the rational criteria of decision making, and trying to optimize
the decisions.
Some designers thought that their approaches were a waste
of time. This view was not exactly true. The design problems in
architecture and in engineering after World War II were severe. The
postwar diminished male labor force was a very important influence,
and required new production methods, and new designs to meet
the new needs of the society in Europe and in the U.S. The Cold
War with the Eastern Block countries gave impetus to new human
requirements, with scientific approaches to design in this new era
generated from political decisions.
As Broadbent3"said after the Portsmouth Symposium in
1967:
The Symposium had been set up by Tony Ward to include
a specific confrontation between those whom he saw
as behaviorists, representing a mechanized, quantified
view of design and those (including himself) he saw
as existentialist/phenomenologist (formerly Marxist)
concerned, above all, "with the humanness" of human
beings.
His "behaviorists" included Bruce Archer; Tom Markus
above all; Ray Struder, whose very title "The Dynamics of
DesignIssues: Volume20, Number1 Winter2004
19
32 (DMG)
Newsletter,
published
bySage
Publications.
GaryMoorewastheeditor
of thefirstissueofthesecondvolume;
andJ. C.Jones,Murray
Milne,Barry
Poyner,
HorstRittel,Charles
W.Rush,
andHenry
SanoffweretheEditorial
M.Starr,G.
Committee.
C.Alexander,
Nadler,
W.Issard,M.B.Teitz,andB.
Harris
wereamongthemembers
ofthe
ReviewCommittee
forthenewpublication.
33 DMGDesignMethods
"First
Group,
Annual
International
Conference
Purpose
MIT(Cambridge,
andProgram,"
MA:
June2-4, 1968).
34 Ibid.
35 Siegfried
Maser,HorstRittel,Jurgen
Joedicke,Hans-Otto
Shulte,John
WestChurchman,
HorstHofler,
Luckman,
andmanyotherswereamongthewriters
ofthesepublications.
36 IGMA,
Arbeitsberihte
1:
zurPlanungsmethodik
inderBauplanung
Bewertungsprobleme
KarlKramer
(Stuttgart/Bern:
Verlag,
1970).
37 IGMA,
Arbeitsberihte
zur
4:Entwurfsmethoden
Planungsmethodik
inderBauplanung
(Stuttgart/Bern:
Karl
Kramer
Verlag,1970).
38 IGMA,
Arbeitsberihte
zur
Planungsmethodik
6:Nutzbeteiligung
an
Planungprozessen(Stuttgart/Bern:
Karl
Kramer
Verlag,1972).
39 C.Alexander,
"StateofArtinDesign
Methodology:
Interview
withC.
Alexander"
DMGNewsletter(March
1971):3-7.
20
In the '70s, two leaders who were pioneers of design methodology announced a manifesto against the design methodology of
the era. Christopher Alexander39 said:
The odd thing is that people have lost sight completely of
this objective. They have very definitely lost the motivation for making better buildings. I feel that a terrific part
of it has become an intellectual game, and it's largely for
DesignIssues: Volume20, Number1 Winter2004
40 J. C.Jones,"HowMyThoughts
about
DesignMethodshaveChanged
During
theYears,"
DesignMethodsand
Theories:
Joumalof DMGandDRS11:1
(JanuaryMarch,
1977).
41 H.Rittel,TheDMG5thAnniversary
972).
Report(1
42 N.Cross,DesignMethodology
and
Relationship
withScience(1993).
21
43 N. Bayazit,Abstracts:
Architectural
Design:"Interrelations
amongTheory,
Research,andPractice,"
Design
Methodsand Theories,12:3/4(1978).
44 N.Bayazit,
ofthe
(GuestEditor
Architectural
issue),Papers:
design.
"Interrelations
amongTheory,
Research,
and
andPractice,"
DesignMethods
Theories
13:3/4,(1979).
45 H.A.Simon,"Rational
Choiceand
theStructure
oftheEnvironment,"
Psychological
Review63(1956):129138.
46 L.B.Archer,
Systematic
Methodsfor
TheDesignCouncil,
Designers
(London:
1965).
47 G.Pask,"TheConception
of a Shapeand
inJ. C.Jones
theEvolution
of a Design"
andD.G.Thornley,
eds.,Conference
onDesignMethods
(Oxford:
Pergamon
Press,1963).
48 G.Broadbent,
DesigninArchitecture
JohnWileyandSons,1973),
(London:
115.
