Kevin P SULLIVAN. Wrestling With Angels. A Study of The Relationship Between Angels and Humans in Ancient Jewish Tradition and The Nerw Testament PDF

Wrestling with Angels
A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN ANGELS AND HUMANS IN
ANCIENT JEWISH LITERATURE
AND THE NEW TESTAMENT
KEVIN P. SULLIVAN
DORE: JACOB AND T H E ANGEL, 19th C.

Credit: The Granger Collection, New York
WRESTLING WITH ANGELS
ARBEITEN ZUR GESCHICHTE

DES ANTIKEN JUDENTUMS
UND DES
URCHRISTENTUMS
Ancient Judaism, and Early Christianity
h e r a u s g e g e b e n von
Martin Hengel (Tbingen),
Pieter W. van der Horst (Utrecht), Martin G o o d m a n (Oxford),
D a n i e l R . S c h w a r t z ( J e r u s a l e m ) , Cilliers B r e y t e n b a c h (Berlin),
Friedrich A v e m a r i e (Marburg), Seth Schwartz (New York)
LV
WRESTLING WITH ANGELS

A Study of the Relationship between Angels and
Humans
in Ancient Jewish Literature and the New
7 estament
BY
K E V I N P.
?
<
SULLIVAN
4
'68
A,
S
BRILL
LEIDEN BOSTON
2004
Library of C o n g r e s s Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sullivan, Kevin P. (Kevin Patrick), 1972
Wrestling with angels : a study of the relationship between angels and humans in ancient
Jewish literature and the New Testament / Kevin P. Sullivan.
p. cm. (Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums, ISSN
0169-734X ; 55)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 90-04-13224-4
1. AngelsHistory of doctrinesEarly church, ca. 30-600. 2. AngelsBiblical teaching.
3. Angels Judaism)History of doctrines. 4. Judaism History- Post-exilic period, 586
B.C.-210 A.D. I. Title. II. Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des
Urchristentums ; Bd. 55.
BT966.3S85 2003
235'.3'0901dc22
2003065166
ISSN
ISBN
0169-734X
90 04 13224 4
Copyright 2004 by Koninklijke Brill rw, Laden, The Netherlands

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Fees are subject to change.
PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS
To
P a u l a n d K a t h y Sullivan
and
In loving m e m o r y of
William ( 1 9 2 0 - 2 0 0 1 ) a n d
M a r y (1923-1999) Kuzava
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
xi
xiii
I n t r o d u c t i o n : Wrestling with Angels

Introduction
M e t h o d o l o g y a n d Sources
Survey of Previous Scholarship
Historical C o n t e x t
Outline
1
1
2
3
16
22
PART O N E
APPEARANCE
Introduction
27
37
"Blinded by the Light": Angels as H u m a n Beings
2.1
T h e Book of Genesis
2.2
T h e Book of J o s h u a
2.3
T h e Book of J u d g e s
2.4
T h e Books of Z e c h a r i a h a n d Ezekiel
2.5
T h e Book of D a n i e l
2.6
T h e Book of T o b i t
2.7
T h e Gospels
2.8
T h e Acts of the Apostles
2.9
T h e Apocalypse of J o h n
2.10 J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t h
2.11 T h e S h e p h e r d of H e r m a s
2.12 T h e Apocalypse of A b r a h a m
Conclusions
37
55
57
59
61
65
66
71
74
76
79
81
82
" Y o u L o o k Positively Angelic": H u m a n Beings as

Angels
3.1 A d a m
3.2 Seth(el)
3.3
Enoch
3.4
Noah
3.5
Melchizedek
3.6
Jacob/Israel
3.7
Moses
3.8
David
3.9
T h e Prophets
3.10 J o h n the Baptist
3.11 J e s u s
3.12 S t e p h e n
3.13 Paul
3.14 T a x o
3.15 T h e H i g h Priest in H e c a t e u s of A b d e r a
3.16 T h e D a u g h t e r s of J o b
3.17 O n Being like Angels in H e a v e n
Conclusions
85
85
90
91
93
96
98
103
107
109
Ill
114
118
121
125
127
129
131
139
PART T W O
INTERACTION
Introduction
145
147
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
"Angels in O u r M i d s t " : H u m a n - A n g e l C o m m u n i t i e s
T h e Songs of the S a b b a t h Sacrifice ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 7 ,
11 Q,17, Maslk)
T h e W a r Scroll ( 1 Q M a n d 4 Q 4 9 1 - 4 9 6 )
The Hodayot (1QH)
T h e R u l e of the C o m m u n i t y ( 1 Q S , l Q S a , a n d
1 Q S b)
Songs of the Sage ( 4 Q 5 1 1 F r a g m e n t 35)
T h e Corinthian Community
T h e C o m m u n i t y of the R e c h a b i t e s (Hist. Rech)
149
155
161
163
165
167
171
" G u e s s W h o ' s C o m i n g to D i n n e r " : Hospitality a n d

