Coordinates:4614N0603E

LargeHadronCollider
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheLargeHadronCollider(LHC)istheworld's
largestandmostpowerfulparticlecollider,the
largestandmostcomplexexperimentalfacilityever
built,andthelargestsinglemachineintheworld.[1]
ItwasbuiltbytheEuropeanOrganizationfor
NuclearResearch(CERN)between1998and2008
incollaborationwithover10,000scientistsand
engineersfromover100countries,aswellas
hundredsofuniversitiesandlaboratories.[2]Itliesin
atunnel27kilometres(17mi)incircumference,as
deepas175metres(574ft)beneaththeFranco
SwissbordernearGeneva,Switzerland.Itsfirst
researchruntookplacefrom30March2010to13
February2013ataninitialenergyof
3.5teraelectronvolts(TeV)perbeam(7TeVtotal),
almost4timesmorethanthepreviousworldrecord
foracollider,[3]risingto4TeVperbeam(8TeV
total)from2012.[4][5]On13February2013theLHC's
firstrunofficiallyended,anditwasshutdownfor
plannedupgrades.'Test'collisionsrestartedinthe
upgradedcollideron5April2015,[6][7]reaching6.5
TeVperbeamon20May2015(13TeVtotal,the
currentworldrecordforparticlecollisions).Itssecond
researchruncommencedonschedule,on3June
2015.[8]
TheLHC'saimistoallowphysiciststotestthe
predictionsofdifferenttheoriesofparticlephysics,
highenergyphysicsandinparticular,toproveor
disprovetheexistenceofthetheorizedHiggsboson[9]
andthelargefamilyofnewparticlespredictedby
supersymmetrictheories,[10]andotherunsolved
questionsofphysics,advancinghumanunderstanding
ofphysicallaws.Itcontainssevendetectors,each
designedforcertainkindsofresearch.Theproton
protoncollisionistheprimaryoperationmethod,but
theLHChasalsocollidedprotonswithleadnucleifor
twomonthsin2013andusedleadleadcollisionsfor
aboutonemontheachin2010,2011,and2013for
otherinvestigations.
TheLHC'scomputinggridwas(andcurrentlyis)a
worldrecordholder.Datafromcollisionswas
anticipatedtobeproducedatanunprecedentedrate
forthetime,oftensofpetabytesperyear,amajor
challengeatthetime,tobeanalysedbyagridbased

AsectionoftheLHC

LargeHadronCollider
(LHC)

LHCexperiments
ATLAS

AToroidalLHCApparatus

CMS

CompactMuonSolenoid

LHCb

LHCbeauty

ALICE

ALargeIonColliderExperiment

TOTEM

TotalCrossSection,Elastic
ScatteringandDiffraction
Dissociation

LHCf

LHCforward

MoEDAL

MonopoleandExoticsDetectorAt
theLHC
LHCpreaccelerators

pandPb

Linearacceleratorsforprotons
(Linac2)andLead(Linac3)

(notmarked) ProtonSynchrotronBooster

computernetworkinfrastructureconnecting140
computingcentersin35countries[11][12]by2012the
WorldwideLHCComputingGridwasalsothe
world'slargestdistributedcomputinggrid,comprising
over170computingfacilitiesinaworldwidenetwork
across36countries.[13][14][15]

Contents
1Background
2Purpose
3Design
3.1Detectors
3.2Computingandanalysisfacilities
4Operationalhistory
4.1Construction
4.1.1Operationalchallenges
4.1.2Cost
4.1.3Constructionaccidentsand
delays
4.1.4Initiallowercurrents
4.2Inauguraltests(2008)
4.2.1Quenchincident
4.3Firstoperationalrun(20102013)
4.4Upgrade(20132015)
4.5Secondoperationalrun(2015
onward)
5Timelineofoperations
6Findingsanddiscoveries
6.1Firstrun(datataken20092013)
6.2Secondrun(2015onward)
7Planned"highluminosity"upgrade
8Safetyofparticlecollisions
9Popularculture
10Seealso
11References
12Externallinks

PS

ProtonSynchrotron

SPS

SuperProtonSynchrotron

Hadroncolliders
IntersectingStorageRings

CERN,19711984

SuperProtonSynchrotron

CERN,19811984

ISABELLE

BNL,cancelledin
1983

Tevatron

Fermilab,1987
2011

RelativisticHeavyIon
Collider

BNL,2000present

SuperconductingSuper
Collider

Cancelledin1993

LargeHadronCollider

CERN,2009
present

VeryLargeHadron
Collider

Theoretical

Background
Thetermhadronreferstocompositeparticlescomposedofquarksheldtogetherbythestrongforce(as
atomsandmoleculesareheldtogetherbytheelectromagneticforce).Thebestknownhadronsarethe
baryonsprotonsandneutronshadronsalsoincludemesonssuchasthepionandkaon,whichwere
discoveredduringcosmicrayexperimentsinthelate1940sandearly1950s.
Acolliderisatypeofaparticleacceleratorwithtwodirectedbeamsofparticles.Inparticlephysics
collidersareusedasaresearchtool:theyaccelerateparticlestoveryhighkineticenergiesandletthem
impactotherparticles.Analysisofthebyproductsofthesecollisionsgivesscientistsgoodevidenceof

thestructureofthesubatomicworldandthelawsofnaturegoverningit.Manyofthesebyproductsare
producedonlybyhighenergycollisions,andtheydecayafterveryshortperiodsoftime.Thusmanyof
themarehardornearimpossibletostudyinotherways.

