MATH IA

EXPLORATION
The beauty of Eulers
number e
Candidate name: Cong Quoc Bao
Nguyen
Candidate number:
School: Auckland International College
School number: 001495
Session:
Teacher: Mr Alan He

Table of Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 2
1.

Rationale............................................................................................................................... 2

2.

Abstract................................................................................................................................. 2

3.

History of number e............................................................................................................... 3

Properties of number e.................................................................................................................... 3

1.

Calculus properties of e......................................................................................................... 3

2.

Exponential-like functions...................................................................................................... 3

3.

e is irrational.......................................................................................................................... 4

Applications of number e................................................................................................................ 6

1.

Compound interest................................................................................................................ 6

2.

Complex numbers.................................................................................................................. 7

3.

Derangement......................................................................................................................... 9

4.

Bernoulli trials...................................................................................................................... 12

5.

Newtons Law of Cooling...................................................................................................... 12

Other representations of e............................................................................................................ 13

1.

As an infinite series............................................................................................................. 13

2.

As a symmetric limit............................................................................................................ 14

3.

As the sum of two hyperbolic functions...............................................................................15

Conclusion..................................................................................................................................... 15
Evaluation..................................................................................................................................... 16
Bibliography.................................................................................................................................. 17

Introduction
1. Rationale
One day, when I was studying about limits of sequences, my teacher asked our class to prove
that

1
n

( )
1+

is an increasing sequence when n increases. While doing this problem, I also

noticed that when

n ,

1
n

( )
1+

also approaches a number approximates to 2.7182

Suddenly I recognized this number since it resembles a special number on the calculator that I
had seen before. So I input every button on my calculator and I figured out that the special
number is labelled e. That was my first encounter with what is called Eulers number. Later on
when I started learning calculus and logarithms, number e appeared again, this time I got to
explored it in depth when I studied its calculus properties and its logarithmic meanings. What
makes e a remarkable experience for me is when I had to use the differentiation definition to
deduce the differentiation forms of the exponential and logarithms functions. It was not an easy
task when at that time I did not know how e is related to these functions and I could not simplify
the differentiation forms created. So when my teacher solved the problems by modifying the
expression to get the limit of

1
1+
n

( )

when n , I was stunned by the solution since I could

not believe that e has anything to do with what I was studying. I thought it was just a symbol for
a normal limit and therefore does not have many usage in other studies. I was fascinated about e
ever since because its characteristics are so unique and special. How could it possible that from
a simple limit of a normal sequence possess such extraordinary qualities, such as having it
derivative is itself? However this amazing number has never stopped to amuse me. During my IB
mathematics course, I first came across the idea of complex number and once again number e
occurred again in a totally different form with different usage. I wonder when would this number
stop appearing in our lives, which maybe never.
So when I brainstormed to choose a topic for my Mathematics Internal Assessment, exploring
number e is certainly one of my top choice. I really want to know further how this significant
mathematical constant can be applied to our everyday lives. And on my course of gathering any
information I can find about number e, I was continued to be surprised by how e relates to my
life. It takes place in many activities such as savings model to scientific problems like
derangements or Newtons Law of Cooling. Moreover, the more I learn about Eulers number, the
more I find it so graceful and disciplined. I call it disciplined because any problems related to it
can be simplified to a very concise form. Even though when expressed explicitly, e seems like an
ugly, irrelevant number (e = 2.7182), when applying mathematics theories to investigate e,
it will show distinctive and gorgeous properties that is so different from its irrational numeric
form.
Another reason why I am so interested in number e is because of it official finder, Leonhard Euler.
Since my first mathematics lesson in primary schools, I dont know how many times have the
name Euler appear in the books, such as geometry analysis like Eulers theorem or Eulers circle,
and especially his famous mathematical constant, e. To me he appears as a perfect
mathematician that contribute so significantly to contemporary lives. He set the foundation of
many aspects in math today and helped to solve numerous important problems. Therefore partly
2

I want to finish this exploration to show my admiration and respect to Euler and his
accomplishments.
So from my great passion for Euler and his number, I have decided to choose number e as my
topic for Mathematic IA and I hope I will get a chance to truly explore what I really love.