E a t i n g with Angels
5.1 T h e Book of Genesis 1 8 - 1 9

5.2 T h e Book of J u d g e s 6 a n d 13
5.3 T h e Book of T o b i t 5 - 1 2
5.4 J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t h 15
16
5.5 T h e T e s t a m e n t of A b r a h a m
5.6 T h e Gospel of L u k e
5.7 T h e Epistle to the H e b r e w s a n d Christian Hospitality....
Conclusions
6
" T h e y M i g h t Be G i a n t s " : H u m a n - A n g e l H y b r i d
Offspring
179
182
184
186
187
189
191
193
194
197
6.1 Genesis 6 : 1 4 in the H e b r e w Bible

6.2
1 E n o c h 6 11: T h e Book of W a t c h e r s
6.3 T h e S e p t u a g i n t
6.4 T h e D e a d Sea Scrolls
6.5 T h e Book of J u b i l e e s
6.6 J o s e p h u s a n d Philo
6.7 O t h e r S e c o n d T e m p l e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
6.8 Early C h r i s t i a n Writings
6.9 L a t e r J e w i s h I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
Conclusions
197
200
205
207
213
215
219
221
223
224
227
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
C o n c l u s i o n : L i m p i n g t o w a r d a Better U n d e r s t a n d i n g
T h e R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n H u m a n s a n d Angels
C o s m o l o g y a n d Angelology
Christology a n d Angelology
Early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n Mysticism a n d Angelology....
227
229
231
235
Select Bibliography
237
Modern Author Index

Subject I n d e x
Ancient Literature Index
255
260
265
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h i s book is a modified f o r m of m y doctoral thesis s u b m i t t e d to the

Faculty of T h e o l o g y at the University of O x f o r d in M a y of 2002. I
c o m p l e t e d t h e m a n u s c r i p t while a Visiting Assistant P r o f e s s o r at
Illinois W e s l e y a n University.
T h e r e are m a n y people w h o I w o u l d like to take the o p p o r t u n i t y
h e r e to t h a n k for their s u p p o r t over m y m a n y years of study on
t h r o u g h to the c o m p l e t i o n of this book.
First, I w o u l d like to t h a n k m y dissertation supervisors: Professors
M a r t i n G o o d m a n a n d C h r i s t o p h e r R o w l a n d . O x f o r d was a n incredible e d u c a t i o n a l experience a n d t h a t was d u e in large p a r t to this
d e d i c a t e d a n d l e a r n e d p a i r of m e n t o r s . I w o u l d like to t h a n k C h r i s
R o w l a n d f o r suggesting the w o r k i n g title "Wrestling with Angels."
T h e title stuck a n d p r o v e d to b e a fitting m e t a p h o r for the entire
e n d e a v o u r . I w o u l d like also to t h a n k M a r t i n G o o d m a n for suggesting t h a t I send m y m a n u s c r i p t to Brill.
T h e s u p p o r t of m y friends while at O x f o r d was invaluable in m y
c o m p l e t i n g the D.Phil. Listing their n a m e s h e r e is a paltry w a y to
recognize their respective gifts of time, s u p p o r t a n d c o m p a n i o n s h i p ,
b u t it is at least a start t o w a r d t h a n k i n g t h e m : G e o r g a G o d w i n ,
R e v d . J o h n Lewis, R e v d . D r . A n t h o n y D a n c e r , D r . S t u a r t C h e p e y ,
K i m C h e p e y , J e r e m y a n d T r i s h a Boccabello, H e l e n a n n Francis, Nick
Smith, A t s u h i r o A s a n o , D r . P a u l Foster a n d D r . C h e r r y Kingsley.
Special t h a n k s to m y dissertation e x a m i n e r s Prof. Alison Salvesen
a n d Prof. A n d r e w C h e s t e r . T h e i r t h o u g h t f u l r e a d i n g of m y thesis
was a p p r e c i a t e d , a n d their f e e d b a c k p r o v e d m o s t helpful as I c o n v e r t e d f r o m thesis to m o n o g r a p h .
I n r e g a r d to p u b l i c a t i o n I w o u l d like to acknowledge gratefully
the permission of the G r a n g e r Collection to include the i m a g e of
G u s t a v e D o r e ' s ' J a c o b Wrestling the A n g e l . " I w o u l d also like to
the t h a n k Ms. Louise S c h o u t e n a n d M s . A n i t a R o o d n a t of Brill
Academic Publishers for their p r o m p t a n d professional support throughout the publication process, a n d M s . M a r g a r e t L o u r i e for h e r copyediting skills.
A n u m b e r of scholars h a v e b e e n very supportive a t various stages
of m y studies. A m e r e m e n t i o n of t h e m does n o t do justice to their
respective c o n t r i b u t i o n s , b u t I w o u l d like to m a k e sure t h e y a r e
a c k n o w l e d g e d here: Prof. J a r l Fossum, Prof. C h a r l e s Gieschen, Prof.