49 Leading
oftheera
designresearchers
werePeterCowanattheUniversity
of Sydney,
A.SimonandAlan
Herbert
Newellat Carnegie
MellonUniversity,
andHorstRittelat theUniversity
of
at Berkeley.
California
50 M.Langfort,
Personal
Attitudes
Hygiene
in 1000Middle-Class
andPractices
NewYork:
Households
(Ithaca,
Cornell
University
Agricultural
Experiment
StateCollegeof Home
Station,NewYork
Economics,
1965).
51 A.KiraTheBathroom
(Newand
NewYork:
The
expanded
edition),
(Ithaca,
Viking
Press,1966).
52 Cornell
researchers
alsodidvarious
studiesonhousing.
See G.H.Beyer,
andPersonal
Housing
Values,
Memoir
364(Ithaca,
NewYork:
Cornell,
University
Press,1959):officefurniture,
as well
as different
activienergy-consuming
ties of workers
inE.C.Bratton,
Oxygen
inHousehold
Consumed
Tasks
(Ithaca,
NewYork:
Cornell
University
Press,
of Cost
1950):E.C.Bratton,
SomeFactors
to theBodyinStanding
andSittingto
Work
UnderDifferent
Postural
Conditions
NewYork:
(Ithaca,
Cornell
University
Press,1
959):E.Knowles,
Postures
and
OtherPhysiological
of the
Responses
SurfacesinHousehold
Working
Ironing
NewYork:
(Ithaca,
Cornell
University
Press,1943).
22
DesignIssues:Volume
20,Number
1 Winter
2004
53 A. Forty,Objectsof Desire:Designand
Society 1750-1980(London:
Thames
andHudson,1986),131-132
54 Ibid.,131-132
55 S. Giedion,
Mechanization
Takes
York:
Command(New
Oxford
University
Press,1948).
56 M.Mead,Cultural
PattemsandTechnical
Change(UNESCO,
1955).
57 J. Noble,"HowandWhyof Behaviour:
The
SocialPsychology
fortheArchitect,"
Architects'
Joumal(March
6, 1963).
58 F.J. Langdon,
"TheDesignof Mechanized
Offices,"
TheArchitects'Joumal
(May1
and22, 1963).
59 P Manning,
ed.,OfficeDesign:"A
of
Studyof Environment,
Department
Building
Science,"
of Liverpool
University
(Liverpool:
Pilkington
Research
Unit,
1965),27.
60 Ibid.,45-51.
61 Morethan928different
anthropometric
as wellas dimensional
measurements,
literature
ondwellingequipment,
under
thetitleof "Anatomy
forPlanners"
werecollectedbytheNational
Swedish
forBuilding
Institute
Research
Ergonomic
Studieswerenecessaryinthesecountriesbecausepeopleinthepastwere
sleepingina sittingposture,
andhad
thantheheightof an
bedlengthsshorter
averagepersonwhichwasnothealthy.
62 E.Berglund,
Svenska
Bord(Stockholm:
Slojdforeningen,
1957).
63 E.Berglund,
Svenska
Skap(Stockholm:
Slbjdfbreningen,
1960).
64 Styrelsen
Kugl,God,BostadldagtochI
morgon,
(Stockholm:
Bostada1964).
65 L.B.Archer,
Systematic
Methodfor
Designers(London:
TheDesignCouncil,
1965).
66 S. E.Harrison,
WorkStudyOfficer
of
the NorthEastMetropolitan
Regional
Hospital
Board,
conducted
thetrials.
theresearch
During
study,nolessthan
onemillionitemsof information
were
recorded.
Atthesametime,sociologists
underthedirection
of JoanWoodward
of theImperial
Collegeof Scienceand
Technology
wereengagedinfindingout
of patientsandstaffabout
theopinions
conventional
andprototype
bedsteads
at KingEdward's
Hospital
(Designof
Bedsteads,
KingEdward's
Hospital,
1967).
London,
DesignIssues:Volume
20,Number
1 Winter2004
23
67 Kenneth
Agnew,alongwitha supportingteam,designedthe bedsteadinthe
RoyalCollegeof Art,as citedby
L.B.Archerin "Systematic
Method
forDesigners"
(1965).
68 L.B.Archer,
Design:Science:Method
(1981).
24
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
Scientific
Press,1982).
81 V.Hubka
"AScientific
andE.Eder,
to Engineering
Approach
Design,"
Design
Studies8:3(1987):123-137.
82 V.Hubka
andE.Eder,DesignScience
(London:
Springer
Verlag,1996),49-66.
