Physical Geography

Universe
Immanuel Kant: Nebular hypo
Chamberlain and Moulton: Another star approached Sun. Material separated from
sun, formed planets.
Big Bang took place 13.7 billion years ago from now.
Planets formed 4.6 billion years ago from now.
Life began to evolve 3.8 Billion years ago.
Singular atom: Infinite temp and infinite density
Expansion of universe means increase in space between galaxies.
How did the planets form?
G force within lumps leads to formation of a core to the gas cloud and a
huge roatating disc of gas and dust develops around the gas core. Gas
cloud starts condensing, matter around the gas core becomes
solid(planetesimals). These collide to form bigger planets.

Inner planets: Between sun and mars(asteroids), terrestrial planets

Remaining Jovian planets
Terrestrial
Temp too hot as they are close to sun,
gases could not condense, hence
small
Solar wind was most intense near the
sun, it blew off a lot of gases and dust
These are smaller and could not hold
the escaping gases

Jovian
opposite

opposite

Evolution of Lithosphere:
1. Due to gradual increase in density, temp has increased inside. Material
inside started getting separated as per densities. Heavier metals at core,
lighter towards the surface.
2. From crust to core, density increases.
Evolution of Atmosphere:
1. Loss of primordial atmosphere consisting of H, He(because of solar
winds)
2. During the cooling of earth, gases and water vapour were
released from interior solid earth. (Degassing) Initial atmosphere
had very less of O. Volcanic eruptions. As earth cooled, water vapour
started condensing. CO2 in atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater
resulting in further condensation. Rainwater fell into depressions forming
oceans.

3. Photosynthesis in oceans saturated oceans with O. After this O began

to flood the atmosphere.
Geological time scale: eons, era, period, epoch (decreasing order)

Earth Basics
Interior of the earth:
Direct sources about the interior of earth volcanic eruptions
Indirect sources
Gravitation
Magnetic field
Seismic activity
Gravity anomaly: Uneven dist. Of mass of material within the interior of
earth influences the value of g.
Earthquake waves:
Body waves
P waves
Move faster and are first to arrive at the surface. Similar to
sound waves, can travel through all materials. Vibrate parallel
to direction of wave.
S waves
Can travel only thru solid. It has helped scientists to understand
the interior of the earth. Perpendicular to the wave direction in the
vertical plane.
Surface Waves
These are more destructive.
Love waves(horizontal motion)
Rayleigh waves(up and down + side to side)
Shadow zone
There exists some areas where earthquake waves are not reported.
These are shadow zones.
Collapse earthquakes, explosion earthquakes
Richter scale(measures energy released), mercalli scale(measures damage
on surface)
Structure of the earth:
Oceanic crust is thinner than continental crust.
Mantle
Upper portion of mantle:asthenosphere
The crust and upper part of mantle are called asthenosphere.
The core:made of Ni and Fe(NiFe)
The Deccan traps from India, presently covering most of the MH
plateau are a much larger flood basalt province.
Volcanic Landforms:
Intrusive Forms:
Igneous rocks
Volcanic rocks
Plutonic rocks(cool at the crust)
Batholiths(very big), Lacoliths(blister), Lapolith(saucer),
Phacolith(present in synclines and anticlines of the folds)

Distribution of Oceans and Continents

Alfred Wegener:Continental Drift theory
Pangaea
Split into Laurasia and gondwanaland
Panthalassa
Evidence in support of continental drift theory:
Rocks of same age across the ocean(Brazilian coast and African coast)
Tillite
sedimentary rock formed from glaciers. Rocks present in India and 6
other places
Placer deposits
Deposits are present in Ghana, but no source rock. Rock present in
Brazil.
Distribution of fossils
Force for drifting:
Pole fleeing force
Tidal force
Convectional Current theory:
Convection currents in mantle due to the radioactive elements causing
thermal differences.
Sea-floor spreading by Hess(during ww2):
Rocks at mid-oceanic ridges have the youngest age, rocks equidistant
from the ridge are older and have the same age.
Sedimenst on the ocean floor were very thin. If they were old, more
sediment should be there.
New crust generated sinks into trenches
Plate tectonics:
Plates move over the asthenosphere horizontally as rigid units.
Pacific plate is a oceanic plate and Eurasian plate is an continental plate


