The physical properties of minerals must be understood to infer the

composition of the Earth's interior from seismology, the geothermal gradient

and other sources of information. Mineral physicists study the elastic
properties of minerals; their high-pressure phase diagrams, melting points
and equations of state at high pressure; and the rheological properties of
rocks, or their ability to flow. Deformation of rocks by creep make flow
possible, although over short times the rocks are brittle. The viscosity of
rocks is affected by temperature and pressure, and in turn determines the
rates at which tectonic plates move (see geodynamics).[5]

Water is a very complex substance and its unique properties are essential for
life.[25] Its physical properties shape the hydrosphere and are an essential
part of the water cycle and climate. Its thermodynamic properties determine
evaporation and the thermal gradient in the atmosphere. The many types of
precipitation involve a complex mixture of processes such as coalescence,
supercooling and supersaturation.[26] Some precipitated water becomes
groundwater, and groundwater flow includes phenomena such as percolation,
while the conductivity of water makes electrical and electromagnetic
methods useful for tracking groundwater flow. Physical properties of water
such as salinity have a large effect on its motion in the oceans.[24]

The many phases of ice form the cryosphere and come in forms like ice
sheets, glaciers, sea ice, freshwater ice, snow, and frozen ground (or
permafrost).[27]

Regions of the Earth[edit]

Size and form of the Earth[edit]
Main article: Figure of the Earth
The Earth is roughly spherical, but it bulges towards the Equator, so it is
roughly in the shape of an ellipsoid (see Earth ellipsoid). This bulge is due to
its rotation and is nearly consistent with an Earth in hydrostatic equilibrium.
The detailed shape of the Earth, however, is also affected by the distribution
of continents and ocean basins, and to some extent by the dynamics of the
plates.[7]

Structure of the interior[edit]

Main article: Structure of the Earth

Diagram with concentric shells and curved paths.
Seismic velocities and boundaries in the interior of the Earth sampled by
seismic waves.
Evidence from seismology, heat flow at the surface, and mineral physics is
combined with the Earth's mass and moment of inertia to infer models of the
Earth's interior its composition, density, temperature, pressure. For
example, the Earth's mean specific gravity (5.515) is far higher than the
typical specific gravity of rocks at the surface (2.73.3), implying that the
deeper material is denser. This is also implied by its low moment of inertia
( 0.33 M R2, compared to 0.4 M R2 for a sphere of constant density).
However, some of the density increase is compression under the enormous
pressures inside the Earth. The effect of pressure can be calculated using the
AdamsWilliamson equation. The conclusion is that pressure alone cannot
account for the increase in density. Instead, we know that the Earth's core is
composed of an alloy of iron and other minerals.[5]

Reconstructions of seismic waves in the deep interior of the Earth show that
there are no S-waves in the outer core. This indicates that the outer core is
liquid, because liquids cannot support shear. The outer core is liquid, and the
motion of this highly conductive fluid generates the Earth's field (see
geodynamo). The inner core, however, is solid because of the enormous
pressure.[7]

Reconstruction of seismic reflections in the deep interior indicate some major

discontinuities in seismic velocities that demarcate the major zones of the
Earth: inner core, outer core, mantle, lithosphere and crust. The mantle itself
is divided into the upper mantle, transition zone, lower mantle and D layer.
Between the crust and the mantle is the Mohorovii discontinuity.[7]

The seismic model of the Earth does not by itself determine the composition
of the layers. For a complete model of the Earth, mineral physics is needed to
interpret seismic velocities in terms of composition. The mineral properties
are temperature-dependent, so the geotherm must also be determined. This
requires physical theory for thermal conduction and convection and the heat
contribution of radioactive elements. The main model for the radial structure
of the interior of the Earth is the preliminary reference Earth model (PREM).
Some parts of this model have been updated by recent findings in mineral

physics (see post-perovskite) and supplemented by seismic tomography. The

mantle is mainly composed of silicates, and the boundaries between layers of
the mantle are consistent with phase transitions.[5]

The mantle acts as a solid for seismic waves, but under high pressures and
temperatures it deforms so that over millions of years it acts like a liquid. This
makes plate tectonics possible. Geodynamics is the study of the fluid flow in
the mantle and core.

