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4 AUTHORS, INCLUDING:
Adamantios Diamantopoulos
Bodo B. Schlegelmilch
University of Vienna
Wirtschaftsuniversitt Wien
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE
a
Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
International Marketing and Management, Wirtschaftsuniversitat Wien, Augasse 2-6, Wien A-1090, Austria
c
Kimberley and Clark, Reigate, UK
d
UMIST-Manchester School of Management, Manchester, UK
Abstract
This paper explores whether socio-demographics still have a role to play in profiling green consumers. Following an interdisciplinary
review of the literature, the second part of the paper attempts to address shortcomings identified in previous research. Specifically, hypotheses
are developed concerning the relationship between six key socio-demographic variables and five valid and reliable measures of
environmental consciousness. These hypotheses are subsequently tested on a large nationwide sample of British consumers and conclusions
drawn on the utility of socio-demographic variables for profiling green consumers.
D 2003 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Consumer behaviour; Green consumers; Ecological consumer behaviour
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Bodo.Schlegelmilch@wu-wien.ac.at
(B.B. Schlegelmilch).
0148-2963/03/$ see front matter D 2003 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0148-2963(01)00241-7
466
467
468
Table 1
Literature summary of relationships between socio-demographics and environmental consciousness
Sample
Authors
Gender
Chandler (1972)
Tognacci et al. (1972)
Ray (1975)
Webster (1975)
Brooker (1976)
Arbuthnot (1977)
Lowe et al. (1980)
Honnold (1981)
Van Liere and Dunlap (1981)
McStay and Dunlap (1983)
McStay and Dunlap (1983)
Neuman (1986)
Arcury et al. (1987)
Sturges (1988)
Zeidner and Shechter (1998)
Schahn and Holzer (1990)
Schahn and Holzer (1990)
Vining and Ebreo (1990)
Young (1991)
Baldassare and Katz (1992)
Stern et al. (1993)
Scott and Willits (1994)
Grunert and Kristensen (1992)
Witherspoon and Martin (1992)
Pickett et al. (1993)
Lyons and Breakwell (1994)
Shrum et al. (1995)
Meffert and Bruhn (1996)
Altenburg et al. (1996)
Altenburg et al. (1996)
Widegren (1998)
Marital status
Brooker (1976)
Honnold (1981)
Neuman (1986)
Research 2000 (1990)
Age
Harry et al. (1969)
Tognacci et al. (1972)
Ray (1975)
Webster (1975)
Brooker (1976)
Arbuthnot (1977)
Weigel (1977)
Buttel (1979), Buttel and Flinn (1978)
Dunlap and Van Liere (1978)
Lowe et al. (1980)
Van Liere and Dunlap (1980)
Honnold (1981)
Jackson (1983)
Mohai (1985)
Neuman (1986)
Arcury et al. (1987)
Mohai and Twight (1987)
Ostman and Parker (1987)
Zeidner and Shechter (1988)
Samdahl and Robertson (1989)
Corrado and Ross (1990)
Schahn and Holzer (1990)
Environmental measures
Year
Location
Size
Type
N/A
N/A
1974
N/A
N/A
1974
1973 1978
1973 1978
1976
1976
1976
1981
1984
1988
1986
1987
1987
1986
1990
1990
1990
1990
1991
1991
1992
1993
1993
1994
1994
1994
1994
US (nationwide)
Boulder, CO, USA
Sydney, Australia
Town in MA, USA
Chicago, IL, USA
Town in Ohio, USA
US (nationwide)
US (nationwide)
Washington State, USA
Washington State, USA
Washington State, USA
Three cities in California, USA
Kentucky, USA
UK (nationwide)
Haifa, Israel
Heidelberg, Germany
Heidelberg, Germany
Two towns in Illinois, USA
UK (nationwide)
Orange County, CA, USA
New York State, USA
Pennsylvania, USA
Denmark (nationwide)
UK (nationwide)
University town, USA