Purpose
PhysicistshopethattheLHCwillhelpanswersomeofthefundamentalopenquestionsinphysics,
concerningthebasiclawsgoverningtheinteractionsandforcesamongtheelementaryobjects,thedeep
structureofspaceandtime,andinparticulartheinterrelationbetweenquantummechanicsandgeneral
relativity,wherecurrenttheoriesandknowledgeareunclearorbreakdownaltogether.Dataisalso
neededfromhighenergyparticleexperimentstosuggestwhichversionsofcurrentscientificmodelsare
morelikelytobecorrectinparticulartochoosebetweentheStandardModelandHiggslessmodels
andtovalidatetheirpredictionsandallowfurthertheoreticaldevelopment.Manytheoristsexpectnew
physicsbeyondtheStandardModeltoemergeattheTeVenergylevel,astheStandardModelappearsto
beunsatisfactory.IssuespossiblytobeexploredbyLHCcollisionsinclude:[16][17]
ArethemassesofelementaryparticlesactuallygeneratedbytheHiggsmechanismvia
electroweaksymmetrybreaking?[18]Itisexpectedthatthecolliderwilleitherdemonstrateorrule
outtheexistenceoftheelusiveHiggsboson,therebyallowingphysiciststoconsiderwhetherthe
StandardModeloritsHiggslessalternativesaremorelikelytobecorrect.[19][20][21]
Issupersymmetry,anextensionoftheStandardModelandPoincarsymmetry,realizedinnature,
implyingthatallknownparticleshavesupersymmetricpartners?[22][23][24]
Arethereextradimensions,[25]aspredictedbyvariousmodelsbasedonstringtheory,andcanwe
detectthem?[26]
Whatisthenatureofthedarkmatterthatappearstoaccountfor27%ofthemassenergyofthe
universe?
Otheropenquestionsthatmaybeexploredusinghighenergyparticlecollisions:
Itisalreadyknownthatelectromagnetismandtheweaknuclearforcearedifferentmanifestations
ofasingleforcecalledtheelectroweakforce.TheLHCmayclarifywhethertheelectroweakforce
andthestrongnuclearforcearesimilarlyjustdifferentmanifestationsofoneuniversalunified
force,aspredictedbyvariousGrandUnificationTheories.
Whyisthefourthfundamentalforce(gravity)somanyordersofmagnitudeweakerthantheother
threefundamentalforces?SeealsoHierarchyproblem.
Arethereadditionalsourcesofquarkflavourmixing,beyondthosealreadypresentwithinthe
StandardModel?
Whyarethereapparentviolationsofthesymmetrybetweenmatterandantimatter?SeealsoCP
violation.
Whatarethenatureandpropertiesofquarkgluonplasma,thoughttohaveexistedintheearly
universeandincertaincompactandstrangeastronomicalobjectstoday?Thiswillbeinvestigated
byheavyioncollisions,mainlyinALICE,butalsoinCMSandATLAS.Findingspublishedin
2012confirmedthephenomenonofjetquenchinginheavyioncollisions,andwasfirstobserved
in2010.[27][28][29]

Design
TheLHCistheworld'slargestandhighestenergyparticleaccelerator.[30][31]Thecollideriscontainedin
acirculartunnel,withacircumferenceof27kilometres(17mi),atadepthrangingfrom50to175
metres(164to574ft)underground.

The3.8metre(12ft)wideconcretelinedtunnel,constructedbetween1983and1988,wasformerly
usedtohousetheLargeElectronPositronCollider.[32]ItcrossestheborderbetweenSwitzerlandand
Franceatfourpoints,withmostofitinFrance.Surfacebuildingsholdancillaryequipmentsuchas
compressors,ventilation
equipment,control
electronicsand
refrigerationplants.
Thecollidertunnel
containstwoadjacent
parallelbeamlines(or
beampipes)thatintersect
atfourpoints,each
AFeynmandiagramofonewaythe
containingabeam,which
Higgsbosonmaybeproducedatthe
travelinopposite
LHC.Here,twoquarkseachemita
directionsaroundthe
WorZboson,whichcombineto
ring.Some
makeaneutralHiggs.
1,232dipolemagnets
keepthebeamsontheir
circularpath(seeimage[33]),whileanadditional
392quadrupolemagnetsareusedtokeepthebeamsfocused,in
ordertomaximizethechancesofinteractionbetweenthe
particlesinthefourintersectionpoints,wherethetwobeams
cross.Intotal,over1,600superconductingmagnetsareinstalled,
withmostweighingover27tonnes.[34]Approximately96tonnes
ofsuperfluidhelium4isneededtokeepthemagnets,madeof
coppercladniobiumtitanium,attheiroperatingtemperatureof
1.9K(271.25C),makingtheLHCthelargestcryogenic
facilityintheworldatliquidheliumtemperature.

MapoftheLargeHadronColliderat
CERN

The2in1structureoftheLHC

Whenrunningatfull
dipolemagnets
designenergyof7TeV
perbeam,onceortwicea
day,astheprotonsareacceleratedfrom450GeVto7TeV,the
fieldofthesuperconductingdipolemagnetswillbeincreased
from0.54to8.3teslas(T).Theprotonswilleachhaveanenergy
of7TeV,givingatotalcollisionenergyof14TeV.Atthis
energytheprotonshaveaLorentzfactorofabout7,500and
moveatabout0.999 999 991c,orabout3metrespersecond
slowerthanthespeedoflight(c).[35]Itwilltakelessthan
Superconductingquadrupole
90microseconds(s)foraprotontotraveloncearoundthemain
electromagnetsareusedtodirectthe
ringaspeedofabout11,000revolutionspersecond.Rather
beamstofourintersectionpoints,
thancontinuousbeams,theprotonswillbebunchedtogether,
whereinteractionsbetween
intoupto2,808bunches,with115billionprotonsineachbunch
acceleratedprotonswilltakeplace.
sothatinteractionsbetweenthetwobeamswilltakeplaceat
discreteintervals,mainly25nanoseconds(ns)apart,providinga
bunchcollisionrateof40MHz.Howeveritwillbeoperatedwithfewerbuncheswhenitisfirst
commissioned,givingitabunchcrossingintervalof75ns.[36]ThedesignluminosityoftheLHCis1034
cm2s1.[37]