2. Abstract
In this exploration I will investigate number e by first considering some of it special properties,
namely calculus properties, exponential-like functions, and its irrationality. Then I will consider its
application into real lives in areas such as compound interest, complex numbers, derangement
probability, Bernoulli trials and Newtons Law of Cooling. After that I will explore try to prove
some other ways to represent number e such as using infinite series, symmetric limit and
hyperbolic functions.

3. History of number e
John Napier first referenced the constant in a table of his work on logarithms published in 1618.
However this work does not contain the constant itself, it was just a list of logarithms evaluated
from the constant. The table was assumed to be formulated by William Oughtred. Later on, the
official discovery of the number was made by Jacob Bernoulli, who tried to find the value of the
following limit (which is equal to e):

1
n

( )

lim 1+

After that, the first recorded use of this constant, which was then represented as the letter b, was
made by Gottfried Leibniz and Christiaan Huygens in 1690 and 1691. But it was not until
Leonhard Euler that the symbol e for this constant became well-known. Euler first used e to
represent the base for natural logarithms when he wrote a letter to Christian Goldbach on 25
November 1731. From 1727 to 1728, in an unpublished document on explosive forces in guns,
Euler started to use the letter e for the constant and e made its first official appearance in Eulers
Mechanica (1736). Nowadays e has become the standard for this constant and it is widely used.

Properties of number e
1. Calculus properties of e

The derivative of a common exponential function

( a x ) = d a x =a x ln a
'

dy

is

'

( ex ) =

If a=e

f ( x )=a

is:

d x x
e =e ln e=e x So the derivative of
dy

The derivative of a common logarithm function

'

( loga x ) = dy log a x= x ln a
So the derivative of

ln x

If a=e
is

1
x
3

( log e x )' =

f ( x )=log a x

is:

d
1
1
ln x=
=
dy
x ln e x

ex

The integration of a common exponential function

x

a x dx= lna a + C

is:

e dx=e +C

If a=e

So the antiderivative of

f ( x )=a x

is

e +C

From the above results, I can see the beauty of the number e in which its derivative
and antiderivative is itself and it can simplify

ln x

into

1
x

by the use of

differentiation.

2. Exponential-like functions
These functions are based on exponential functions but have different shapes and
properties and they can be investigated by using e :
i.

( )

f ( x )= x x x

f (x)

Find the global maximum of

f (x)

To find the global maximum of

I can consider a new function

( )

1
ln x
g ( x ) =ln f ( x )=ln x x = ln x=
x
x Since
R, therefore

g( x)

( )

0< x <e , g (x)

ii.

by deducing

is

g' (x ) and solve

'

'

'

1
xln x
x
1ln x Therefore for

=
2
2
x
x

is positive, which means

x> e , g ( x ) is negative and

maximum for

g (x )

f ( x )=x

1
x

g ( x )=0 .

ln x ' ( ln x ) x( x ) ln x
g ( x )=
=
x
x2
'

is an increasing function on

will reach its maximum value when

maximum. I can find the maximum of

the equation

ln x

g( x)

g( x)

is increasing and for

g( x) is decreasing. Hence, the global

(and also for

f (x) ) is at

x=e , when g(x) = 0.

f ( x )=x x
Find the global minimum of
Consider a new function

f (x)

g (x )

g ( x ) =ln f ( x )=ln ( x x ) =x ln x Again since

R,

g (x )

will reach its minimum when

4

ln x
f (x)

is an increasing function on
is at its minimum too. I can

find the minimum of

g (x )

by calculating

g ( x ) and solve the equation

g ( x )=0 .
g' ( x )=( x ln x )' =( x )' ln x + x ( ln x )'
1
0<x < , g ( x)
e
1
x> , g ( x)
e

is positive, which means

is negative and

1
x= , g (x)=0
e

1
ln x+ x =ln x+1 Therefore for
x

g( x)

g( x)

is increasing and for

is decreasing. Hence at

f ( x)

and g(x) reaches its global minimum and

its global minimum when

x=

is also at

1
e .