Six regions in UK
US (nationwide)
Germany (nationwide)
Amsterdam (Netherlands)
Leipzig (Germany)
Sweden (nationwide)
900
141
100
231
102
145
1500
N/A
806
806
407
376
516
N/A
923
105
167
197
1345
641
349
3632
1476
1422
460
1089
3690
1544
400
400
1018
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
R&CM
Public
Public
Public
Public
Gn Org
Public
Public
Public
Public
Gn Org
Public
Public
Public
Public
Students
Public
Public
Public
Students
Children
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
! ve
N/A
1973 1978
1981
1990
Public
Public
Public
Public
1966
N/A
1974
N/A
N/A
1974
N/A
1974
1976
1973 1978
1976
1973 1978
1969
1979
1981
1984
1979
1984
1986
1978
1990
1987
Oregon/Washington, USA
Boulder, CO, USA
Sydney, Australia
Town in Massachusetts, USA
Chicago, IL, USA
Town in Ohio, USA
Town in Massachusetts, USA
Wisconsin, USA
Washington State, USA
US (nationwide)
Washington State, USA
US (nationwide)
US (nationwide)
US (nationwide)
Three cities in California
Kentucky, USA
US (nationwide)
Town in New York, USA
Haifa, Israel
Illinois, USA
UK (nationwide)
Heidelberg, Germany
Rec Org
Public
Public
Public
Public
R&CM
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Gn Org
1074
141
100
231
102
145
44
548
806
1500
806
N/A
1248
7010
376
516
7000
336
923
2131
N/A
105
ns
+ ve
+ ve
ns
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
! ve
+ ve
! ve
! ve
ns
+ ve
ns
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
! ve
! ve
! ve
+ ve
ns
ns
+ ve
ns
+ ve
! ve
+ ve (SR)
ns
ns
+ ve (SR)
ns (SR)
+ ve (SR)
ns
ns
ns
+ ve (SR)
+ ve (SR)
ns
+ ve (SR)
+ ve (SR)
+ ve(IC)
** (SR)
+ ve (SR)
+ ve (SR)
ns
! ve (SR)
ns
+ ve (SR)
ns
ns
ns
ns
+ ve
+ ve (SR)
+ ve (SR)
+ ve (A)
! ve
ns
ns
! ve
! ve
! ve
! ve
! ve
! ve
ns
ns
ns
! ve (A)
ns
+ ve (SR)
! ve (IC)
ns
ns
ns
ns
! ve
ns
ns
ns
! ve
! ve (IC)
+ ve
+ ve (SR)
! ve (SR)
+ ve (SR)
(continued on next page)
469
Year
Location
Age
Schahn and Holzer (1990)
1987
Heidelberg, Germany
Vining and Ebreo (1990)
1986
Two towns in Illinois, USA
Roper Organization (1992)
1992
US (nationwide)
Baldassare and Katz (1992)
1990
Orange County, CA, USA
Grunert and Kristensen (1992)
1991
Denmark (nationwide)
Pickett et al. (1993)
1992
University town, USA
Lyons and Breakwell (1994)
1993
Six regions in UK
Scott and Willits (1994)
1990
Pennsylvania, USA
Shrum et al. (1995)
1993
US (nationwide)
Altenburg et al. (1996)
1994
Amsterdam (Netherlands)
Altenburg et al. (1996)
1994
Leipzig (Germany)
Meffert and Bruhn (1996)
1994
Germany (nationwide)
Widegren (1998)
1994
Sweden (nationwide)
Number of children
Brooker (1976)
N/A
Chicago, IL, USA
Jackson (1983)
1969
US (nationwide)
Grunert (1991)
1991
Denmark (nationwide)
Education
Harry et al. (1969)
1966
Oregon/Washington, USA
Devall (1970)
1969
US (nationwide)
Chandler (1972)
N/A
US (nationwide)
Costantini and Hanf (1972)
1970
California and Nevada, USA
Tognacci et al. (1972)
N/A
Boulder, CO, USA
Maloney and Ward (1973), Maloney et al. (1975) 1971
Los Angeles, CA, USA
Buttel and Flinn (1974)
1968 1970 Wisconsin, USA
Arbuthnot and Lingg (1975)
1972 1973 Two towns in Ohio, USA
Arbuthnot and Lingg (1975)
1973
Tours, France
Ray (1975)
1974
Sydney, Australia
Webster (1975)
N/A
Town in Massachusetts, USA
Arbuthnot (1977)
1974
Town in Ohio, USA
Buttel and Johnson (1977)
1973 1974 Wisconsin, USA
Weigel (1977)
N/A
Town in Massachusetts, USA
Buttel (1979), Buttel and Flinn (1978)
1974
Wisconsin, USA
Dunlap and Van Liere (1978)
1976
Washington State, USA
Lowe et al. (1980)
1973 1978 US (nationwide)