Brian S c h m i d t , Prof. A n n H a n s o n , Prof. E u g e n e Ulrich, Prof. R e x
M a s o n , Prof. T e r r y W i l f o n g , a n d Prof. J a n e S c h a b e r g . M o s t i m p o r tantly, t h o u g h , I w o u l d like to acknowledge the g u i d a n c e a n d s u p p o r t
of Prof. April D e C o n i c k . H e r help this past y e a r in p a r t i c u l a r with
b o t h t e a c h i n g a n d the publication process has b e e n truly invaluable.
M y family a n d friends h a v e always b e e n supportive of m y e d u cational e n d e a v o u r s . I fear t h a t a n y a t t e m p t to n a m e t h e m w o u l d
only prove exclusionary, but s o m e n a m e s deserve a m e n t i o n h e r e
for h a v i n g been particularly supportive: Virginia Markowski, Kris a n d
R e n e ' K u z a v a , C a s e y Sullivan, K e v i n Bragg, M i c h a e l G . C a r p e n t e r ,
M a r c L a n o u e , K a t i e Littlepage, M i c h e l e M a c o i t T e d Milliner, D a v i d
N a t h a n i e l , K e v i n V a n d e r L a a n , a n d H a r v e y Wilson.
Ver) special t h a n k s go to m y sister, Kelly Sullivan. A loving sister, p a t i e n t p r o o f - r e a d e r , a n d email p a r t n e r , all in one. I w o u l d n o t
have m a d e it t h r o u g h all the tough times I faced t h r o u g h o u t m y
studies w i t h o u t her.
Lastly, this b o o k is d e d i c a t e d to f o u r p e o p l e w i t h o u t w h o m it
would n o t h a v e b e e n possible. T o m y g r a n d p a r e n t s , William a n d
M a r y K u z a v a , b o t h of w h o m passed a w a y d u r i n g m y t e n u r e in
O x f o r d . M a y they rest in p e a c e . M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , t h o u g h , to m y
p a r e n t s , Paul a n d K a t h y Sullivan. T h e r e is n o w a y to t h a n k t h e m
for e v e r y t h i n g they have d o n e t h r o u g h o u t m y life. I h o p e t h a t they
rightly take d u e p r i d e in this a c h i e v e m e n t .
ABBREVIATIONS
T h e a b b r e v i a t i o n s used in this m o n o g r a p h follow the Society of Biblical

Literature Handbook of Style: For Near Eastern, Biblical and Early Christian
Studies (ed. Patrick H . A l e x a n d e r , Society of Biblical L i t e r a t u r e , 1997)
5 8 - 1 6 2 with the addition of:
Gen. Apoc. f o r the Genesis Apocryphon ( - 1 Q a p G e n a r = 1Q20)
HJPAJC for Emil S c h r e r , The History of the Jewish People in the Age
of Jesus Chiist
JA f o r Joseph and Aseneth
Mss. for m a n u s c r i p t s
SSS for the " S o n g s of the S a b b a t h Sacrifice" ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 5 ,
11Q17).
A m o n g the m o s t frequently used a b b r e v i a t i o n s in this b o o k are:

ABD
CBQ
ODD
The Anchor Bible Dictionary

Catholic Biblical Quarterly
K . v a n d e r T o o r n , B. Becking, a n d P. van d e r H o r s t , eds.,
HTR
JBL
JJS
Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible

Harvard Theological Review
Journal of Biblical Literatim
Journal, of Jewish Studies
JSJ
JSNT
JTS
LXX
NT
NTS
OTP
RQ
SBLSP
Journal, for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and