From the above examples, I can see that the natural base e can be applied to
evaluate many properties of functions related to exponentials and logarithms

3. e is irrational
The question whether e is rational or not had been an interest for mathematicians since e
was first introduced by Jacob Bernoulli in 1683. Later on, Leonhard Euler, a student of
Jacobs younger brother Johann, managed to prove that e is irrational, which means is
cannot be expressed as a quotient of two integers
Proof:

1
=1
x
x=1 2

First we need prove that :

n 1

n2

+2

n3

+2
2n

++1 (

n+ )

LHS=

1 1 1
1
+ 2 + 3 ++ n ( n+ )
1
2 2 2
2

( 21 ) ( 2 n1 +2n2 +2n3 ++1 )

( n + )
n
2

using formula ( i ) :anbn=(ab)(an 1 b+ an2 b 2+ +a2 b2 +a b n1)

Number e can also be represented as e=

n=0

2 1
1
=1 n ( n + )
n
2
2

1
1
lim 1 n =1 x =1
n
2
x=1 2

( )

1
( will be proved later )
n!

1 1
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1
+ < e= + +
+
+ < + +
+
+
1 1
1 1 1 2 1 2 3
1 1 1 2 1 2 2
2< e<2+1

2< e<3 e is not an integer

1 1 1
2< e<2+ + + +
2 4 8

Suppose e is a rational number

a
ab so that e= ( b 1 because e is not an integer )
b

1
n=0 n !

Then define a number x=b ! e

a
a
1
b!
e= x=b !
=a ( b1 ) !
b
b n=0 n!
n=0 n !
The first term a ( b1 ) ! is an integer since ab are integerseach
b

element of
n=0

b!
is also aninteger since n b
n!

x is aninteger

Now I will provethat 0< x <1. do that first I will use the formula

e=
n=0

1
1
1
b!
x=b !
=b !
=
n=0 n !
n =0 n !
n=b+1 n !
n=b +1 n!
Now I need prove that x <1

x >0 because each term of

x=

n=b+1

L=

L=

b!
is positive
n!

n b+ 1 we can obtain anupper limit

b!
1
1
<
=
nb
k
n ! n=b+1 ( b+1 )
k=1 ( b+ 1 )

Consider L=
k=1

1
1
1
1
+
+
++
( n )
2
3
b +1 ( b+1 ) ( b+ 1 )
( b+1 )n

L=

[ ( b+ 1 )1 ] ( ( b+1 )n1 + ( b+1 )n2 + ( b+1 )n3 + +1 )

lim

b +1

b! 1
<
n!

Let k =nb

1
( b+1 )k

( b+ 1 )n1+ ( b+1 )n2+ ( b+1 )n3 ++1

( b+1 )n

L=

( b+ 1 )n b

1
1
L=
whenn
b ( b +1 )n b

n=b+1

b!
1
1
=
<
n! ( b+1 ) ( b+2 ) ( b+3 ) ( b+ ( nb ) ) ( b+1 ) ( b+1 ) ( b+1 ) ( b+1 )

1
n!

1
1
=0 L=
n
b
( b+ 1 ) b

( b+1 )n1
( using formula ( i ) )
( b+ 1 )n b
1
x < L x < < 1 ( becase b 1 )
b

<1 there is a contradiction

{x is0<anxinteger

The hypothesis that e isirrational is wrongtherefore e is irrational .