Priortobeinginjectedintothemainaccelerator,theparticlesarepreparedbyaseriesofsystemsthat
successivelyincreasetheirenergy.ThefirstsystemisthelinearparticleacceleratorLINAC2generating
50MeVprotons,whichfeedstheProtonSynchrotronBooster(PSB).Theretheprotonsareaccelerated
to1.4GeVandinjectedintotheProtonSynchrotron(PS),wheretheyareacceleratedto26GeV.Finally
theSuperProtonSynchrotron(SPS)isusedtofurtherincreasetheirenergyto450GeVbeforetheyare
atlastinjected(overaperiodofseveralminutes)intothemainring.Heretheprotonbunchesare
accumulated,accelerated(overaperiodof20minutes)totheirpeakenergy,andfinallycirculatedfor5
to24hourswhilecollisionsoccuratthefourintersectionpoints.[38]
TheLHCphysicsprogramismainlybasedonprotonprotoncollisions.
However,shorterrunningperiods,typicallyonemonthperyear,with
heavyioncollisionsareincludedintheprogram.Whilelighterionsare
consideredaswell,thebaselineschemedealswithleadions[39](seeA
LargeIonColliderExperiment).Theleadionsarefirstacceleratedbythe
linearacceleratorLINAC3,andtheLowEnergyIonRing(LEIR)is
usedasanionstorageandcoolerunit.Theionsarethenfurther
acceleratedbythePSandSPSbeforebeinginjectedintoLHCring,
wheretheyreachedanenergyof1.58TeVpernucleon(or328TeVper
ion),higherthantheenergiesreachedbytheRelativisticHeavyIon
Collider.Theaimoftheheavyionprogramistoinvestigatequarkgluon
plasma,whichexistedintheearlyuniverse.
CMSdetectorforLHC

Detectors

SevendetectorshavebeenconstructedattheLHC,locatedundergroundinlargecavernsexcavatedat
theLHC'sintersectionpoints.Twoofthem,theATLASexperimentandtheCompactMuonSolenoid
(CMS),arelarge,generalpurposeparticledetectors.[31]ALICEandLHCbhavemorespecificrolesand
thelastthree,TOTEM,MoEDALandLHCf,areverymuchsmallerandareforveryspecialized
research.TheBBC'ssummaryofthemaindetectorsis:[40]
Detector

Description

ATLAS

Oneoftwogeneralpurposedetectors.ATLASwillbeusedtolookforsignsofnewphysics,
includingtheoriginsofmassandextradimensions.

CMS

Theothergeneralpurposedetectorwill,likeATLAS,huntfortheHiggsbosonandlookfor
cluestothenatureofdarkmatter.

ALICE

ALICEisstudyinga"fluid"formofmattercalledquarkgluonplasmathatexistedshortly
aftertheBigBang.

LHCb

EqualamountsofmatterandantimatterwerecreatedintheBigBang.LHCbwilltryto
investigatewhathappenedtothe"missing"antimatter.

Computingandanalysisfacilities
DataproducedbyLHC,aswellasLHCrelatedsimulation,wasestimatedatapproximately15petabytes
peryear(maxthroughputwhilerunningnotstated)[41]amajorchallengeinitsownrightatthetime.
TheLHCComputingGrid[42]wasconstructedaspartoftheLHCdesign,tohandlethemassiveamounts
ofdataexpectedforitscollisions.Itisaninternationalcollaborativeprojectthatconsistsofagridbased
computernetworkinfrastructureinitiallyconnecting140computingcentersin35countries(over170in
36countriesasof2012).ItwasdesignedbyCERNtohandlethesignificantvolumeofdataproducedby

LHCexperiments,[11][12]incorporatingbothprivatefiberopticcablelinksandexistinghighspeed
portionsofthepublicInternettoenabledatatransferfromCERNtoacademicinstitutionsaroundthe
world.[43]TheOpenScienceGridisusedastheprimaryinfrastructureintheUnitedStates,andalsoas
partofaninteroperablefederationwiththeLHCComputingGrid.
ThedistributedcomputingprojectLHC@homewasstartedtosupporttheconstructionandcalibrationof
theLHC.TheprojectusestheBOINCplatform,enablinganybodywithanInternetconnectionanda
computerrunningMacOSX,WindowsorLinux,tousetheircomputer'sidletimetosimulatehow
particleswilltravelinthetunnel.Withthisinformation,thescientistswillbeabletodeterminehowthe
magnetsshouldbecalibratedtogainthemoststable"orbit"ofthebeamsinthering.[44]InAugust2011,
asecondapplicationwentlive(Test4Theory)whichperformssimulationsagainstwhichtocompare
actualtestdata,todetermineconfidencelevelsoftheresults.
By2012datafromover6quadrillion(6x1015)LHCprotonprotoncollisionshadbeenanalyzed,[45]
LHCcollisiondatawasbeingproducedatapproximately25petabytesperyear,andtheLHCComputing
Gridhadbecometheworld'slargestcomputinggrid(asof2012),comprisingover170computing
facilitiesinaworldwidenetworkacross36countries.[13][14][15]