Van Liere and Dunlap (1980)
1976
Washington State, USA
Honnold (1981)
1973 1978 US (nationwide)
Moore (1981)
N/A
Virginia, USA
Neuman (1986)
1981
Three cities in California, USA
Arcury et al. (1987)
1984
Kentucky, USA
Mohai and Twight (1987)
1979
US (nationwide)
Ostman and Parker (1987)
1984
Town in New York, USA
Samdahl and Robertson (1989)
1978
Illinois, USA
Young (1991)
1990
UK (nationwide)
Schahn and Holzer (1990)
1987
Heidelberg, Germany
Schahn and Holzer (1990)
1987
Heidelberg, Germany
Grunert (1991)
1991
Denmark (nationwide)
Baldassare and Katz (1992)
1990
Orange County, CA, USA
Berger (1997)
1990
Canada (nationwide)
Witherspoon and Martin (1992)
1991
UK (nationwide)
Roper Organization (1992)
1992
US (nationwide)
Pickett et al. (1993)
1992
University town, USA
Scott and Willits (1994)
1990
Pennsylvania, USA
Shrum et al. (1995)
1993
US (nationwide)
Meffert and Bruhn (1996)
1994
Germany (nationwide)
Widegren (1998)
1994
Sweden (nationwide)
Wall (1995)
1995
Edmonton, Canada
Social class
Harry et al. (1969)
1966
Oregon/Washington, USA
Devall (1970)
1969
US (nationwide)
Environmental measures
Size
Type
167
197
N/A
641
1476
460
1089
3632
3690
400
400
1544
1018
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
! ve
Students
Children ns
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
ns
Public
102
1248
1476
Public
Public
Public
1074
907
900
303
141
106
600
112
56
100
231
145
231
44
548
806
1500
806
N/A
219
376
516
7000
336
2131
1345
167
105
1476
641
43,000
1422
N/A
460
3632
3690
1544
1018
448
Rec Org
Gn Org
Public
Dec M
Public
Pu&St
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
R&CM
Elites
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Students
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Gn Org
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Students
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
1074
907
Rec Org
Gn Org
+ ve
! ve
+ ve
! ve
ns
ns
+ ve
+ ve (SR)
+ ve (A)
ns (SR)
+ ve (SR)
! ve (SR)
ns
+ ve (SR)
ns
ns
ns (SR)
ns
+ ve (SR)
+ ve (IC)
+ ve (SR)
+ ve (A)
+ ve (A)
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
ns
+ ve
+ ve (SR)
! ve (SR)
ns
+ ve (A)
+ ve (SR)
+ ve
+ ve (A)
+ ve
+ ve
ns
+ ve
ns
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
! ve
+ ve
+ ve
ns
ns
ns
+ ve (SR)
! ve (SR)
+ ve (SR)
ns
+ ve (SR)
+ ve (SR)
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
ns
+ ve
ns
ns
ns
(SR)
(SR)
(SR)
(SR)
ns (SR)
+ ve (SR)
+ ve
+ ve (A)
+ ve (A)
(continued on next page)
470
Table 1 (continued )
Sample
Environmental measures
Authors
Year
Location
Size
Type
Social class
Tognacci et al. (1972)
Arbuthnot and Lingg (1975)
Arbuthnot and Lingg (1975)
Brooker (1976)
Arbuthnot (1977)
Weigel (1977)
Buttel and Flinn (1978)
Tucker (1978)
Mohai (1985)
Ostman and Parker (1987)
Zeidner and Shechter (1988)
Corrado and Ross (1990)
Research 2000 (1990)
Young (1991)
Berger (1997)
Roper Organization (1992)
Lyons and Breakwell (1994)
Meffert and Bruhn (1996)
Widegren (1998)
N/A
1972 1973
1973
N/A
1974
N/A
1974
N/A
1979
1984
1986
1990
1990
1990
1990
1992
1993
1994
1994
141
112
56
102
145
44
548
166
7010
336
923
N/A
950
1345
43,000
N/A
1089
1544
1018
Public
Public
+ ve
Public
+ ve
Public
R&CM
Public
Public
Females
Public
Public
ns
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Public
Children + ve
Public
ns
Public
+ ve
+ ve
! ve (SR)
ns
+ ve (A)
+ ve (A)
ns
ns
ns
+ ve
+ ve
ns
+ ve
+ ve
ns
ns
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
+ ve
(A)
(SR)
(SR)
(SR)
(SR)
(SR)
(SR)