Roman Period
Journal for the Study of the New Testament
Journal of Theological Studies
Septuagint
New Testament
New Testament Studies
J . C h a r l e s w o r t h ed., Old Testament Pseudepigrapha
Revue de Qumran
Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION: WRESTLING WITH
1.1
ANGELS
Introduction
T h i s m o n o g r a p h investigates t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s
and
a n g e l s as discussed in t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d
e a r l y C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d (200 B C E - 1 0 0 C E ) .
A n g e l s a r e f o u n d in m a n y b o o k s of t h e H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s , t h e
N e w T e s t a m e n t , a n d a significant n u m b e r of t h e e x t a n t extra-Biblical
writings. T h e discovery of the D e a d S e a Scrolls s e r v e d t o r e m i n d
m o d e r n s c h o l a r s t h a t m a n y , if n o t all, J e w i s h g r o u p s h a d
beliefs
a b o u t angels. Angels, t h e n , w e r e a significant p a r t of late
Second
T e m p l e J e w i s h a n d early C h r i s t i a n c o s m o l o g y . Y e t t h e s t u d y of a n g e l
beliefs o n t h e w h o l e h a s n o t b e e n a serious t o p i c in e a r l i e r studies.
R e c e n t l y , s c h o l a r s h a v e b e g u n to investigate this significant c o r p u s
of m a t e r i a l o n angels, p r i m a r i l y o u t of a n interest in t h e i m p a c t of
a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of C h r i s t o l o g y .
O n e a s p e c t of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t h a s r e c e i v e d o n l y
a t t e n t i o n t h u s f a r is t h e s o m e t i m e s c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p
modest
between
h u m a n s a n d angels. W h e n t h e y a p p e a r to h u m a n s , a n g e l s o f t e n take
o n t h e f o r m of h u m a n s . H u m a n s a r e s o m e t i m e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
in
angelic c a t e g o r i e s , a n d s o m e h u m a n s a r e e v e n said to t r a n s f o r m i n t o
angels. M o r e o v e r , angels i n t e r a c t w i t h h u m a n s in i n t i m a t e ways, s u c h
as b y c o e x i s t i n g in specific c o m m u n i t i e s , a p p e a r i n g to p a r t a k e
of
h u m a n hospitality, a n d also, in a t least o n e line of t r a d i t i o n , h a v i n g

viable o f f s p r i n g w i t h h u m a n
women.
B e c a u s e of this close a n d c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p , s o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e
s u g g e s t e d t h a t a n c i e n t a u t h o r s e q u a t e d h u m a n s w i t h angels.
The
e x a m i n a t i o n u n d e r t a k e n in this s t u d y a i m s to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a n d
to w h a t e x t e n t a n c i e n t a u t h o r s m a d e a n y s u c h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n
h u m a n s a n d angels. As will b e seen f r o m the survey of s c h o l a r s h i p
b e l o w (1.3), t h e a n s w e r to this q u e s t i o n is itself n o t only i n t e r e s t i n g
a n d v a l u a b l e b u t also h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e m e r g e n c e of C h r i s t o l o g y a n d e a r l y J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n
mysticism.
Ultimately, the p r e p o n d e r a n c e of t h e evidence suggests n o compelling

reason to believe t h a t writers f r o m this p e r i o d h a d a n y difficulty distinguishing b e t w e e n the two g r o u p s of beings.
1.2
Methodology and Sources
It is t h e a i m of this study to e x a m i n e all the relevant literary sources

f r o m the p e r i o d of c. 200 B G E to c. 100 C E to d e t e r m i n e w h a t
they reveal a b o u t the relationship b e t w e e n angels a n d h u m a n s . T h e
sources to be assessed are, o n the whole, texts w h e r e the w o r d s
^ [ / (Latin: angelus) a p p e a r . H o w e v e r , a n u m b e r of t e r m s
m a y refer to the beings k n o w n as angels (e.g., spirits, stars, hosts,
princes, powers, et al.). Since t e r m s derive t h e i r m e a n i n g f r o m use
in context, the selection of evidence has b e e n driven by usage. If it
seems p r o b a b l e given the c o n t e x t of a passage t h a t the evidence c a n
p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d
angels, t h e n it h a s b e e n included.
S u c h a n e x a m i n a t i o n , h o w e v e r , is extensive in scope, since this
evidence is f o u n d in a variety of genres a n d c o m e s f r o m a variety
of social contexts. T h e p r i m a r y sources are the writings f r o m : the
H e b r e w Bible, the L X X , the D e a d Sea Scrolls, r a b b i n i c literature,
the T a r g u m i m ; Philo a n d J o s e p h u s , the N e w T e s t a m e n t , the early
c h u r c h fathers, a n d the so-called P s e u d e p i g r a p h a . T h e use of each
source is discussed as the material a p p e a r s in the course of the e x a m ination. T w o specific g r o u p s of sources deserve s o m e c o m m e n t f r o m
the outset, h o w e v e r . T h e evidence f r o m the T a r g u m i m a n d the r a b bis d a t e s in l a r g e p a r t well a f t e r t h e p a r a m e t e r s of this s t u d y .
Nevertheless, the traditions therein m a y d a t e b a c k to a m u c h earlier period. T h e r e f o r e , it is i m p o r t a n t at least to c o n s i d e r w h a t this
evidence m a y h a v e to say a b o u t h u m a n - a n g e l relationships. T h e
P s e u d e p i g r a p h a represents a different p r o b l e m . A m o n g the bodies of
literature m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , it is the least c o h e r e n t as a c o r p u s . I n
fact, the collections of the O T P s e u d e p i g r a p h a by R . H . C h a r l e s
a n d , m o r e recently, J . C h a r l e s w o r t h h a v e to some extent solidified
their consideration as a c o r p u s , b u t these writings r e p r e s e n t a vast
variety of genres, c o m e f r o m different social contexts, h a v e different
transmission histories, a n d d a t e f r o m q u i t e a r a n g e of t i m e periods.
T h e r e f o r e , careful attention will be p a i d to contextualizing these docum e n t s in p a r t i c u l a r b e f o r e assessing the evidence they provide.
G i v e n this r a n g e of p r o v e n a n c e , t h e c h a l l e n g e is t o assess this evid e n c e i m p a r t i a l l y a n d p r e s e n t t h e p i c t u r e t h a t e m e r g e s as a c c u r a t e l y