25
83 Ibid.,50.
84 M.Asimow,Introduction
toDesign
(1962).
85 J. C.Jones,DesignMethods:
Seedsof
Human
Futures
(2ndrev.ed.),(NewYork:
Reinhold
VanNostrand,
1992).
86 N.Cross,Engineering
DesignMethods:
StrategiesforProduct
Design(Chichester,
UK:JohnWileyandSons,1994).
87 L.B.Archer,
Innovation
Technological
(London:
SciencePolicyFoundation
SpecialPublication
Series,1971).
88 T T.Woodson,
Introduction
to
Engineering
Design(1966).
89 S. Pugh,"TheDesignAudit:Howto Use
It,"Proceedings
of DesignEngineering
NEC,Birmingham:
NEC,
Conference,
1979).
90 D.G.Ullman,
TheMechanical
Design
Process(NewYork:
McGraw-Hill,
1992).
91 S. L.Newsome,W.R.Spillers,
andS.
Finger,
DesignTheory
'88(NewYork:
Springer-Verlag,
1989).
26
Vladimir Hubka and Ernst Eder both spent several years in industry,
working and/or leading design teams. They defined design science
in the same book as: "The term 'design science' is to be understood
as a system of logically related knowledge, which should contain and
organize the complete knowledge about and for designing."
English-speaking engineering design methodologists were
Morris Asimow,84John Christopher Jones,85Nigel Cross,86L. Bruce
Archer,87T. T. Woodson,88Stuart Pugh,89David Ullman,90and many
others.
In the U.S. in 1984, Nam Suh, who was then the assistant
director for engineering at the National Science Foundation (NSF),
created the Design Theory and Methodology Program. Among his
goals in creating this program was developing a science of engineering design and then establishing design as an accepted field of
engineering research. From 1986 to 1988, this program was directed
by Susan Finger, followed by Jack Dixon.91
Some of the design researchers and design methodologists
were working in the field of computer-aided design, and developing their methods in relation to architectural and engineering design
problems, applying the models of OR and systems analysis. These
DesignIssues: Volume20, Number1 Winter2004
approaches caused some problems in the fields of design methodology and design research, because they were thought to be too
restrictive in nature.
There was a close relationship between design research and
the developments in the IT field, especially in cognitive sciences, and
"/artificialintelligence" (Al) and expert systems. Marvin Minsky,92'
93was one of the leaders in the application of cognitive science to
Al. Studies on Al researchers affected the development of studies
on designers, as experts. "Think-aloud" techniques and "protocol
analysis" 94 were adopted by designers. Charles Eastman95was a
92 M.Minsky,"StepstowardArtificial
computer-aided design practitioner as well as a design theoretician.
of the IRE
Intelligence,"
Proceedings
He published an article related to intuitive bathroom design and, for
49 (1961):8-30.
the first time, focused on the designer's behavior. Donald Sch6n96at
93 M.Minsky,
Semantic
Information
MIT opened a new paradigm in design research, and his book, ReflecProcessing(Cambridge,
MA:MITPress,
1968).
tive Practitioner,did not seem to relate to computer science at first, but
94 K.A.Ericsson
andH.A.Simon,Protocol
it actually was about the designing behavior of expert designers.
Analysis.Verbal
Reports
as Data
Immense efforts have been made, mainly by the scientists
(Cambridge,
MA:MITPress,1993).
somehow related to computer-aided design, in the development of
"OntheAnalysis
of Intuitive
95 C.Eastman,
One
the cognitive aspects of expert designers all over the world.97-101
inG.Moore,ed.,
DesignProcess"
of the first contributions to this field was by Omer Akin,102at the
and
Emerging
MethodsinEnvironment
MA:MITPress,
Planning(Cambridge,
1978 "Architectural Design: Interrelations among Theory, Research
1970),21-37.
and Practice" conference.103'104His Ph.D. thesis, "Psychology of ArchPractitioner
96 D.A.Schon,TheReflective
itects," 105at Carnegie Mellon University was one of the recognized
(NewYork:
BasicBooks,1983).
research
works and first publications in this field.
97 0. Akin,"AnExploration
oftheDesign
The
1980s and 1990s opened a new era in design research.
Process,"
DesignMethodsandTheories,
13(1979):115-119.