Cocos, Nazca, Arabian, Philippines
Divergent boundaries:
New crust is generated
Convergent boundaries
Crust is destroyed, subduction
Transform boundaries:
Crust is neither is created nor destroyed
Rates of plate movement
Strips of parallel and reverse magnetic field that parallel the mid
oceanic ridges
Forces for the movement
Convection flow due to radioactive heat and residual decay

Geology
Minerals and Rocks:
O, Si, Al: elements in earths crust
Mineral has definite chemical composition and structure
Cleavage
Tendency to break in given directions producing relative plane surfaces
Fracture
Crystal will break in an irregular manner
feldspar
quartz

Si,O
silica

Ceramics, glass making

Important component of
granite

pyroxene
amphibole
mica
olivine

Al , Ca, Mg, Fe Silica

Al, Ca, Mg, Fe, Silica
Al,
Mg, Fe, Silica, K
Mg,Fe, Silica

Electrical instruments

Types of sedimentary rocks:

Mechanically formed
Organically formed
Chemically formed

Sandstone, conglomerate shale,

limestone, loess
Geyserite coal
Limestone, halite, potash

Mechanical disruption and reorganinsation of the original minerals within rocks

due to breaking and crushing without any appreciable chemical changes is
called dynamic metamorphism.

Thermal metamorphism changes chemical composition of rocks

o Contact metamorphism
Rocks come in contact with magma
o Regional metamorphism
Rocks undergo metamorphism due to tectonic shearing
Gnessoid, granite, syenite, slate, schist marble are metamorphic rocks
Granite consists of Al and silica
Tillite, breccia, borax are sedimentary rocks
Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock.

Geomorphic processes
The phenomenon of wearing down of relief variations on the surface of earth
through erosion is known as gradation
Endogenic process, exogenic process
All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earths crust
come under diastrophism.
o Orogenic
Builds mountains
o Epeirogenic
Build continents
Weathering is of 3 types(caused by atmosphere)
chemical

Physical/ mechanical

Solution
Carbonation:formation of
carbonic acid
Hydration: calcium
sulphate
Oxidation
reduction
Gravitational
forces such as
overburden:exfolia
tion, top layer
removed due to
erosion, load
decreases
Expansion due to
temp changes

 Water pressures
controlled by
wetting
biological
Exfoliation domes: upper layer removed due to erosion
Exfoliation tors: upper layer removed due to temp. changes
Exfoliation is a result and not a process
Weathering results in enrichment
Mass movements are aided by gravity and not by geomorphic agents like water,
air. Hence mass movement cannot be called an erosion even though there is a
shift of land.
Creep is common in moist temperate areas.
Debris avalanche is quite common in Himalayas as the rocks are sedimentary.
They are not frequent in western ghats as the rocks are harder there.
The coarser materials get deposited first and then the finer materials.
Pedologist studies soils.
Petrologists study rocks.
Soil formation depends on PCTBT
o Parent material
o Climate
Precipitation gives moisture content to the soils. In wet
equatorial climates due to excess rains soils are devoid of
silica,ca, mg,k.
In dry conditions, ground water is brought to the top due to
capillary action. When they evaporate they leave behind salts
In tropical climates and areas with intermediate precipitation,
calcium carbonate (nodules) kanker are formed.
o Topography
Soils thin on steep slopes, thick on plains
o Biological activity
Humus accumulates in cold climate as bacterial growth is
slow. Organic matter piles up forming peats
In humid tropical equatorial climates, humus content is low as
bacterial action is very intense on dead plant matter.
o Time

Landforms and their evolution

Humid regions implies more rainfall
The gentler the river channels in gradient or slope, the greater is the deposition
This type of plain forming as a result of erosion are called peneplains.
Stages of running water

Youth
mature
old

v shaped flood plains with narrow or

no flood plains, waterfalls, rapids
Valleys are still v shaped but deeper,
meanders, flood plains
Levees, oxbow lakes