Applications of number e
The number e is extremely unique in mathematics because it can be applied to many aspects of
our lives. Some examples of applications of number e are explored below:

1. Compound interest
The study of compound interest was the first time that the natural exponential e had been
discovered therefore I think that it is meaningful to investigate compound interest and see
how it is related to e
The formula to calculate the amount of money invested after a period of time by
compound interest is

un=u 0 ( 1+i )

with:

n isthe number of periods that theinterest is added

u0 isthe initial deposit amount

iis theinterest rate per period

un isthe final amount after n periods

In the case of continuous compound interest, the interest rate is compounded per
very small intervals of time and I can change the formula to take account for the
small intervals of time:

Let

r be the percentage rate per year

N be the number of interest added per year

N
1
Let a= u n=u0 1+
r
a

art

( )

t be the number of years

i=

r
n=Nt
N

r
N

Nt

a rt

[( ) ]

1
u n=u0 1+
a

u n=uo 1+

For continous compound growth,

since the interest is added per very small intervals of time, the number of interest
added per year (N) will get very large

N + then a+

( since a= Nr r is a constant because i isalso a constant )

a rt

[ ( )]

1
u n=u0 lim 1+
a
a+

n +

1
n

( )

e= lim 1+

However from the definition of e I know that

u n=u0 e rt

Example: Diagram for the effect of earning 20% yearly interest on a deposit of
1000$ at different frequencies. The green curve represents the compound interest

when the interest is counted continuously and it has the shape of a

graph

So from the investigation I can see that if the interest rate is paid continuously then
the final amount can be calculated by the formula

a ebx

un=u 0 ert

where r is the interest

rate per year and t is the number of years.

This finding is significant because we can know the limit of an amount of money
saved in a bank and get interest paid per different lengths of time. If the interest is
computed more frequently during a year, we can get more money from the same
amount of deposit money and the maximum limit we can get is when the interest is
paid continuously and the final amount is calculated by

un=u 0 ert

2. Complex numbers
Another important application of e is that it can be used in expressing complex numbers in
a simpler form
In the study of complex number I have learned that a complex number can be
written in Eulers form by using Eulers formula:

Eule r ' s formula: eix =cosx+isinx

Proving Eulers formula

Consider

e ix

as a complex number. Since any complex number z can be express

in polar form as

z=|z| ( cos +isin )

we can rewrite Eulers formula as

e ix=r ( cos +isin ) ( r ( x ) ( x ) are functionsof x ) Differentiating both sides gives

'

( eix ) =( r )' ( cos+isin )+ ( cos+isin )' r

ieix =

dr
d
d
( cos+ isin ) + sin +icos
r
dx
dx
dx

i r ( cos+ isin )=

since e ix =r ( cos+isin )

dr
d
dr
d
cossin r +isin + icos r
dx
dx
dx
dx
8

ircosrsin=

dr
d
dr
d
cosrsin +i sin +rcos
dx
dx
dx
dx

dr
d
cosrsin (1)
dx
dx

dr
d
rcos=sin +rcos (2)
dx
dx
rsin=

Equating realimaginary parts

( ddx )= drdx cos (3)

d dr
rcos (1 )= sin( 4)
dx dx

rsin 1

If 1

ix

(r 0 because r isthe modulus of e )

d 0dr

0 we can divide ( 3 ) by ( 4 )
dx
dx

1
=0, which is impossible !
cos sin

sin cos
=
cos sin

cos +sin

=0
cos sin

d 0dr
=
=0
dx
dx

d 1dr
=
=0 And
dx
dx

we also have
i0

e =e =1

r ( cos +isin ) =1, when x=0

rcos=1 sin =0(r 0 because if r =0 thenrcos wilbe 0)

rsin=0
( 0 )=0 ( 0 )= cos=1cos=1, when x=0
d
=1 ( x )=x+ c wherec is a constant
dx

r ( 0 )=1 when ( 0 )=0r (0)=1 when (0)=

dr
=0 r ( x )=d x where d is a constant
dx

If r (0)=1(0)=0 :

r ( x )=r ( 0 ) =1 ( x )=x (because ( 0 )=0 c=0)