Operationalhistory
TheLHCfirstwentliveon10September2008,butinitialtestingwasdelayedfor14monthsfrom19
September2008to20November2009,followingamagnetquenchincidentthatcausedextensive
damagetoover50superconductingmagnets,theirmountings,andthevacuumpipe.[46][47][48][49][50][51]
Duringitsfirstrun(20102013)theLHCcollidedtwoopposingparticlebeamsofeitherprotonsatup
to4teraelectronvolts(4TeVor0.64microjoules),orleadnuclei(574TeVpernucleus,or2.76TeVper
nucleon).[30][52]ItsfirstrundiscoveriesincludedaparticlethoughttobethelongsoughtHiggsboson,
severalcompositeparticles(hadrons)liketheb(3P)bottomoniumstate,thefirstcreationofaquark
gluonplasma,andthefirstobservationsoftheveryraredecayoftheBsmesonintotwomuons(Bs0
+),whichchallengedthevalidityofexistingmodelsofsupersymmetry.[53]

Construction
Operationalchallenges
ThesizeoftheLHCconstitutesanexceptionalengineeringchallengewithuniqueoperationalissueson
accountoftheamountofenergystoredinthemagnetsandthebeams.[38][54]Whileoperating,thetotal
energystoredinthemagnetsis10GJ(2,400kilogramsofTNT)andthetotalenergycarriedbythetwo
beamsreaches724MJ(173kilogramsofTNT).[55]
Lossofonlyonetenmillionthpart(107)ofthebeamissufficienttoquenchasuperconductingmagnet,
whilethebeamdumpmustabsorb362MJ(87kilogramsofTNT)foreachofthetwobeams.These
energiesarecarriedbyverylittlematter:undernominaloperatingconditions(2,808bunchesperbeam,
1.151011protonsperbunch),thebeampipescontain1.0109gramofhydrogen,which,instandard
conditionsfortemperatureandpressure,wouldfillthevolumeofonegrainoffinesand.
Cost

Withabudgetof7.5billioneuros(approx.$9bnor6.19bnasofJune2010),theLHCisoneofthe
mostexpensivescientificinstruments[56]everbuilt.[57]Thetotalcostoftheprojectisexpectedtobeof
theorderof4.6bnSwissfrancs(SFr)(approx.$4.4bn,3.1bn,or2.8bnasofJan2010)forthe
acceleratorand1.16bn(SFr)(approx.$1.1bn,0.8bn,or0.7bnasofJan2010)fortheCERN
contributiontotheexperiments.[58]
TheconstructionofLHCwasapprovedin1995withabudgetofSFr2.6bn,withanotherSFr210M
towardstheexperiments.However,costoverruns,estimatedinamajorreviewin2001ataroundSFr
480Mfortheaccelerator,andSFr50Mfortheexperiments,alongwithareductioninCERN'sbudget,
pushedthecompletiondatefrom2005toApril2007.[59]Thesuperconductingmagnetswereresponsible
forSFr180Mofthecostincrease.Therewerealsofurthercostsanddelaysduetoengineering
difficultiesencounteredwhilebuildingtheundergroundcavernfortheCompactMuonSolenoid,[60]and
alsoduetomagnetsupportswhichwereinsufficientlystronglydesignedandfailedtheirinitialtesting
(2007)anddamagefromamagnetquenchandliquidheliumescape(inauguraltesting,2008)(see:
Constructionaccidentsanddelays).[61]Duetolowerelectricitycostsduringthesummer,theLHC
normallydoesnotoperateoverthewintermonths,[62]althoughanexceptionoverthe2009/10winter
wasmadetomakeupforthe2008startupdelays.
Constructionaccidentsanddelays
On25October2005,JosPereiraLages,atechnician,waskilledintheLHCwhenaswitchgear
thatwasbeingtransportedfellonhim.[63]
On27March2007acryogenicmagnetsupportdesignedandprovidedbyFermilabandKEK
brokeduringaninitialpressuretestinvolvingoneoftheLHC'sinnertriplet(focusingquadrupole)
magnetassemblies.Noonewasinjured.FermilabdirectorPierOddonestated"Inthiscaseweare
dumbfoundedthatwemissedsomeverysimplebalanceofforces".Thisfaulthadbeenpresentin
theoriginaldesign,andremainedduringfourengineeringreviewsoverthefollowingyears.[64]
Analysisrevealedthatitsdesign,madeasthinaspossibleforbetterinsulation,wasnotstrong
enoughtowithstandtheforcesgeneratedduringpressuretesting.Detailsareavailableina
statementfromFermilab,withwhichCERNisinagreement.[65][66]Repairingthebrokenmagnet
andreinforcingtheeightidenticalassembliesusedbyLHCdelayedthestartupdate,thenplanned
forNovember2007.
On19September2008,duringinitialtesting,afaultyelectricalconnectionledtoamagnetquench
(thesuddenlossofasuperconductingmagnet'ssuperconductingabilityduetowarmingorelectric
fieldeffects).Sixtonnesofsupercooledliquidheliumusedtocoolthemagnetsescaped,with
sufficientforcetobreak10tonmagnetsnearbyfromtheirmountings,andcausedconsiderable
damageandcontaminationofthevacuumtube(see2008quenchincident)repairsandsafety
checkscausedadelayofaround14months.[67][68][69]
TwovacuumleakswereidentifiedinJuly2009,andthestartofoperationswasfurtherpostponed
tomidNovember2009.[70]
Initiallowercurrents
Inbothofitsruns(2010and2015),theLHCwasinitiallyrunatenergiesbelowitsplannedoperating
energy,andrampeduptojust2x3.5TeVenergyonitsfirstrun(final2x4TeV),and2x6.5TeVon
itssecondrun(intended:2x7TeV).Thisisbecausemassivesuperconductingmagnetsrequire
considerablemagnettrainingtohandlethehighcurrentsinvolvedwithoutlosingtheirsuperconducting
ability.The"training"processinvolvesrepeatedlyrunningthemagnetswithlowercurrentstoprovoke
anyquenchesorminutemovementsthatmayresult.Italsotakestimetocooldownmagnetstotheir
operatingtemperatureofaround1.9K(degreesaboveabsolutezero).Overtimethemagnet"bedsin"

andceasestoquenchattheselessercurrentsandcanhandlethefulldesigncurrentwithoutquenching
CERNmediadescribethemagnetsas"shakingout"theunavoidabletinymanufacturingimperfectionsin
theircrystalsandpositionsthathadinitiallyimpairedtheirabilitytohandletheirplannedcurrents.The
magnetsovertimeandwithtraining,graduallybecomeabletohandletheirfullplannedcurrentswithout
quenching.[71][72]