River valleys are generally V shaped because of faster water flow during the
youth of the river. Glacier valleys are U shaped due to slow movement of
glaciers.
Gorge , canyons are all kinds of valleys. Gorge has the same width at its top and
bottom. Canyons are wider at top and narrower at bottom.generally meanders
are found in plains where the stream gradient is low. But in some cases they are
also found on hard rocks. These are called incised/entrenched meanders.
River terraces are surfaces marking old valley floor or flood plain levels. Paired
terraces, unpaired terraces.
Streams which flow over alluvial fans do not stay on a single channel and shift
their position across the fan forming distributaries.
Unlike alluvial fans, deltas are well sorted with clear stratification
Active floodplain, inactive floodplain, natural levees

Swallow holes on top of limestones, limestone pavements, big collapse sink=

doline, caves
Hanging=stalactites
Rising up= stalagmites
Glaciers
o Cirque, corrie
o Ciques can come together forming horns-aretes
o Hanging valleys
o Fjords
o Moraines
o Glacial till:unassorted, deposits in outwash plains:unassorted

o Long ridges of glacial till:moraines

o Eskers:long ridge, ice forms the banks
o Drumlins:egg shaped ridges made of glacial till
High rocky coasts, submerging, erosion prominent, cliffs, wave cut terraces
Low sedimentary coasts, deposition predominant
West coast of india:retreating , erosion
East coast: deposition
Gently inclined rocky floors close to the mountains at their foot caused by
erosion are called pediments.
Pediments extend backwards forming pediplains.
A deep valley with steep step like side slopes is known as canyon
Lapis: an irregular surface with sharp pinnacles, grooves and ridges, found in
karst region

Climate
Composition and structure of atmosphere:
co2 and water vapour are only found upto 90 km from the earths surface
co2 is transparent to the incoming solar radiation but opaque to
outgoing terrestrial radiation, green house effect
the amount of dust particles is high in temperate and sub tropical areas as the
wind is dry here than equatorial regions. Polar regions:ice and no dust to fly,
equator: high rainfall so no dust
Structure of the atmosphere
o Troposphere
18 km at equator, decreases towards poles
The zone separating troposphere from stratosphere is called
tropopause
o Stratosphere
o Mesosphere

o
o

Ionosphere
Exosphere

If the air were never heated by solar radiation its temperature would continue to
fall as we climb. However, at a height of ~12 km a minimum of ~-55C is
reached, the tropopause***. Above that the temperature starts to increase again
because the stratospheric air contains a sunlight absorber, ozone.
The tropopause minimum acts as a barrier^ between the troposphere and
stratosphere because mixing and heat transport by convection can only occur
when temperature decreases with height. The troposphere - with convection
allowed - is turbulent and well mixed. The stratosphere with its
temperature increase with height is stable, stratified into layers and relatively
poorly mixed

Solar radiation, heat balance and temperature

Process of vertical heating of atmosphere is known as convection
Transfer of heat thru horizontal movement of air is known as advection
In tropical regions particularly in Northern hemisphere during summer
seasons local winds called loo is the outcome of advection process.
The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of earth
Isotherms:
During July, the isotherms bend to the North over the ocean and south over the
continent. In the north atlantic warm ocean currents increase the temperature
and over the continent the temperature decreases abruptly.

In India, the maximum day temperature is recorded in May because in June the
southwest monsoons arrive at the Kerala coast and advance further inland in
June and July. These winds have cooling effect and summer solstice in June is
cooler than May.