ns (SR)
+ ve (SR)
Key: N/A not available; Gn Org green organization; Rec Org outdoor recreation society; R & CM recyclers and church members; Dec M
decision makers; Pu & St public and students; ns not significant; * + ve personal behavior; ! ve public behavior; * * + ve purchasing
behavior, ! ve political behavior; (SR) self-reported; (A) actual; (IC) intentional commitment.
the time such articles were finally published. The welldocumented increased awareness and concern with environmental issues in recent years add weight to this argument
(see Meffert and Bruhn, 1996; Roberts, 1996; Prendergast
and Thompson, 1997; Roozen and De Pelsmacker, 1998).
Finally, most of the studies listed in Table 1 have been
conducted in the US. Indeed, out of 51 studies analyzed,
only 10 are based on European data. However, it has been
illustrated that not all cultures, nor segments within them,
face the same problems (or face them in the same manner
when the problems are similar) (Arbuthnot and Lingg,
1975, pp. 275 276). Country-specific factors, such as levels
and types of pollution, the availability of green products,
environmental legislation, or cultural influences, may
(at least partly) explain differences in the socio-demographic
characteristics of a particular nations green consumers.
With the above caveats in mind, the following relationships between socio-demographic characteristics and environmental consciousness have been empirically uncovered in
past research.
2.3. Gender
All studies investigating the linkage between gender and
environmental knowledge have found a significant relationship, with the large majority of authors concluding that males
tend to have higher and better knowledge about green issues
than females (indicated by a negative sign in Table 1).
However, a different picture emerges for environmentally
conscious attitudes and behavior, where, on the whole,
females have been found to exhibit both higher concern
(Davidson and Freudenburg, 1996) and participate more
471
2.5. Age
Among the 33 studies that have investigated the linkages
between age and environmental consciousness, only two
reported significant relationships (Arcury et al., 1987; Grunert and Kristensen, 1992), indicating that younger members of the population exhibit higher levels of knowledge.
However, since the majority of studies do not support this
view, a (null) hypothesis of no difference is postulated:
Hypothesis 3.1: Age is not related to environmental
knowledge.
472
domain, concluding that larger families have more environmental knowledge and more positive attitudes towards
environmental quality. Grunerts (1991) findings are intuitively appealing, given that: individuals with larger
families are likely to have children in school where
problems of ecology are discussed. If these discussions
are brought back into the home, the parent might feel
some pressure to meet the expectations of his children
regarding socially conscious behavior (Brooker, 1976,
p. 111). One would therefore anticipate that consistent
positive associations would exist for all three components
of the environmental domain:
Hypothesis 4.1: The more children, the greater the
environmental knowledge.
Hypothesis 4.2: The more children, the stronger the
concern about environmental quality.
Hypothesis 4.3: The more children, the higher the level
of participation in green activities.
2.7. Education
A large number of studies have investigated the
impact of education on environmental consciousness.