as possible. T h e m e t h o d e m p l o y e d h e r e is to i n t e r p r e t e a c h p i e c e of
evidence separately. A r g u m e n t s for inclusion a n d dating are m a d e
as n e c e s s a r y . T h e i m p a c t of t h e g e n r e of t h e l i t e r a t u r e in w h i c h t h e
e v i d e n c e is f o u n d is discussed. I n a s m u c h as it is possible to d e t e r m i n e , t h e social c o n t e x t of t h e e v i d e n c e is c o n s i d e r e d . O n c e t h e evid e n c e is situated as m u c h as possible in its c o n t e x t , it is assessed f o r
w h a t it c a n tell us a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
Before examining the evidence, however, there are three prelimi n a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . First, a discussion of t h e p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p
a i m s to set this s t u d y w i t h i n t h e w i d e r s c o p e of s c h o l a r s h i p . S e c o n d ,
a s u r v e y of t h e history a n d v a r i e t y of t h e a n g e l beliefs in this p e r i o d
situates t h e l i t e r a r y e v i d e n c e t o b e investigated w i t h i n its l a r g e r historical c o n t e x t . T h i r d , t h e p a r t s of t h e b o o k a r e briefly o u t l i n e d to
o r i e n t t h e r e a d e r to the a p p r o a c h t a k e n .
1.3
Survey of Previous
Scholarship
T h e following section surveys p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p in o r d e r to d e m o n strate (a) w h a t s c h o l a r s h a v e said a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between
h u m a n s a n d angels, (b) w h e r e c o n f u s i o n h a s arisen, a n d (c) t h a t t h e r e

is a n e e d f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h in this a r e a .
(a) Early
Studies
P. S c h f e r 5 s 1975 s t u d y Rivalitt
zwischen
Engeln und Menschen:
Unter-
suchungen z- rabbin. Engelvorstellung collected a n d e x a m i n e d 74 r a b b i n i c

texts t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e d a rivalry b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. 1 Alt h o u g h his s t u d y l o o k e d a t e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e l a t e r r a b b i n i c p e r i o d ,
m u c h of w h i c h is difficult t o d a t e , it is n o t e w o r t h y for this discussion, since his b o o k w a s a m o n g t h e first look systematically at a n y
a s p e c t of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. G i v e n
difficulty of d a t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l s f r o m w h i c h h e d r a w s
the
evidence,
S c h f e r p r u d e n t l y c h o s e a t h e m a t i c a r r a n g e m e n t (e.g., Israel,
the
h i g h priest, Moses) f o r t h e text a n d his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 2 H i s overall

1
P. Schfer, Rivalitt zwischen Engeln und Meuchen: Untersuchungen z rabbin. Engelvorstellwig

(New York: de Gruyter, 1975).
2
P. Schfer, Rivalitt, pp. 75-218.
c o n c l u s i o n w a s t h a t in t h e r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l a n g e l s o p p o s e h u m a n s
b e c a u s e h u m a n n a t u r e is sinful a n d a t o d d s w i t h G o d ' s ( a n d
angels') holiness.
the
S c h f e r briefly s u r v e y e d a s p e c t s of post-Exilic a n g e l beliefs as a