Magnetosphere[edit]
Main article: Magnetosphere
Diagram with colored surfaces and lines.
Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right.
If a planet's magnetic field is strong enough, its interaction with the solar
wind forms a magnetosphere. Early space probes mapped out the gross
dimensions of the Earth's magnetic field, which extends about 10 Earth radii
towards the Sun. The solar wind, a stream of charged particles, streams out
and around the terrestrial magnetic field, and continues behind the magnetic
tail, hundreds of Earth radii downstream. Inside the magnetosphere, there are
relatively dense regions of solar wind particles called the Van Allen radiation
belts.[17]

Methods[edit]
Geodesy[edit]
Main article: Geodesy
Geophysical measurements are generally at a particular time and place.
Accurate measurements of position, along with earth deformation and
gravity, are the province of geodesy. While geodesy and geophysics are
separate fields, the two are so closely connected that many scientific
organizations such as the American Geophysical Union, the Canadian
Geophysical Union and the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
encompass both.[28]

Absolute positions are most frequently determined using the global

positioning system (GPS). A three-dimensional position is calculated using

messages from four or more visible satellites and referred to the 1980
Geodetic Reference System. An alternative, optical astronomy, combines
astronomical coordinates and the local gravity vector to get geodetic
coordinates. This method only provides the position in two coordinates and is
more difficult to use than GPS. However, it is useful for measuring motions of
the Earth such as nutation and Chandler wobble. Relative positions of two or
more points can be determined using very-long-baseline interferometry.[28]
[29][30]

Gravity measurements became part of geodesy because they were needed to

related measurements at the surface of the Earth to the reference coordinate
system. Gravity measurements on land can be made using gravimeters
deployed either on the surface or in helicopter flyovers. Since the 1960s, the
Earth's gravity field has been measured by analyzing the motion of satellites.
Sea level can also be measured by satellites using radar altimetry,
contributing to a more accurate geoid.[28] In 2002, NASA launched the
Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE), wherein two twin
satellites map variations in Earth's gravity field by making measurements of
the distance between the two satellites using GPS and a microwave ranging
system. Gravity variations detected by GRACE include those caused by
changes in ocean currents; runoff and ground water depletion; melting ice
sheets and glaciers.[31]

Space probes[edit]
Space probes made it possible to collect data from not only the visible light
region, but in other areas of the electromagnetic spectrum. The planets can
be characterized by their force fields: gravity and their magnetic fields, which
are studied through geophysics and space physics.

Measuring the changes in acceleration experienced by spacecraft as they

orbit has allowed fine details of the gravity fields of the planets to be
mapped. For example, in the 1970s, the gravity field disturbances above
lunar maria were measured through lunar orbiters, which led to the discovery
of concentrations of mass, mascons, beneath the Imbrium, Serenitatis,
Crisium, Nectaris and Humorum basins.[32]

History[edit]

Main article: History of geophysics

Geophysics emerged as a separate discipline only in the 19th century, from
the intersection of physical geography, geology, astronomy, meteorology,
and physics.[33][34] However, many geophysical phenomena such as the
Earth's magnetic field and earthquakes have been investigated since the
ancient era.

Ancient and classical eras[edit]

Picture of ornate urn-like device with spouts in the shape of dragons
Replica of Zhang Heng's seismoscope, possibly the first contribution to
seismology.
The magnetic compass existed in China back as far as the fourth century BC.
It was used as much for feng shui as for navigation on land. It was not until
good steel needles could be forged that compasses were used for navigation
at sea; before that, they could not retain their magnetism long enough to be
useful. The first mention of a compass in Europe was in 1190 AD.[35]

In circa 240 BC, Eratosthenes of Cyrene deduced that the Earth was round
and measured the circumference of the Earth, using trigonometry and the
angle of the Sun at more than one latitude in Egypt. He developed a system
of latitude and longitude.[36]

Perhaps the earliest contribution to seismology was the invention of a

seismoscope by the prolific inventor Zhang Heng in 132 AD.[37] This
instrument was designed to drop a bronze ball from the mouth of a dragon
into the mouth of a toad. By looking at which of eight toads had the ball, one
could determine the direction of the earthquake. It was 1571 years before the
first design for a seismoscope was published in Europe, by Jean de la
Hautefeuille. It was never built.[38]

Beginnings of modern science[edit]

One of the publications that marked the beginning of modern science was
William Gilbert's De Magnete (1600), a report of a series of meticulous
experiments in magnetism. Gilbert deduced that compasses point north
because the Earth itself is magnetic.[16]

In 1687 Isaac Newton published his Principia, which not only laid the
foundations for classical mechanics and gravitation but also explained a
variety of geophysical phenomena such as the tides and the precession of the
equinox.[39]

The first seismometer, an instrument capable of keeping a continuous record

of seismic activity, was built by James Forbes in 1844.[38]