Atmospheric Circulation and weather Systems

Coriolis Force:
o Deflection is more when the wind velocity is high
o Force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force. The PGF is
perpendicular to an isobar.
o The higher the PGF, the higher is the speed of the wind. Deflection
would be more
o As a result of these two forces being perpendicular to each other, in
low pressure areas the wind blows around it.
o Cyclones are not formed near the equator
No coriolis force, wind blows perpendicular to isobars and fills
the low pressure areas
Geostrophic wind
o Isobars are straight
o Pressure gradient is balanced by the coriolis force
o Wind blows parallel to the isobar.
Appearance of warm water off the coast of peru is known as El Nino.The El
Nino is associated with pressure changes in central pacific and Australia.
The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and el nino is called
ENSO
In mountainous regions peaks are heated and warm air rises up. To fill this
new gap cool wind from valleys blows up the valley. This wind is known as
valley breeze. Opposite is katabatic wind.
Air masses

When air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently long

time, it acquires the characteristics of that area.
o Air masses are classified according to the source regions
Warm tropical and subtropical oceans
Subtropical hot deserts
Relatively cold high latitude oceans
Very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes
Permanently ice covered continents in the arctic and
Antarctic
Fronts:boundary zone between air masses
o Cold
Cold Front have narrower, more steep slopes. Because of
their steep slope, air rises quickly, condenses and cause large
rain storms but they are limited in areal extent.
o Warm
Warm Fronts have broader, less steep slopes
Because of their slow rate of advance and less steep slopes,
they tend to have moderate precipitation spread out over a
broad area
o

o
o

Stationary
Occluded
Air mass fully lifted over the surface

The middle latitudes (mid-latitudes, sometimes midlatitudes) are between

2326'22" North and 6633'39" North, and between 2326'22" South and
6633'39" South latitude, or, the Earth's temperate zones between
the tropics and the Arcticand Antarctic polar regions.

Low pressure systems:

Caribbean and some parts of USA
o 8 N and 20 N

They draw their energy from warm seas(temp should be above 26

C)
o In higher latitudes pressure is high and they keep the atmosphere
stable
o Warm trade winds with moisture converge and raise upwards
Water vapour condenses to water droplets
Latent heat is released
This heats the atmosphere further
Violent thunderclouds are formed
Cyclones in India, Madagascar, and some parts of Australia
Typhoons in Japan and south east Asia
o

Extra tropical cyclones:

West to east Jetstream in middle latitudes

Comma shaped clouds
These cyclones move along with the jet streams from west to east
Youtube video
Wind direction change, clouds over the cold front, low pressure in the cold
front

Extra tropical cyclone

Can form over land and sea
Clear front formation
Covers large areas
West to east along with the jetstream
Middle latitudes

Tropical cyclone
Can form only over sea
Not so much
East to west
8 to 20 N

Water in the atmosphere

The moisture in the atmosphere is derived from water bodies thru evaporation
and from plants thru transpiration
Water vapour present in the air is known as humidity
Humid air gives rains.
RH is great over oceans and least over the continents
Condensation is caused by loss of heat
Condensation depends upon the amount of cooling and the RH of the air.

When temp of the air is reduced to dew point with its volume remaining
constant

Fog mixed with smoke is smog

Mist contains more moisture than fog
Fogs are drier than mist and they form when warm air meets with cold currents

Orographic rainfall: after giving rain to windward sides, the air moves down.
Temp increases and moisture taking capacity increase. No rain in the leeward
face.
Nitrous oxide and ozone are green house gases.
Ozone occurs in the stratosphere where the uv rays convert oxygen into ozone.

Ocean
Icecaps, groundwater: fresh water
A mid oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a
large depression
The boundary region in ocean where there is a rapid decrease in the temperature
is thermocline.
Halocline
Wave formation:
Gravity pulls the crests downwards. The falling water pushes the former troughs
upwards
Tides:
Due to moons gravity, water at top is pulled towards it. High tide
Earth as a whole is pulled towards it. But water at bottom does not move
enough- high tide again
Sides have low tides
Sun, moon on a straight line on full moon/new moon : enhanced high tide called
spring tide
Sun moon at right angles on quarter moons, diminished high tide called neap
tide
Generally occurs twice during the day at most places.
Natural disasters re more sudden and dangerous than natural hazards
Speed of wave is more in shallow water. A ship at sea wont feel the tsunami
much.
Generally cyclones occur during monsoon but in case of bay of Bengal they occur
during October and November.
Storm surges are cause due to cyclones. Due to high horizontal pressure gradient
surface winds are very fast. They push sea water into the coast along with a
downpour of rains.
Meteorological drought:low rainfall
Agricultural drought: moisture content in soil is low
Hydrological drought: water in dams has fallen down to alevel which cannot be
replenished by precipitation