p r e c u r s o r to his analysis of t h e r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l to s h o w b o t h c o n tinuity in a n d n e w aspects of a n g e l beliefs in t h e r a b b i n i c writings. 4
Little e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e post-Exilic p e r i o d d e m o n s t r a t e s a n y explicit
rivalry b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. 5 It s e e m s likely t h a t t h e w i d e
v a r i e t y of a n g e l beliefs in this p e r i o d m a y h a v e led t o c o n f u s i o n o v e r
t h e p l a c e of h u m a n s in t h e celestial h i e r a r c h y , p a r t i c u l a r l y
when
h u m a n s a r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o angels. T h e seeds of t h e rivalry in t h e

sinfulness of h u m a n s a r e c e r t a i n l y p r e s e n t in t h e G e n 6 m a t e r i a l a n d
its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
A. S e g a l ' s Two Powers in Heaven l o o k e d a t t h e " t w o p o w e r s " h e r e s y
of r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m t h a t is, t h e belief t h a t p o w e r in h e a v e n
was
s h a r e d b e t w e e n G o d a n d a n o t h e r p r e e m i n e n t (but c r e a t e d ) b e i n g . 6
Segal sees e l e m e n t s in e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y as r e p r e s e n t i n g o n e of t h e
earliest f o r m s of this " h e r e s y . " W i t h i n this f r a m e w o r k , h e a r g u e s t h a t
the e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s identified s o m e " h u m a n
figures
in h e a v e n
and
angelic m e d i a t o r s " w i t h J e s u s . 7 Segal w a s n o t t h e first, a n d c e r t a i n l y

n o t t h e last, s c h o l a r to c o n s i d e r t h e i m p a c t of a n g e l o l o g y o n
d e v e l o p m e n t of C h r i s t o l o g y .
the
So, c e r t a i n l y , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s c r e a t e s a n a v e n u e f o r discussion in t h e p e r s o n
of J e s u s . As will b e seen in t h e c o m m e n t s b e l o w , s t u d y in this a r e a
b u r g e o n e d in t h e
1990s.
I n a s h o r t b u t salient 1980 article J . C h a r l e s w o r t h collected seven

texts t h a t h e s a w as d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e p o r t r a y a l of r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s
8
P. Schfer, Rivalitt, p. 222.

P. Schfer, Rivalitt, pp. 9-40. Although useful for his study and without parallel at the time, this survey is largely superseded by M. Mach's extensive analysis
(see discussion of Mach beiow).
5
A notable exception perhaps being the Apoc. Ab. 9-32.
6
A. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven: Early Rabbinic Reports about Christianity and Gnosticism
(Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1977).
7
A. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven, p. 208.
8
A comprehensive survey of the history of research in angel Christology can be
found in C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden:
E. J. Brill, 1997) 7-25; M. Werner (1941) was among the first scholars to make a
strong case for angel Christology. lie was rebuked harshly by W. Michaelis (1942),
and the subject was not picked up for some time until J. Danilou (1964) reopened
the discussion. This survey of scholarship resumes in the 1980s, when angelology
began to be studied more broadly, and not simply with regard to angel Christology.
4
as angels. 9 T h e texts h e p r e s e n t e d p r i m a r i l y c a m e f r o m w o r k s t h a t
f o u n d t h e i r w a y i n t o t h e t w o - v o l u m e Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, w h i c h
h e w a s e d i t i n g a t t h e s a m e t i m e . H e a r g u e s t h a t this p h e n o m e n o n
of a n g e l i c p o r t r a y a l a n d also angelic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of h u m a n s "is
c e r t a i n l y a J e w i s h c o n c e p t t h a t a n t e d a t e s the s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E a n d
m a y p r e d a t e t h e fall of J e r u s a l e m i n 70." 1 0 Y e t t h e d a t i n g of a n u m b e r of t h e texts t h a t a r e i n c l u d e d , s u c h as 2 E n o c h o r t h e " H i s t o r y
of t h e R e c h a b i t e s , " is v e r y m u c h d e b a t e d . A l t h o u g h s p a c e did n o t
p e r m i t C h a r l e s w o r t h to m a k e solid, i n d i v i d u a l cases f o r t h e d a t i n g of
a n u m b e r of t h e texts, t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of his s t u d y w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s
significant. His article b r o u g h t to scholarly a t t e n t i o n t h e possibility
t h a t h u m a n portrayal in angelic categories a n d also h u m a n t r a n s f o r m a tion i n t o a n g e l s w a s p o t e n t i a l l y a
first-century
will b e seen in c h a p t e r 3 of this s t u d y , t h e
C E p h e n o m e n o n . As
figures
often associated
with such t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s w e r e individuals w h o h a d lived a particularly