With the exceptions of Samdahl and Robertson (1989)
(negative results for both attitudes and self-reported
behavior) and Arbuthnot and Lingg (1975) (negative
result for self-reported behavior), studies reporting a
significant relationship have been relatively homogeneous
in their findings: the better-educated tend to score higher
on all components of the environmental domain, probably reflecting the fact that the very nature of ecology
with its complex interactions between organisms and
environment serves to make its subject matter difficult
to understand and assimilate (Maloney et al., 1975, p.
585). It is therefore suggested that the higher-educated
understand the issues involved more fully and, hence,
are more concerned about environmental quality and
more motivated to participate in environmentally responsible behaviors:
Hypothesis 5.1: The better-educated are more knowledgeable about environmental issues.
Hypothesis 5.2: The better-educated are more concerned
about environmental quality.
Hypothesis 5.3: The better-educated are more likely to
participate in green activities.
3. Methodology
3.1. Data collection
In planning and conducting the fieldwork for the present
study, extensive developmental research was undertaken.
Firstly, the authors undertook a number of in-depth interviews with acknowledged experts in the environmental arena
(e.g., chief executives of major green pressure groups,
representatives from the Department of the Environment,
473
Educational
Respective
Number of
Marital
Frequency % level
Frequency % age
Frequency % children
Frequency % status
A
B
C1
C2
40
294
621
312
110
93
Missing 227
2
17
37
18
No exams
GCE O
GCE A
Professional/
HNC
7 First
degree
6 Higher
degree
13 Other
Missing
15
16
29
12
Married
Single
Separated
Divorced
Widowed
105
453
142
134
6
27
8
8
00 20
21 30
31 40
41 50
10
188
341
408
0
11
20
24
0
1
2
3
251
277
483
204
257
15 51 60
255
15 4
62
4 Missing
67
4 61 70
250
28
89
450
5 71 +
27 Missing
183
62
15 5 or
more
11 Missing
4
391
23
65 Female 591
16 Male
1071
2 Missing 35
7
7
23
35
63
2
Key: A higher managerial, administrative, or professional; B intermediate managerial, administrative, or professional; C1 supervisory, clerical,
junior administrative, or professional; C2 skilled manual workers; D semi-skilled and unskilled manual workers; E state pensioners, widows, casual,
and lowest grade workers.
474
Table 3
Statistics for environmental consciousness measures
Summary statistics
Environmental measures
Number of items
Mean
S.D.
Possible range
11
18
4
4
7
34.69
72.57
14.30
9.26
23.14
7.64
9.80
3.40
3.25
4.82
11 55
30 90
4 20
4 20
7 35
a
.935
.912
.810
.818
.814
Within-measure correlations
Inter-item correlations
Environmental measures
Environmental knowledge scale
Environmental attitudes scale
Recycling behavior scale
Political action scale
Purchasing behavior scale
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
S.D.
.428
.192
.437
.460
.201
.810
.645
.671
.688
.549
.595
.383
.552
.544
.383
0.073
0.095
0.079
0.086
0.105
Minimum
.632
.460
.582
.558
.407
Maximum
.764
.699
.700
.735
.683
Between-measure correlations
Environmental measures
Environmental knowledge scale
Environmental attitudes scale
Recycling behavior scale
Political action scale
Purchasing behavior scale
Knowledge
1.000
.392
.302
.430
.359
Attitudes
1.000
.352
.595
.538
Recycling
Politics
Purchasing
1.000
.387
.456
1.000
.573
1.000
4. Findings
In their review of the literature pertaining to socio-demographics and environmental consciousness, Van Liere and
Dunlap (1980) indicated that the majority of studies had used
bivariate associations to gauge the relationships involved.
Therefore, simply by way of replicating previous research,
attention is initially focused on bivariate relationships for
hypothesis testing purposes; the results of a multivariate
analysis capturing the joint effects of the socio-demographic
variables considered are reported in a later section.