Ecological drought: ecosystem is unable to produce due to shortage of water

Pitoragarh landslide: uttarakhand
Indias maritime boundary: 12 nautical miles from coast
Geography coined by eratostahnese. Geo attempts spatial synthesis, history
temporal synthesis
Major approaches to study geo: systematic(studied at world level and patterns
are identified) and regional, dualism: In philosophy and theology, any system
that explains phenomena by two opposing principles.
In math, in the subjects of probability and statistics, if, when event A happens,
another event, event B is more likely to happen, this is a "cause and effect
relationship"
Aphelion:4 th July
Aurora: multi-coloured lights that appear in the upper atmosphere(ionosphere)
over the polar regions and visible from locations in the middle and high
latitudes . caused by interaction of solar wind with O and N. Aurora borealis in
NH, Aurora Australis in SH.
Ecosystem: biotic+abiotic, interrelated and interacting
Palaeomagnetism: Paleomagnetism (or Palaeomagnetism in the United
Kingdom) is the study of the record of theEarth's magnetic field in rocks,
sediment, or archeological materials.

Indian Geography
Physical features of India:
Indian peninsula was a part of Gondwana land.
Himalayan mountains: a lot of valleys lie between these mountain ranges
Himadri
Himachal/lesser Himalayas

o Kasmir valley, kullu valley

Shiwalik
o Duns
Indus and Sutlej
Satluj and kali
Kali and tista
Tista and dihang

Punjab himalaya
Kumaon himalayas
Nepal himalayas
Assam himalayas

Purvanchal : Himalayas in thye east; patkai, naga, Manipur and mizo hills
Majuli in Brahmaputra is the largest inhabited riverine island.
Ganga plain extends between ghaggar and teesta rivers
Northern plains:
Bhabar stone belt shiwaliks
South of this belt rivers remerge, swampy marshy region known as terai
Bangar, khaddar(new alluvium) kankar(calcareous deposits)
Peninsular plateau:
Made of igneous, metamorphous rocks

Central highlands
o North of narmada, covering malwa plateau
o Eastward extension is called bundelkhand, bagelkhand
o Chotanagpur plateau
Deccan plateau
o South of narmada
o Bound by mahadev, kaimur and maikal hills
o Karbi anglong plateau in Meghalaya(garo, khasi, jaintia hills, west to
east)

Western ghats(tallest anaimudi) are continuous(tal bhor pal passes)

Western ghats taller than eastern(tallest mahendragiri)
Distinctive feature of the peninsular plateau is the black soil area
known as deccan traps.
Luni river flows thru thar
West coast is narrower than east coast

Konkan(northern part)
Kannad plain
Malabar oast

Eastern plains are wider.

Northern circars
Coromandel coast

Lake chilika is the largest salt water lake, Orissa

Lakshwadweep are coral islands. Pitli island has a bird sanctuary
Kashmiri hills have karewa formation, useful for cultivation of zafran
Between great Himalayas and pir panjal range- dal lake
Srinagar is on the banks of Jhelum
Barak is an important river in Mizoram
Bhima fault in Karnataka
West coast-sea is deep, submergent-port
East coast-sea is shallow, emergent- no port, wular lake is becoz of tectonic
activity

Indian climate
Decrease in rainfall from east to west along the northern plains
Any coastal area with warm or col currents will warm or cool if the winds or on
shore
India has tropical and subtropical climates
India lies in the region of north easterly winds.
These winds blow over land and do not have much moisture over them.
Then how does India get rain?