righteous
life a n d / o r h a d a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d in t h e i r
h u m a n e x i s t e n c e (e.g., A d a m o r J a c o b ) .
I n his b o o k , The Open Heaven, a n d in several s u b s e q u e n t articles,
C. Rowland
h a s d i s c u s s e d a s p e c t s of a n g e l o l o g y . 1 1 In
particular,
R o w l a n d h a s d r a w n a t t e n t i o n to t h e role t h a t i m a g e r y used to c h a r a c t e r i z e angels h a s p l a y e d in d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e risen C h r i s t . T h i s

h a s led h i m to a d v o c a t e u s i n g t h e t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " 1 2
(based
o n t h e w o r k of J . D a n i l o u ) in discussions a b o u t t h e i n f l u e n c e of
angel traditions o n Christology r a t h e r t h a n "angelic'' since, as R o w l a n d
states, " T h i s kind of description [angelomorphic] in n o w a y implies t h a t
C h r i s t w a s identified entirely w i t h t h a t c r e a t e d o r d e r [the a n g e l s ] . " 1 3
T h e t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " h a s p r o v e n i n v a l u a b l e f o r m a k i n g sense
of c o m p l e x Christological d e v e l o p m e n t s , w h i c h c e r t a i n l y s e e m to h a v e
a p p r o p r i a t e d angelological motifs. As will b e seen b e l o w , h o w e v e r , t h e
t e r m h a s also b e e n a p p l i e d t o discussions of h u m a n s m o r e g e n e r a l l y ,
9
J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as an Angel" in Ideal Figures
in Ancient Judaism (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980) 135-151.
10
J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous," p. 135.
11
C. Rowland, Hie Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism, and Early Christianity
(New York: Crossroad, 1982). Also see his articles, "The Visions of God in Apocalyptic
Literature" JSJ 10 (1979) 137-154 and "A Man Clothed in Linen: Daniel 10:6ff.
and Jewish Angelology" JSKT 24 (1985) 99-110.
12
The depiction of particular beings in the form () of angels.
1S
C. Rowland, "A Man Clothed in Linen," p. 100.
so t h a t s o m e s c h o l a r s n o w s p e a k of a n " a r i g e l o m o r p h i c " h u m a n i t y . 1 4
T h e m e r i t of t h i n k i n g i n t e r m s of a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y in t h e
late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d d e e p l y i n f o r m s t h e
p r e s e n t study.
A r o u n d t h e s a m e t i m e as R o w l a n d a n d Segal, J . F o s s u m was invest i g a t i n g t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a n d t h e N a m e
of
G o d a n d t h e i r i m p a c t o n S a m a r i t a n a n d G n o s t i c t h o u g h t . 1 5 H i s study
led h i m to c o n c l u d e t h a t
the identification of the lieutenant of G o d as the Angel of the Lord
made it possible for various groups to detect this figure in their respective heroes of the pastAdam, Enoch, Melchizedek, J a c o b , Moses,
Jesus or Simon Magus. Whether 01 not actual pre-existence was claimed
for these men, a part of the tradition which identified the mediator
with a h u m a n being seems to have been that the hero ascended to
heaven and demonstrated his identity as God's plenipotentiary through
heavenly enthronement. 1 6
T h u s , for Fossum the evidence allowed r o o m for particular h u m a n s
to b e identified w i t h t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d , b u t p r i m a r i l y this w o u l d
t a k e p l a c e only w h e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a d a s c e n d e d to h e a v e n .
T h e t o p i c of a s c e n t s to h e a v e n in a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s w a s t a k e n
u p by M . H i m m e l f a r b several y e a r s later. 1 7 I n p a r t i c u l a r , h e r c h a p t e r
o n " T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d t h e R i g h t e o u s D e a d " f o c u s e d o n t h e ability
of h u m a n s to i n t e r a c t with angels. S h e u n d e r s t a n d s J e w i s h a n g e l o l o g y
as a n a t t e m p t t o b r i d g e t h e g a p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d G o d . S h e c o n e l u d e s , " I n d e e d it t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n
human
b e i n g s a n d a n g e l s a r e n o t v e r y c l e a r . ' " 8 S h e sees t w o m a i n s t r a n d s