If r (0)=1 (0)=

eix =r ( cos+isin )=cosx+isinx

r ( x )=r ( 0 ) =1 ( x ) =x+ ( because ( 0 ) = c= )

eix =r ( cos+isin )=cos ( x + )isin(x + )

eix =cosx+isinx So in conclusion,

both cases lead to the confirmation of Eulers formula

Eulers formula is extremely useful in representing complex numbers in Eulers
form:
i

z=x +iy=| z|( cos +isin ) =|z|e where

y= { z } is theimaginary ( y coordinate ) of z

x= { z } is the real part ( x coordinate ) of z

|z|= x 2+ y 2 is the modulus of z

=arg z isthe argument of z , which is theangle made by the x axis

9

vector z measured counterclockwise radians

Type equation here .

Eulers form can simplify the multiplication of complex numbers

zw=|z|ei |w|e i =|z||w|e i (+ )

| zw|=|z||w|arg ( z+ w ) =+=argz+argw

It can also be used to prove De Moivres Theorem:

A complex number can be written in polar form:

cis=cos+isin=e

'

De Moivr e s Theorem:

z=|z|cis where

(|z|cis )n=|z|n cisn for all rational n Pr

oof:
n

zn e i(n)=| z| cis (n)

n
n
(|z|cis) =( z )n=(|z| ei ) =

Another use of number e in complex number is to define the logarithm of a

complex number
From the definition and characteristics of logarithms, I know that

a=e ln ae a eb =e a+b

z=|z| ei =e ln|z| ei =eln|z|+i

ln z =ln |z|+i

this can be used as a definition for the complex number logarithmI

can see that it has multiple values since ismultivalued .

Also using Eule r ' s formula when x= we will get a famous equation
'

mathematics , call Eule r s identity :

e i =cos +isin

ei +1=0

Thisequation is so beautifulfamous becauseit links 3 important

number of mathematics ( e ,i ) such an elegantsimple way .

From the above investigation I have found out that number e is a significant part
in the study of complex numbers and once again it has shown its beauty when it
can be applied to so many aspects of math.

10

3. Derangement
Number e also occur in combinatorial mathematics and probability where it is related to

counting the derangement of a set with n elements when n approaches

Derangement is a rearrangements of a set such that no elements appear in its original

position.
The total number of derangements of a n size sets is usually denoted as Dn, dn or !n and is
named derangement number or de Montmort number
Counting derangement:
o For a set of n elements, the formula to calculate Dn is:
n

(1)i
D n=n !
i!
i=0
o

Proof:
To prove the above formula first I will prove the recurrence relationship of
derangement:

D n=( n1 ) ( Dn1+ D n2)

Consider a set S= {1,2,3, , n } with a cardinality n

D 0=1 since if n=0 S=there is only one permutation

this is alsoa derangement because no elements are

original position

D 1=0 sinceif n=1 S={ s } there isonly one

permutation for Sit is not a derangement

If n=2 S= { s ; t } there are two permuations for S which

are { s ; t } { t ; s }onlythe latter is a derangement

D2 =1

Now let f : S S be a derangement for set S ,

which means f ( s ) sconsider a random s S such that

s 1f ( s )=1.