Inauguraltests(2008)
Thefirstbeamwascirculatedthroughthecollideronthemorningof10September2008.[40]CERN
successfullyfiredtheprotonsaroundthetunnelinstages,threekilometresatatime.Theparticleswere
firedinaclockwisedirectionintotheacceleratorandsuccessfullysteeredarounditat10:28local
time.[73]TheLHCsuccessfullycompleteditsmajortest:afteraseriesoftrialruns,twowhitedots
flashedonacomputerscreenshowingtheprotonstravelledthefulllengthofthecollider.Ittookless
thanonehourtoguidethestreamofparticlesarounditsinauguralcircuit.[74]CERNnextsuccessfully
sentabeamofprotonsinacounterclockwisedirection,takingslightlylongeratoneandahalfhoursdue
toaproblemwiththecryogenics,withthefullcircuitbeingcompletedat14:59.
Quenchincident
On19September2008,amagnetquenchoccurredinabout100
bendingmagnetsinsectors3and4,whereanelectricalfaultled
toalossofapproximatelysixtonnesofliquidhelium(the
magnets'cryogeniccoolant),whichwasventedintothetunnel.
Theescapingvaporexpandedwithexplosiveforce,damaging
over50superconductingmagnetsandtheirmountings,and
contaminatingthevacuumpipe,whichalsolostvacuumconditions.[47][48][75]

Wikinewshasrelated
news:CERNsaysrepairs
toLHCparticle
acceleratortocost
16.6million

ShortlyaftertheincidentCERNreportedthatthemostlikelycauseoftheproblemwasafaultyelectrical
connectionbetweentwomagnets,andthatduetothetimeneededtowarmuptheaffectedsectorsand
thencoolthembackdowntooperatingtemperatureitwouldtakeatleasttwomonthstofix.[76]CERN
releasedaninterimtechnicalreport[75]andpreliminaryanalysisoftheincidenton15and16October
2008respectively,[77]andamoredetailedreporton5December2008.[68]Theanalysisoftheincidentby
CERNconfirmedthatanelectricalfaulthadindeedbeenthecause.Thefaultyelectricalconnectionhad
led(correctly)toafailsafepowerabortoftheelectricalsystemspoweringthesuperconductingmagnets,
buthadalsocausedanelectricarc(ordischarge)whichdamagedtheintegrityofthesupercooled
helium'senclosureandvacuuminsulation,causingthecoolant'stemperatureandpressuretorapidlyrise
beyondtheabilityofthesafetysystemstocontainit,[75]andleadingtoatemperatureriseofabout100
degreesCelsiusinsomeoftheaffectedmagnets.Energystoredinthesuperconductingmagnetsand
electricalnoiseinducedinotherquenchdetectorsalsoplayedaroleintherapidheating.Aroundtwo
tonnesofliquidheliumescapedexplosivelybeforedetectorstriggeredanemergencystop,andafurther
fourtonnesleakedatlowerpressureintheaftermath.[75]Atotalof53magnetsweredamagedinthe
incidentandwererepairedorreplacedduringthewintershutdown.[78]Thisaccidentwasthoroughly
discussedina22February2010SuperconductorScienceandTechnologyarticlebyCERNphysicist
LucioRossi.[79]
IntheoriginaltimelineoftheLHCcommissioning,thefirst"modest"highenergycollisionsatacenter
ofmassenergyof900GeVwereexpectedtotakeplacebeforetheendofSeptember2008,andtheLHC
wasexpectedtobeoperatingat10TeVbytheendof2008.[80]However,duetothedelaycausedbythe

abovementionedincident,thecolliderwasnotoperationaluntilNovember2009.[81]Despitethedelay,
LHCwasofficiallyinauguratedon21October2008,inthepresenceofpoliticalleaders,science
ministersfromCERN's20MemberStates,CERNofficials,andmembersoftheworldwidescientific
community.[82]
Mostof2009wasspentonrepairsandreviewsfromthedamagecausedbythequenchincident,along
withtwofurthervacuumleaksidentifiedinJuly2009whichpushedthestartofoperationstoNovember
ofthatyear.[70]

Firstoperationalrun(20102013)
On20November2009,lowenergybeamscirculatedinthetunnelforthefirsttimesincetheincident,
andshortlyafter,on30November,theLHCachieved1.18TeVperbeamtobecometheworld'shighest
energyparticleaccelerator,beatingtheTevatron'spreviousrecordof0.98TeVperbeamheldforeight
years.[83]
Theearlypartof2010sawthecontinuedrampupofbeaminenergiesandearlyphysicsexperiments
towards3.5TeVperbeamandon30March2010,LHCsetanewrecordforhighenergycollisionsby
collidingprotonbeamsatacombinedenergylevelof7TeV.Theattemptwasthethirdthatday,after
twounsuccessfulattemptsinwhichtheprotonshadtobe"dumped"fromthecolliderandnewbeams
hadtobeinjected.[84]Thisalsomarkedthestartofitsmainresearchprogram.
Thefirstprotonrunendedon4November2010.Arunwithleadionsstartedon8November2010,and
endedon6December2010,[85]allowingtheALICEexperimenttostudymatterunderextreme
conditionssimilartothoseshortlyaftertheBigBang.[86]
CERNoriginallyplannedthattheLHCwouldrunthroughtotheendof2012,withashortbreakatthe
endof2011toallowforanincreaseinbeamenergyfrom3.5to4TeVperbeam.[4]Attheendof2012
theLHCwasshutdownuntilaround2015toallowupgradetoaplannedbeamenergyof7TeVper
beam.[87]Inlate2012,inlightoftheJuly2012discoveryoftheHiggsboson,theshutdownwas
postponedforsomeweeksintoearly2013,toallowadditionaldatatobeobtainedpriortoshutdown.