Many U.S. departments of design began to establish new academic
98 N.Cross,K.Dorst,andN.Roozenburgh, research units, which were brought about from the government's
inDesignThinking
(Delft,
eds.,Research
release of funds on design research, and the encouragement and
TheNederlands:
DelftUniversity
Press,
demand by American industry. The "Ohio Conference on Doctoral
1992).
Education in Design" in 1998 was one of the first research appeals
andK.Dorst,
99 N.Cross,H.Cristiaans,
to education in design (in industrial design and in graphic design)
eds.,Analysing
DesignActivity
UK:JohnWiley&SonsInc.,
(Chichester,
in the U.S. According to Buchanan:
1996).
The Proceedingsof the Ohio Conferenceon DoctoralEducation
inDesign
100 J. Gero,Artificial
Intelligence
in Design focus on the nature and current state of doctoral
(1991).
education in design around the world. This volume
101 K.Dorst,Describing
Design.A Comparexplores the foundations of design as a field of inquiry, the
isonof Padigms
Rotterdam:
(Vormgeving
en druk,1997).
Grafisch
Ontwerp
role of research in alternate models of doctoral education,
102 0. Akin,AnExploration
of theDesign
the relationship between doctoral education and profesProcess(1979).
sional practice, and other issues that are central to the
Abstracts.
Architectural
103 N.Bayazit,
development of design as an emerging field of investigaDesign:Interrelations
amongTheory,
tion. Included are discussions of many existing and planned
andPractice
Research,
(1978).
doctoral programs around the world.116
104 N.Bayazit,
Design.
Papers.
Architectural
Interrelations
amongTheory,
Research,
andPractice
(1979).
105 0. Akin,Psychology
ofArchitectural
Design(London:
PionLtd,1986).
inDesign:
106 Doctoral
Education
of theOhioConference,
Proceedings
(8-11October,
1998).
27
107 N. Bayazit,Abstracts:Architectural
Design:Interrelationsamong Theory,
Research,and Practice(1978).
108 N. Bayazit,Papers:ArchitecturalDesign:
Interrelationsamong Theory,Research,
and Practice(1979).
109 N. Bayazit, M. Tapan,N. Ayiran,and
N. Esin, Tasarlama
(Dizayn)I. Ulusal
Istanbul
KongresiBildirileri(Istanbul:
TeknikUniversitesiMimarlikFakultesi,
1982).
28
Conclusion
The history of design research with reference to design methodologies, as well as design science, is a wide and comprehensive subject
that needs additional extensive research. Only a brief review of
research history on this relatively new discipline of design has been
covered here. Generally, articles and book chapters concerning stateof-the-art reviews, the history of the discipline, or original conference
proceedings and other documents were used in this paper.
Design research and its relevance to design methodology,
as well as scientific research, are reviewed. Most design research
studies were made in architecture because of the requirements of
the societies after World War II. Scientific developments during the
war, and the shortage of resources in postwar societies obviously
necessitated and gave impetus to the creation of new ways to solve
existing problems. Future studies in various design disciplines may
benefit from the experience and progress in disciplines concerned
with building as well as engineering.
Here, I tried to look at design research and its relevance to
design methods and design science from a Turkish perspective.
Mutual influences of information technologies and design research
were the requirements of the era, although that is not mentioned
in many relevant publications. Another area of studying design
research is the utilization of the methods of disciplines in such areas
as psychology, social psychology, management, economics, semantics, and ergonomics. Here, only main starting points have been
indicated concerning the various disciplines.
Epilog
Academics in Turkey were following the developments in the UK
and U.S. on design methodology and the scientific approaches to
design because the Ph.D. was an obligatory stage of academic life
by law in every field-even in architectural design. Consequently,
the Architectural Design Methods Chair was established in the
ITU Faculty of Architecture in 1973. In Turkey, architectural design
methods was recognized by the National Central Authority of
Universities as an academic discipline that same year. The first
international conference on design in Turkey, "Architectural
Design: Interrelations among Theory, Research, and Practice," was
held at ITU in 1978 in collaboration with DRS from the UK. Selected
abstracts107and papers108of this conference were published in the
U.S. journal Design Methods and Theories. Even though it must be
confessed that the idea and the intention were very good, the conference received few papers concerned with design research and its
relevance to design practice; but it gave an impetus to further Ph.D.
studies in architecture.
In 1982 in Turkey, the First National Design Conference also
was organized in the ITU Faculty of Architecture.109It was the first
national design conference in Turkey covering the disciplines of
architectural design, engineering design, and industrial design.
DesignIssues:Volume
1 Winter2004
20, Number
29