Winter
High pressure area over
North of himalayas
Cold winds blow from
this area over the
oceans to the south

summer
Low pressure develops
over interior asia as well
as northwestern India
Air moves from the high
pressure south indian
ocean, c hange direction
at equator and reach
India as south west
monsoon
These winds blow over
warm ocean currents
gather moisture and
bring rainfall over
mainland of India
Tropical westerly Jet
stream moves north of
himalayas
Tropical easterly jet
stream blows over Indian
peninsula(14 N)
Tibetan plateau gets

intensely heated during

summer, which results in
strong vertical air
currents and the
formation of high
pressure over the
plateau at about 9 km
above sea level
Upper air in this area is dominated by a westerly flow. (subtropical westerly jet
streams, flows from west to east, 27 N - 30 N)
Jet streams flow in troposphere
This jet stream blows south of himalayas all year except in summer. This
westerly flow brings in westerly cyclonic disturbances from the Mediterranean
during Indian winter
Tropical cyclones can occur during monsoon as well as in October-November.

Monsoon:
Monsoon arrives in the first week of June at the southern tip of Indian peninsula.

Arabian sea branch

o Reaches Mumbai on 10 june.
o By mid june reaches saurashtra-kutch and central India
Bay of Bengal branch
o Arrives in assam in first week of June
o Deflected my mountains to the east
o Reaches delhi by end of june

By early dec monsoon has withdrawn from the country.

During winter NE trade winds prevail over the country. They blow from land to
sea and hence ethere is no rainfall. However, there is rainfall in TN as here the
lands blow from sea to land.
Summer:Due to the apparent northward movement of the sun, the global heat
belt shifts northwards. Towards the end of may an elongated low p region is
generated between thar desert and chotanagpur plateau.
Loo is a hot wind, pre monsoon mango showers I Karnataka, kerala.
Advancing monsoon(rainy season):
Breaks in monsoon are related to monsoon trough.

Rivers
Drainage patterns
Dendritic:rivers follow slope
Trellis: due to rock pattern
Rectangular

radial
Himalayan rivers

Longer courses

Intense erosional activity

During their middle and lower courses they form ox bows, meanders
Peninsula rivers

Indus
ganga

brahmaput
ra

Zaskar, nubra,
shyok, hunza
Yamuna,
ghagara,
gandak, kosi,
Chambal,betwa
and son

Manasarova
r, tibet
Gangotri
glacier

Called dihand
when it enters
AP
Dibang,lohit,ke
nula,

manasarova
r

narmada
tapi
godavari

krishna

kaveri

Purna, wardha,
pranahitha,
manjira,
waiganga,
penganga
Tungabhadra,ko
yana,ghatprabh
a,musi,bhima
Amravati,bhavi
ni,hemavati,kab
ini

Amarkantak
hills
satpura
Nasik, MH

Gilgit baltistan

Gentle slope

Bhagirathi+al
akananda at
devaprayag
Yamuna meets
ganga at
Allahabad
Flows
eastward till
farakka in WB
Splits, main
stream goes
into BDesh
In tibit,
carries less
ilt as rocks
are hard and
climate is
dry
Majuli river
island in
assam
Dhuadhar
falls

mahabalesh
war
Brahmagiri
range of
western
ghats

Regulating and damming of rivers affect their natural flow and excessive
sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir

Sediment deposited in reservoir should decrease, and downstream must increase

Hills and mountainous regions-guls or kuls of western Himalayas diversion
channels
In arid areas, agricultural fields were converted into rainfed storage areas that
allowed water to stand and moisten the soil called khadins in jaisalmer and
johads in some place else
Underground tanks-tankas in RJ
Meghalaya-bamboo drip irrigation system
Highest total replenishable water system ganga
PULSES OIL SEEDS HAVE LOW WATER REQUIREMENT.