Upgrade(20132015)
TheLHCwasshutdownon13February2013foritsplanned2yearupgrade,whichwouldtouchon
manyaspectsoftheLHC:enablingcollisionsat14TeV,enhancingitsdetectorsandpreaccelerators
(theProtonSynchrotronandSuperProtonSynchrotron),aswellasreplacingitsventilationsystemand
100kmofcablingimpairedbyhighenergycollisionsfromitsfirstrun.[88]Theupgradedcolliderbegan
itslongstartupandtestingprocessinJune2014,withtheProtonSynchrotronBoosterstartingon2June
2014,thefinalinterconnectionbetweenmagnetscompletingandtheProtonSychrotroncirculating
particleson18June2014,andthefirstsectionofthemainLHCsupermagnetsystemreachingoperating
temperatureof1.91.9K(271.25C),afewdayslater.[89]ThefirstofthemainLHCsupermagnets
werereportedtohavebeensuccessfully"trained"torunat11,000amps(thecurrentrequiredfor6.5
TeVcollisions)by9December2014,withtheothermagnetsectorsplannedtocompletetrainingby
Spring2015.[90]

Secondoperationalrun(2015onward)

On5April2015theLHCrestartedafteratwoyearbreakduringwhichitwasextensivelyupgradedto
runatitsfullspecifiedoperatingenergiesof7TeVperbeam(14TeV),althoughinitiallyrunat6.5TeV
perbeam(13TeVtotal)whilethemagnetsbeddedin(knownas"training").[6]Althoughparticlebeams
travelledinbothdirections,insideparallelpipes,actualcollisionswereexpectedtobegininJune.[6]The
firstrampon10April2015gavepromisingresultsasitreached6.5TeV.[91]Theupgradesculminatedin
collidingprotonstogetherwithacombinedenergyof13TeV.[92]On3June2015theLHCstarted
deliveringphysicsdataafteralmosttwoyearsoffline.[93]

Timelineofoperations
Date

Event

10Sep2008

CERNsuccessfullyfiredthefirstprotonsaroundtheentiretunnelcircuit
instages.

19Sep2008

Magneticquenchoccurredinabout100bendingmagnetsinsectors3and
4,causingalossofapproximately6tonnesofliquidhelium.

30Sep2008

First"modest"highenergycollisionsplannedbutpostponeddueto
accident.[34]

16Oct2008

CERNreleasedapreliminaryanalysisoftheaccident.

21Oct2008

Officialinauguration.

5Dec2008

CERNreleaseddetailedanalysis.

20Nov2009

Lowenergybeamscirculatedinthetunnelforthefirsttimesincethe
accident.[94]

23Nov2009

Firstparticlecollisionsinallfourdetectorsat450GeV.

30Nov2009

LHCbecomestheworld'shighestenergyparticleacceleratorachieving
1.18TeVperbeam,beatingtheTevatron'spreviousrecordof0.98TeV
perbeamheldforeightyears.[83]

15Dec2009

Firstscientificresults,covering284collisionsintheALICEdetector.[95]

earlyFeb2010

FirstprotonprotoncollisionsbeyondFermiLab'senergies,publishedby
theCMSteam.[96]

28Feb2010

TheLHCcontinuesoperationsrampingenergiestorunat3.5TeVfor18
monthstotwoyears,afterwhichitwillbeshutdowntoprepareforthe
14TeVcollisions(7TeVperbeam).[97]

30Mar2010

Thetwobeamscollidedat7TeV(3.5TeVperbeam)intheLHCat13:06
CEST,markingthestartoftheLHCresearchprogram.

8Nov2010

Startofthefirstrunwithleadions.

6Dec2010

Endoftherunwithleadions.Shutdownuntilearly2011.

13Mar2011

Beginningofthe2011runwithprotonbeams.[98]

21Apr2011

LHCbecomestheworld'shighestluminosityhadronacceleratorachieving
apeakluminosityof4.671032cm2s1,beatingtheTevatron'sprevious
recordof41032cm2s1heldforoneyear.[99]

24May2011

Quarkgluonplasmaachieved.[100]

17Jun2011

ThehighluminosityexperimentsATLASandCMSreach1fb1of
collecteddata.[101]

14Oct2011

LHCbreaches1fb1ofcollecteddata.[102]

23Oct2011

ThehighluminosityexperimentsATLASandCMSreach5fb1of
collecteddata.

Nov2011

Secondrunwithleadions.

22Dec2011

Firstnewcompositeparticlediscovery,theb(3P)bottomoniummeson,
observedwithprotonprotoncollisionsin2011.[103]

5Apr2012

Firstcollisionswithstablebeamsin2012afterthewintershutdown.The
energyisincreasedto4TeVperbeam(8TeVincollisions).[104]

4Jul2012

Firstnewelementaryparticlediscovery,anewbosonobservedthatis
"consistentwith"thetheorizedHiggsboson.(Thishasnowbeen
confirmedastheHiggsbosonitself.[105])

8Nov2012

FirstobservationoftheveryraredecayoftheBsmesonintotwomuons
(Bs0+),amajortestofsupersymmetrytheories,[106]showsresults
at3.5sigmathatmatchtheStandardModelratherthanmanyofitssuper
symmetricalvariants.