By the summation rule of counting , thetotal number of f will

the number of f when
be : ( the number of f when f ( 1 ) s ) +

Situation 1: f ( 1 ) s

f ( 1 )=s

Let G1=S }={ 1, 2,3, , s1, s+ 1, ,n }take a

derangement g1 :G1 G1 , which means g1 ( t ) =f ( t ) t G1

g1 is a derangement of a set of ( n1 ) elements
The number of derangements for G1 is Dn1
also s can be chosen ( n1 ) ways ( s 1 )

11

 by the product rule of counting , there are ( n1 ) Dn1

number of f when f ( s ) 1

Situation 2: f ( 1 )=s

Similarly but this timelet

G2=S s }= {2,3, , s1, s +1, , n }

Take a derangement g2 : G2 G2 by taking g 2 ( t )=f ( t ) t G2
g 2 is a derangement of a set of ( n2 ) elements
The number of derangements for G2 is Dn2
Also s can be chosen ( n1 ) ways
by the product rule of counting , there are ( n1 ) Dn2
number of f when f ( s )=1

So total by summing upthe two results , the total number of

derangemen for a set of n elementsis

Now from the recurrence relationship

the formula by first subtracting

Dn=( n1 ) ( Dn1+ D n2)

Dn=( n1 ) ( Dn1+ D n2) , I will prove

n Dn1 from both sides

D nn Dn1=( n1 ) Dn 1 + ( n1 ) D n2 n Dn1
( Dn1( n1 ) Dn 2 )

Let An =Dnn D n1

Dn1 ( n1n )+ ( n1 ) Dn2

A n=A n1

A 0=D 00 D1=1we have a sequence A n= An1 , A 0=1

A n=(1 )1 An1= (1 )2 A n2==(1 )n A0

A n=A n1= A n2 =
A n=(1 )

Dn n D n1 (1 )n

=
n!
n!
n!

Bn B n1 =

D nn Dn1=(1 )

Divdingboth sides by n !

Dn
D
(1 )n
n1 =
n ! ( n1 ) !
n!

Let Bn=

(1 )n
n!

Probability to have a derangement:

o

The total number of ways rearrange a set of n elements is n !

The probability have a derangement is:

12

P n=

Dn n (1 )i
=
n ! i=0 i!

Dn
n!

(1 )i 1
P n=
= ( which will be proved later )
i!
e
i=0

When n , the probability becomes :

O nce again the miraculous number e appearedanother subject of mathematics ,

which is combinatorial math probability . Moreover this investigation

I have raised some more questions on whether number e can be related some
more problems about probabilityI will explore further on this subject by
considering Bernoulli trials below .

4. Bernoulli trials
Bernoulli trial is a random experiment with only two possible outcomes, success and
failure, and the probability for success is the same for each experiment. A typical
example of Bernoulli trials is to imagine a gambler plays a slot machine with a chance of
winning of 1/n and plays it for definite times or indefinitely. I will investigate Bernoulli trials
when the chance of success is 1/n and the experiment is conducted n times

(n )

and see how it is related to number e.

First I will formulate the probability win k is Bernoulli trials .

1
p

Suppose the probability get a success for each experiment is

The experiment is conducted n

Then n experiments conducted , there are C kn ways choose k successful

experiments n of them

1
The probability get k successful experiments is
p

()
1
The probability get ( nk ) failed experiments is (1 )
p

nk

the probability of winningk out of nis :

If n= p

Pk =C kn

1
1
1
p
p

nk

() ( )

1
probability for each successis the experiment is conducted n
n

the formulabecomes : Pk =C kn

If k=0

When n

1
1
1
n
n

nk

() ( )

the formulawill indicate the probability success 0out of n

n

1
1
= ( will be proved later )
n
e

( )

P0 =lim 1

13

1
n

( )

P0= 1

Therefore ,the special case of Bernoulli trials when the experiments with
1
the probability is conducted n.When n , the probability get zero
n

success is

1
e

So this explorationabout Bernoulli trials , I have found out another application

of number e , even thoughthe relationshipis not so clear asthe study about

compound interest complex numbers

5. Newtons Law of Cooling

Besides interesting relationship to statistics and probability mathematics, number e can
also be applied to other fields of math-related science by making use of it to solve
differential equation. A typical example is Newtons Law of Cooling.
Newtons Law of Cooling: the rate of change of the temperature of an object is
directly proportional to the difference between its temperature and the temperature
of
the
surroundings.