Economic geography
Bruntland commission-sustainable development
Alluvial
soils

Northern
plains

Black soils

Deccan trap

Read and
yellow
soils

Areas of low
rainfall in
eastern and
southern
deccan
plateau,
Orissa,
chattisgarh
Heavy
rain+high
temp

Laterite
nsoils

Bangar,
khaddar(more
fertile)
Bangar has
more kankar.
Clayey
material, holds
moisturedevelo
p cracks during
winter, better
aeration of soil

Potash,
phosphori
c acid,
lime

Sugarcane,
paddy,wheat,cereals,
pulses

Calcium
carbonate
, potash
and lime
Mg,poor
in
phosphori
c
contenet

Humusm
content of soil
is low as
bacteria is
destroyed by
high t

Tea coffee cashew

Strip cropping: grass is grown between strips of crops to break force of wind
Land degradation in Punjab due to over irrigation

Minerals
Peninsular rocks contain coal and metallic minerals, mica, non metallic
Sedimentary rocks on the western and eastern flanks of peninsula in Guj and
assam have petroleum
Nothing in alluvial

Major iron ore belts in India

Orissa-jharkhand

High grade hematite

Durg-bastar-chandrapur

hematite

Bellary-chitradurgachikmaglur-tumkur
Maharashtra goa

Badampahar mines in
mayurbhanj and
kendujhar districts of
Orissa
Gua and noamundi in
singhbum, jharkhand
Bailadila hills in bastar
Exported to japan, worst
korea via vsk port
Kudermukh mines in
western ghas of
karnataka
Marmagao port

Orissa-largest producer of Mn, bauxite(bauxite in panchpatmali deposits in

koraput)
Copper-balaghat mines(MP),singhbum(Jharkhand),khetri mines(rajasthan)
Bauxite-amarkantak plateau, maikal hills and plateau region of bilaspur-khatni
Mica-koderma in jharkand(largest), Nellore, ajmer
Chota Nagpur plateau is a store house of minerals like mica, bauxite, copper,
limestone, iron ore and coal. The Damodar valley is rich in coal and it is
considered as the prime centre of coaking coal in the country. Massive coal
deposits are found in the central basin spreading over 2,883 km2. The important
coalfields in the basin are Jharia, Raniganj, West Bokaro, East Bokaro, Ramgarh,
South Karanpura and North Karanpura.

Industries
First textile mill in Mumbai, 1854
First jute mill in Kolkata, 1859
Cement Chennai 1904, uses limestone as a raw material
India has world class spinning, but weaving supplies low quality of fabric as it
cannot use much of the high quality yarn produced in the country. Weaving is
done by handloom, powerloom and in the mills

Lifelines of national economy

Golden quadrilateral-delhi Kolkata Chennai Mumbai
North south corridor-srinagar kanyakumari
East west corridor- silchar porbandar
NH1 delhi- Amritsar
NH2 delhi-kolkata
NH7 varanasi kanyakumari via Jabalpur,Nagpur, Hyderabad, Bangalore and
Madurai
NH8 delhi Mumbai
NH15- covers most of RJ
District roads are maintained by zilla parishad
Bimportant pipelines

Upper assam to Kanpur

Via gauhati, barauni, Allahabad

Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab

Via viramgam, Mathura, delhi and sonipat

Hazira in GJ to jagdishpur in UP

Waterways
Allahabad to haldia
Sadiya-dhubri
West coast canal in kerala, kottapuram to kollam
Vsp is the deepest landlocked and well protected port.
Damodar valley coal
Gaddi tribe in himachal Pradesh, bhils in Madhya pradesh
16 railway zones
East central-hazipur
North central-allahabad
South east bilaspur
South west hubli
Chiru-tibetan antelope
Largest linghuistic group of India-indo Aryan

India year book

Western himalaya

Chir, pine, other conifers, broad

leaved temperate trees

Higher up
Alpine zone(above 2 level)
Temperate zone of eastern himalayas

Deodar, blue pine, spruce, silver fir

High level silver fir, silver birch,
junipers
Oaks, laurels, maples, rhododendron,
alder and birch(BROMAL)

World geography
People are human resources
Open cast mining, shaft mining
Generally igneous rocks contain metallic minerals, non metallic minerals in
sedimentary rocks of younf fold mountains
Caucasus of France has limestone
Brazil-largest producer of iron ore
Australia-gold
Chile largest producer of copper
Pittsburgh steel city in USA
Osaka textile centre of japan-manchester of japan
India is the largest producer and exporter of mica
Bio gas causes green house effect
Biogas: organic waste is decompose bya abacyteria to emit bio gas which is a
mixture of methane and carbon dioxide
Population pyramid: percentage of age group vs age
Environment forcing us to do things in a certain way: environmental
determinism, opposite is possibilism
Neo determinism : middle path
Demographic transition theory:
Bhigh birth rates, high death rates, illiterates to low births low deaths
literate
Bhighest sex ratio latvia-potato
Truck farming-veggies only
Cooperative farming most successful-denmark
Extensive commercial grain cultivation: grasslands(prairies, pampas, steppes)
Footloosee industries: main factor is road connectivity