20Jan2013

StartofthefirstruncollidingprotonswithLeadions.

11Feb2013

EndofthefirstruncollidingprotonswithLeadions.

14Feb2013

Beginningofthefirstlongshutdown,topreparethecolliderforahigher
energyandluminosity.Whenreactivatedin2015,theLHCwilloperate
withanenergyof6.5TeVperproton.[107]

7Mar2015

InjectiontestsforRun2sendprotonstowardsLHCb&ALICE

5Apr2015

Bothbeamscirculatedinthecollider.[6]Fourdayslater,anewrecord
energyof6.5TeVperprotonwasachieved.[108]

20May2015 ProtonscollidedintheLHCattherecordbreakingenergyof13TeV.[92]
3June2015

Startofdeliveringthephysicsdataafteralmosttwoyearsofflineforre
commissioning.[93]

Findingsanddiscoveries
AninitialfocusofresearchwastoinvestigatethepossibleexistenceoftheHiggsboson,akeypartof
theStandardModelofphysicswhichwaspredictedbytheorybuthadnotyetbeenobservedorproven
toexistduetoitselusivenatureandexceedinglybrieflifespan.CERNscientistsestimatedthat,ifthe
StandardModelwerecorrect,theLHCwouldproduceseveralHiggsbosonseveryminute,allowing
physiciststofinallyconfirmordisprovetheHiggsbosonsexistence.Inaddition,theLHCallowedto
searchforsupersymmetricparticlesandotherhypotheticalparticlesaspossibleunknownareasof
physics.[30]SomeextensionsoftheStandardModelpredictadditionalparticles,suchastheheavyW'
andZ'gaugebosons,whichwerealsoestimatedtobewithinreachoftheLHCtodiscover.[109]

Firstrun(datataken20092013)
ThefirstphysicsresultsfromtheLHC,involving284collisionswhichtookplaceintheALICE
detector,werereportedon15December2009.[95]Theresultsofthefirstprotonprotoncollisionsat
energieshigherthanFermilab'sTevatronprotonantiprotoncollisionswerepublishedbytheCMS
collaborationinearlyFebruary2010,yieldinggreaterthanpredictedchargedhadronproduction.[96]
Afterthefirstyearofdatacollection,theLHCexperimentalcollaborationsstartedtoreleasetheir
preliminaryresultsconcerningsearchesfornewphysicsbeyondtheStandardModelinprotonproton
collisions.[110][111][112][113]Noevidenceofnewparticleswasdetectedinthe2010data.Asaresult,

boundsweresetontheallowedparameterspaceofvariousextensionsoftheStandardModel,suchas
modelswithlargeextradimensions,constrainedversionsoftheMinimalSupersymmetricStandard
Model,andothers.[114][115][116]
On24May2011,itwasreportedthatquarkgluonplasma(thedensestmatterthoughttoexistbesides
blackholes)hadbeencreatedintheLHC.[100]
BetweenJulyandAugust2011,resultsofsearchesfortheHiggsbosonandforexoticparticles,basedon
thedatacollectedduringthefirsthalfofthe2011run,werepresentedinconferencesinGrenoble[117]
andMumbai.[118]Inthelatterconferenceitwasreportedthat,despitehintsofaHiggssignalinearlier
data,ATLASandCMSexcludewith95%confidencelevel(usingtheCLsmethod)theexistenceofa
HiggsbosonwiththepropertiespredictedbytheStandardModelovermostofthemassregionbetween
145and466GeV.[119]Thesearchesfornewparticlesdidnotyieldsignalseither,allowingtofurther
constraintheparameterspaceofvariousextensionsoftheStandardModel,includingitssupersymmetric
extensions.[120][121]
On13December2011,CERNreportedthattheStandardModelHiggsboson,ifitexists,ismostlikely
tohaveamassconstrainedtotherange115130GeV.BoththeCMSandATLASdetectorshavealso
shownintensitypeaksinthe124125GeVrange,consistentwitheitherbackgroundnoiseorthe
observationoftheHiggsboson.[122]
On22December2011,itwasreportedthatanewparticlehadbeenobserved,theb(3P)bottomonium
state.[103]
On4July2012,boththeCMSandATLASteamsannouncedthediscoveryofabosoninthemass
regionaround125126GeV,withastatisticalsignificanceatthelevelof5sigma.Thismeetstheformal
levelrequiredtoannounceanewparticlewhichisconsistentwiththeHiggsboson,butscientistswere
cautiousastowhetheritisformallyidentifiedasactuallybeingtheHiggsboson,pendingfurther
analysis.[123]
On8November2012,theLHCbteamreportedonanexperimentseenasa"golden"testof
supersymmetrytheoriesinphysics,[106]bymeasuringtheveryraredecayoftheBsmesonintotwo
muons(Bs0+).Theresults,whichmatchthosepredictedbythenonsupersymmetricalStandard
Modelratherthanthepredictionsofmanybranchesofsupersymmetry,showthedecaysareless
commonthansomeformsofsupersymmetrypredict,thoughcouldstillmatchthepredictionsofother
versionsofsupersymmetrytheory.Theresultsasinitiallydraftedarestatedtobeshortofproofbutata
relativelyhigh3.5sigmalevelofsignificance.[124]TheresultwaslaterconfirmedbytheCMS
collaboration.[125]
InAugust2013theLHCbteamrevealedananomalyintheangulardistributionofBmesondecay
productswhichcouldnotbepredictedbytheStandardModelthisanomalyhadastatisticalcertaintyof
4.5sigma,justshortofthe5sigmaneededtobeofficiallyrecognizedasadiscovery.Itisunknownwhat
thecauseofthisanomalywouldbe,althoughtheZ'bosonhasbeensuggestedasapossible
candidate.[126]
On19November2014,theLHCbexperimentannouncedthediscoveryoftwonewheavysubatomic

particles,b andb .Bothofthemarebaryonsthatarecomposedofonebottom,onedown,andone

strangequark.TheyareexcitedstatesofthebottomXibaryon.[127][128]

On13July2015,theLHCbcollaborationatCERNreportedresultsconsistentwithpentaquarkstatesin
0

thedecayofbottomLambdabaryons(b).[129][130][131]Theresultshavenotyetundergonepeerreview.