4.1. Bivariate results
4.1.1. Gender and marital status (Hypotheses 1.1 2.3)
While the differences between male and female scores
are in the hypothesized direction for the Environmental
Knowledge Scale (Table 4), the t test results are nonsignificant. Thus, there is insufficient evidence indicating
that males are more knowledgeable about environmental
issues than their female counterparts (Hypothesis 1.1).
475
Marital status
Male
Environmental measures
Mean (S.D.)
Mean (S.D.)
t value
(one-tailed significance)
34.30
74.06
14.58
9.30
23.92
34.94
71.76
14.16
9.24
22.64
! 1.63a
4.42a
2.35a
0.37c
4.75a
a
b
c
(7.57)
(9.58)
(3.40)
(3.50)
(4.69)
(7.65)
(9.76)
(3.34)
(3.12)
(4.85)
(0.052)
(0.000)
(0.010)
(0.357)
(0.000)
Married
Single
Mean (S.D.)
Mean (S.D.)
34.52
72.44
14.34
9.14
22.97
35.08
73.17
14.24
9.53
23.59
(7.45)
(9.60)
(3.38)
(3.16)
(4.82)
(7.94)
(9.88)
(3.38)
(3.40)
(4.73)
t value
(one-tailed significance)
! 1.39a
! 1.37a
0.51a
! 2.28a
! 2.18a
(.166b)
(0.085)
(.304)
(0.012)
(0.015)
Table 5
Impact of age and number of children on environmental measures
Environmental
measures
Environmental
knowledge scale
Environmental
attitudes scale
Recycling
behavior scale
Political action scale
Purchasing
behavior scale
a
b
Two-tailed test.
One-tailed test.
Age
Number of children
.009a
! .0228
.208b
! .1403
.000b
! .0176
.270b
.0596
.018a
! .0236
.202b
! .0468
! .0275
.062a
.326a
! .0149
! .0412
.298b
.092b
476
Table 6
Impact of educational level and social class on environmental measures
Educational level
Social class
F
F
F ratio probability F ratio probability
Environmental measures
Environmental knowledge scale
Environmental attitudes scale
Recycling behavior scale
Political action scale
Purchasing behavior scale
8.311
1.942
5.185
4.958
1.708
To ascertain the joint explanatory value of socio-demographic characteristics for profiling consumers according to
their environmental consciousness, five multiple regression
analyses were performed. The environmental consciousness
measures were used as the dependent variables and the six
socio-demographic characteristics previously discussed as
the predictor variables. (The equation for the Environmental
Knowledge Scale violated the assumption of normality in
the residual distribution; the scale was subsequently
replaced by its natural logarithm, which resolved the nonnormality problem.).
Each analysis was run using only those cases which
included responses to all the variables at issue. Given that
regression analysis encourages the use of variables
whose amounts can be measured with numeric precision,
that is, interval variables (Lewis-Beck, 1980, p. 67,
emphasis in the original), several socio-demographic characteristics had to be converted to dummy (dichotomous)
variables. To this end, the characteristics of gender and
marital status were each represented with a single dummy
variable. Social class and education were originally multichotomous variables, each classified with six categories
(see Table 2); each was replaced with five dichotomous
variables (Table 7).
All regressions are significant, indicating that environmental consciousness is related to individuals sociodemographic characteristics; the signs of the large majority
of beta coefficients are consistent with expectations and
largely reflect the bivariate results. (Due to space limitations, the individual regression runs are not shown; full
details are available from the authors upon request.) However, for all five environmental consciousness measures,
socio-demographic characteristics only explain a very small
proportion of the variance; in every case, less than 6% of
the variance in the environmental measures could be
explained. Indeed, and despite the large sample size, the
beta coefficients for the large majority of the independent
variables in each equation did not yield significant t values,
providing insufficient evidence that the coefficients are nonzero in the population.
.000
.085
.000
.000
.130
5.849
1.947
5.154
1.915
2.633
.000
.084
.000
.089
.022
Table 7
Regression results
Summary statistics
Environmental measures
Multiple R R2
F value Significance
.198
.240
.239
.211
.198
2.520
3.594
3.664
2.844
2.061
.039
.057
.057
.044
.039
.002
.000
.000
.000
.000
477
478
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