Let

T ( t )=temperature of theobject at timet ( s )

T s=temperature of the surrondings

where

T ( 0 ) =T 0 =initial temperature at T =0
dT
( TT s )
dt

By Newto n' s Law of Cooling

dT
is the differentiation of T with respect tit represents the
dt

rate of change of the temperature

Note that if T T s> 0 thenthe object is cooling

dT
will be negative
dt

dT
=k (T T s )
dt

Now I will try to deduce a formula to calculate T with respect to t by solving a

differential equation that relates to number e.

Let

y (t )=T ( t ) T s=the temperature difference at time t

y 0=T ( 0 )T s=initial temperaturedifference at time t=0

Takethe derivative of y ( t )

dy d
dT d T dT
= ( T ( t )T s ) = s = =k ( T T s )=ky
dt dt
dt
dt
dt

dTs
=0 because T s is a constant
dt

dy
=ky
dt

This is a differential equationcanbe solved

ln| y|=kt +C ( C is a constant )

dy
=kdt
y

1
dy = k dt
y

| y|=ekt +C

Taking the positive value of y get a situation of a cooling object

y ( t )=e C ekt

At t=0 y 0=eC

T ( t )=T s + ( T 0T s ) ekt

y ( t )= y 0 ekt

T ( t )T s =( T 0T s ) ekt

So this equation we can calculatethe temperature of an object at time t

14

if we have the values of T s ( thetemperature of the surroundings ) , ( T 0T s )

a constant related

( theinitial temperature difference )k

process

Other representations of e
Number e is also special because it can be represented in many ways and some of which are
explored below.

1. As an infinite series

e=
n=0

1
n!

From the definition of e I know that:

n

1
n

( )

e=lim 1+

And according to binomial expansion:

n

1 n
1
1+ = Cin
n
n
i =0

( )

()

Cin

Then consider

1
n

()

n!
1
i
( ni ) ! i! n

n n1 n2
ni+1

n
n
n
n

i!

n ( n1 ) ( n2 ) ( ni+1 )
i
i! n

( 1n )(1 2n ) (1 i1n )

1 1

i!

( an )=1 a
1
1
lim C ( ) =
n
i!

because lim 1
n

e=lim Cin
n i =0

1
n

()

e= lim Cin
i=0 n

( )]
1
n

n=0

1
n!

Also we have:
n x

[ ( )] ( )

1
e = lim 1+
n
n
x

x
t

1
n

nx

1 x
Let = nx=t t when n
n t

( )

e x =lim 1+
t

=lim 1+

15

e=

Therefore e can be represented as

e=

1
n

( )

e=lim 1+
n

i
n

i=o

1
i!

1
1
e1= =lim 1 ( which was used Bernoulli trialinvestigation)
e t
t

( )

1
n!

now similar our method deduce e=

n=0

(1 )
1
=
(which wasused the derangement probability formula)
e n=0 n !

2. As a symmetric limit

n
( n+1 )n+1
n
e=lim

n
n
n
( n1 )n1

We have:

( n+1 )n+1
nn

nn
( n1 )n1

n+1 n (
n

n+1 )
n
n1

( )

1 n (
1
1+
n+1 ) 1+
n
n1

( )

( n+ 1 )n+1
nn
e=lim

n
nn
( n1 )n1

n
( n+1 )n +1
n
lim

n
n
n
( n1 )n1

1
1
( n+ 1 )lim 1+
n
n1
n

( )

lim 1+

( )

n1

n1

n1

e ( n+1 )e n

3. As the sum of two hyperbolic functions

x

e =sinh (x)+cosh ( x )

Deriving the hyperbolic functions:

From Eulers formula we have
ix

e =cosx+ isinx
cos ( ix )=

ix

e =cosxisinx

e x +ex
=cosh ( x )
2

eix +eix
e ixeix
cosx=
sinx=
2
2i

sin ( ix )=

ex e x e x ex
=
=isinh(x )
2i
2i

Formal definitions of hyperbolic functions:

x

sinh ( x )=

e e
2

x
x
( x )= e + e
2
cosh

16

sinh ( x ) +cosh ( x ) =e

Conclusion
In conclusion, this exploration has helped me to learn deeper about the mathematics of
compound interest, complex numbers, derangement, Bernoulli trials and Newtons Law of
Cooling by making use of the properties of the amazing mathematical constant, e. I have also
learned how e can be otherwise represented, even in some extraordinary expressions.
Moreover, this investigation has given me a memorable experience when I explored as far as I
could about e and it also taught me many valuable lessons. I had improved my mathematical
skills and knowledge as I tried to individually solve many problems involving e. Also I have
learned that e is a pivotal element of solutions to many problems in our lives today and through
this meaningful investigation, I have seen the beauty of e and mathematics and therefore I
appreciate how lucky I am to have received such education in mathematics and other subjects as
well.
My above study about number e has shown its significance in real life when I had demonstrated
some of its application, which mostly is to calculate realistic models in an ideal condition, such as
calculating the compound interest when the interest is computed continuously or formulating
Newtons Law of Cooling on a small range of temperature difference.

Evaluation
Strengths:
o My exploration has some strengths in that I have:
Try to implement e on a wide range of topics
Provide concrete and explicit proof for each problem
Make use of materials learned during IB Diploma Program
Weaknesses:
o However there are some flaws in my work as well because I havent:
Test all theory on realistic data
The applications are mostly based on ideal situations such as:
e only appears in compound interest formula when the interest is
compounded continuously
For derangement and Bernoulli trials formulae, e only appears when

In these cases, e can only be used to model the problem in the

above cases, not when the interest is counted yearly or n in
derangement or Bernoulli trials is too small (for example n=1,2)
Study more about relative mathematicians, such as Leonhard Euler or Jacob
Bernoulli.
I acknowledge my problems and I have try to minimize them and I will try to do it
better for my next assignment.

17

Bibliography
Websites and Webpages
o J J O'Connor and E F Robertson September 2001 http://www-history.mcs.stand.ac.uk/HistTopics/e.html (accessed 10-4-2015)
o WolframMathWorld April 17 2015
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SteinersProblem.html
(accessed 20-4-2015)
o ProofWiki 19 September 2013
https://proofwiki.org/wiki/Recurrence_Relation_for_the_Number_of_Derangements_o
n_a_Finite_Set (accessed 15-4-2015)
o MathematicsStackExchange August 28 2012
http://math.stackexchange.com/questions/83380/i-have-a-problem-understandingthe-proof-of-rencontres-numbers-derangements (accessed 15-4-2015)
o UBC Calculus Online Course N/A
http://www.ugrad.math.ubc.ca/coursedoc/math100/notes/diffeqs/cool.html
(accessed 17-4-2015)
o WolframMathWorld April 17 2015 http://mathworld.wolfram.com/e.html (accessed
19-4-2015)
o WolframMathWorld April 17 2015
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/HyperbolicFunctions.html
(accessed 20-4-2015)
o MathForum N/A http://mathforum.org/isaac/problems/eproof.html (accessed 15-42015)
Books and Encyclopedia
o Remnert, Reinhold 1991 Springer Science + Business Media Holomorphy of power
series Theory of Complex Functions Berlin, Heidelberg p136
o Martin, D. Haese, R. Haese, S. Haese, M. Humphries, 2012 M. HAESE MATHEMATICS
Exponentials IB Mathematics High Level Australia pp116-118
o Gilbert, S. 1991 Wellesley-Cambridge Press The Taylor Series for e^x, sin x, and
cos x Calculus United States p389
o Papoulis, A. 1984 McGraw-Hill Bernoulli Trials Probability, Random Variables, and Stochastic Processes New
York pp57-63

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