Secondrun(2015onward)
AttheconferenceEPSHEP2015inJuly,thecollaborationspresentedfirstcrosssectionmeasurements
ofseveralparticlesatthehighercollisionenergy.

Planned"highluminosity"upgrade
Aftersomeyearsofrunning,anyparticlephysicsexperimenttypicallybeginstosufferfromdiminishing
returns:asthekeyresultsreachablebythedevicebegintobecompleted,lateryearsofoperation
discoverproportionatelylessthanearlieryears.Acommonoutcomeistoupgradethedevicesinvolved,
typicallyinenergy,inluminosity,orintermsofimproveddetectors.Aswellastheplanned20132015
increasetoitsintended14TeVcollisionenergy,aluminosityupgradeoftheLHC,calledtheHigh
LuminosityLHC,hasalsobeenproposed,[132]tobemadein2022.
TheoptimalpathfortheLHCluminosityupgradeincludesanincreaseinthebeamcurrent(i.e.the
numberofparticlesinthebeams)andthemodificationofthetwohighluminosityinteractionregions,
ATLASandCMS.Toachievetheseincreases,theenergyofthebeamsatthepointthattheyareinjected
intothe(Super)LHCshouldalsobeincreasedto1TeV.Thiswillrequireanupgradeofthefullpre
injectorsystem,theneededchangesintheSuperProtonSynchrotronbeingthemostexpensive.
CurrentlythecollaborativeresearcheffortofLHCAcceleratorResearchProgram,LARP,isconducting
researchintohowtoachievethesegoals.[133]

Safetyofparticlecollisions
TheexperimentsattheLargeHadronCollidersparkedfearsthattheparticlecollisionsmightproduce
doomsdayphenomena,involvingtheproductionofstablemicroscopicblackholesorthecreationof
hypotheticalparticlescalledstrangelets.[134]TwoCERNcommissionedsafetyreviewsexaminedthese
concernsandconcludedthattheexperimentsattheLHCpresentnodangerandthatthereisnoreason
forconcern,[135][136][137]aconclusionexpresslyendorsedbytheAmericanPhysicalSociety.[138]
ThereportsalsonotedthatthephysicalconditionsandcollisioneventswhichexistintheLHCand
similarexperimentsoccurnaturallyandroutinelyintheuniversewithouthazardousconsequences,[136]
includingultrahighenergycosmicraysobservedtoimpactEarthwithenergiesfarhigherthanthosein
anymanmadecollider.

Popularculture
TheLargeHadronCollidergainedaconsiderableamountofattentionfromoutsidethescientific
communityanditsprogressisfollowedbymostpopularsciencemedia.TheLHChasalsoinspired
worksoffictionincludingnovels,TVseries,videogamesandfilms.
ThenovelAngels&Demons,byDanBrown,involvesantimattercreatedattheLHCtobeusedina
weaponagainsttheVatican.InresponseCERNpublisheda"FactorFiction?"pagediscussingthe
accuracyofthebook'sportrayaloftheLHC,CERN,andparticlephysicsingeneral.[139]Themovie

versionofthebookhasfootagefilmedonsiteatoneoftheexperimentsattheLHCthedirector,Ron
Howard,metwithCERNexpertsinanefforttomakethescienceinthestorymoreaccurate.[140]
ThenovelFlashForward,byRobertJ.Sawyer,involvesthesearchfortheHiggsbosonattheLHC.
CERNpublisheda"ScienceandFiction"pageinterviewingSawyerandphysicistsaboutthebookand
theTVseriesbasedonit.[141]
Theshortstory"Breakthrough"byTomMorrisconsiderspossibleunexpectedandalarming
consequencesoftheLHCexperiments.Availableonline
(https://www.smashwords.com/books/view/155019)
CERNemployeeKatherineMcAlpine's"LargeHadronRap"[142]surpassed7millionYouTube
views.[143][144]ThebandLesHorriblesCernetteswasfoundedbywomenfromCERN.Thenamewas
chosensotohavethesameinitialsastheLHC.[145][146]
NationalGeographicChannel'sWorld'sToughestFixes,Season2(2010),Episode6"AtomSmasher"
featuresthereplacementofthelastsuperconductingmagnetsectionintherepairofthesupercollider
afterthe2008quenchincident.Theepisodeincludesactualfootagefromtherepairfacilitytotheinside
ofthesupercollider,andexplanationsofthefunction,engineering,andpurposeoftheLHC.[147]
TheLargeHadronColliderwasthefocusofthe2012studentfilmDecay,withthemoviebeingfilmed
onlocationinCERN'smaintenancetunnels.[148]
ThefeaturedocumentaryParticleFeverfollowstheexperimentalphysicistsatCERNwhorunthe
experiments,aswellasthetheoreticalphysicistswhoattempttoprovideaconceptualframeworkforthe
LHC'sresults.ItwontheSheffieldInternationalDoc/Festin2013.
OnionNewsNetworkfeaturedaparodiednewsstoryabouttheLHCtitled"BoredScientistsNowJust
StickingRandomThingsIntoLargeHadronCollider".[149]

Seealso
CompactLinearCollider
HighLuminosityLargeHadronCollider
InternationalLinearCollider
Listofacceleratorsinparticlephysics
ParticleFever
VeryLargeHadronCollider

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