A form of outsourcing in which knowledge- and information-related work is carried out by

workers in a different company or by a subsidiary of the same organization. This
subsidiary may be in the same country or in an offshore location to save costs or other
resources. Companies resort to knowledge process outsourcing when they have a
shortage of skilled professionals and have the opportunity to hire skilled workers earning
lower wages in another location for a lower overall cost.
With the global outsourcing sector showing steady growth, despite the looming slowdown,
there have been many KPO and BPO units coming up especially in the developing nations.
For a layman, both seem one and the same thing but in reality there is profound difference in
KPO and BPO. Let us first define both the terms.
What is BPO?
Business Process Outsourcing or BPO is outsourcing of some of the business functions to a
third party in order to save money. It usually consists of the back office or front office
operations. While front office services are related to client interaction and customer support,
back office services are related to finance and HR. If outsourcing is done to a company
situated outside the parent company's country, it is known as offshore outsourcing.
What is KPO?
Knowledge Process Outsourcing or KPO is a subset of BPO. KPO involves outsourcing of
core functions which may or may not give cost benefit to the parent company but surely
helps in value addition. The processes which are outsourced to KPOs are usually more
specialized and knowledge based as compared to BPOs. Services included in KPO are
related to R&D, Capital and insurance market services, legal services, biotechnology,
animation and design, etc. are the usual activities that are outsourced to KPOs. LPO or
Legal Process Outsourcing is special type of KPO dealing with legal services.
Difference between BPO and KPO, which one is better?
As we saw earlier, BPOs usually deal with fringe business activities such as customer care,
finance and HR and at the same time, the USP of a BPO is their being cost effective.
Companies usually outsource such processes to BPOs which are not directly linked to its
value chain. And the motive behind such outsourcing is directly linked to cost reduction. On
the other hand, highly specialised and knowledge based services are outsourced to KPOs.
These activities are directly related to core offering of parent company. The motive behind
such outsourcing is not only to reduce cost but to get specialised solutions for which availing
in-house resources might be tough.
The difference in BPOs and KPOs can also be judged by the way they hire people. While
basic education may be enough for you to get a BPO job but a KPO job requires you to be
competent in a particular field. Also, the training provided by the KPOs is more rigorous and
sector specific. So if you are a 'Jack of all trades', KPOs may not be the right choice for you.
Even businesses outsourcing their services to KPOs do a more extensive research before
giving a contract to a particular KPO, as a good KPO can be the differentiating factor
between a good market offering and a bad one.
So if you compare the functionalities and expertise involved, KPOs are far better than
BPOs, but both of them help businesses to streamline their operations and making them
cost effective.
Why KPOs are emerging at a rapid pace now?

1) Lack of highly qualified professionals in developed countries.

2) BPOs are shifting further east to Philippines and Bangladesh, thus India is exploring
KPOs as the next big thing for them.
3) As the US Govt is reducing bpos, India might have to look at kpos
Trans continental stuart highway
Moscow Vladivostok highway
Channel tunnel(rail)
Buenos aires-valparaiso(rail)
Trans siberian
Trans canadian
Australian trans continental
Orient exp

Darwin-melbourne
London - paris
St petersburgh vladivostok
Halifax vancouver
Perth sydney
Paris Istanbul via strasbourgh, munich,
Vienna, Budapest, belgrade

Port said Egypt

Aden yemen
Big inch pipeline carries petroleum from oil wells of gulf of mexico to north
eastern staes
Big trunk route- north atlantic ocean
Inland ports are away from the sea coast-kolkataoldest well documented urban
settlement-mesopotamia