of t r a d i t i o n : o n e in w h i c h g r e a t h e r o e s of t h e p a s t r e p r e s e n t h o w
close h u m a n i t y c a n c o m e to the divine, a n d a n o t h e r in w h i c h o r d i n a r y
14
Angelomorphic Christology and angelomorphic humanity are separate phenomena, however. Thinking of the development of Christology (i.e., ways of thinking
and talking about the risen Jesus) in angelic terms is not the same as saying there
was a widespread belief about humans being understood as angels, as authors such
as Fletcher-Louis and Gieschen have suggestedsee section (d) below.
15
J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord: Samaritan and Jewish Concepts
of Intermediation and the Origin of Gnosticism (Tbingen: J . C. B. Mhr, 1985) and later
his Image of the Invisible God: Essays on the Influence ofJewish Mysticism on Early Christianity
(Gttingen: Vanderhoeck and Ruprecht, 1995).
16
J. Fossum, The Name of God, p. 333.
17
M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1993).
18
M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, p. 70.
h u m a n s w h o a r e r i g h t e o u s c a n t a k e t h e i r p l a c e in the h e a v e n l y h i e r a r c h y a f t e r d e a t h . T h e s e traditions, t h e n , focus on h u m a n relationships

with a n g e l s in t h e h e a v e n s , usually a f t e r t h e i r m o r t a l life h a s e n d e d .
(b) Michael Mack's
Entwicklungsstadien
M . M a c h ' s Entwicklungsstadien
des judischen Engelglaubens in
vonabbinischer
Zeit is a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y t r a c i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n g e l beliefs
t h r o u g h r o u g h l y t h e s a m e p e r i o d as t h e p r e s e n t p r o j e c t (c. 2 0 0 B C E 100 CE). 1 9 H i s b o o k is w i d e in s c o p e , a t t e m p t i n g to t r a c e t h e develo p m e n t of a n g e l beliefs f r o m t h e Biblical p e r i o d t h r o u g h to t h e e n d
of t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . L i m i t a t i o n s of s p a c e a n d f o c u s o n t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t of ideas o v e r t i m e m e a n t t h a t h e w a s n o t a b l e t o deal
with s o m e t h e m e s r e l a t i n g to his g e n e r a l t o p i c in detail, b u t h e h a s
significant sections on h u m a n - a n g e l communities.20 H e
also, like
C h a r l e s w o r t h , h a s a section o n h u m a n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . 2 1
T w o of M a c h ' s initial c a v e a t s m e r i t r e i t e r a t i o n h e r e . First, M a c h
n o t e s t h a t Biblical " a n g e l o l o g y " is a p r o b l e m a t i c t e r m , since it suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a c o h e r e n t set of a n g e l beliefs f o r t h e e n t i r e
H e b r e w Bible. 2 2 I n d e e d , t h e r e is r e a s o n f o r c a u t i o n in t h e use of this
t e r m , since it implies a s y s t e m a t i c d o c t r i n e r e g a r d i n g angels.
The
e v i d e n c e f r o m this p e r i o d suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a w i d e v a r i e t y of
beliefs. N e v e r t h e l e s s , at t i m e s it will be useful t o talk of a specific
a u t h o r ' s o r g r o u p ' s " a n g e l o l o g y , " b u t w h e n s p e a k i n g of this p e r i o d
as a w h o l e , it is n o t a b l y m o r e p r u d e n t t o s p e a k of " a n g e l o l o g i e s . "
S e c o n d , M a c h n o t e s t h a t p r e v i o u s studies of angels a r e oversimplified
b e c a u s e t h e y a n a l y z e only t h o s e p a s s a g e s c o n t a i n i n g t h e w o r d " a n g e l
( ) . " T h e p r e s e n t s t u d y will largely (as M a c h himself d o e s despite
19
M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien des judischen Engelglaubens in vorrabinischer ^eit (Tbingen:

Mohr Siebeck, 1992).
20
In his third chapter see especially pp. 159-163; 209-219; 241-255. His chapter 4, "Die Gefahren Der Gemeinschaft," is also relevant. In English, "The Danger
of Communion" suggests the central therne is human-angel communities, but actually the discussion focuses more upon the ideological problems of the fusion of what
Mach calls "Biblical Angelology" (ideas he discussed in chapter 1) and GraecoJewish Angelology (chapter 2).
21
M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 163-173.
22
So also S. Olyan, who warns that, "The use of the common term 'angelology'
by scholars is problematic. It implies a single, systematic doctrine of angels, something that may have existed for some specific groups (perhaps the Qiimran sectarians), but certainly does not exist in rabbinic texts." S. Olyan, A Thousand Thousands
Served Him: Exegesis mid the Naming of Angels (Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991) 1 . 1.
his o w n w a r n i n g ) look a t e v i d e n c e w h e r e t h e t e r m " a n g e l " a p p e a r s ,

b u t it will also c o n s i d e r e v i d e n c e w h e r e divine b e i n g s a p p e a r to b e
i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h h u m a n s e v e n if v a r i o u s t e r m s a r e e m p l o y e d .
M a c h divides t h e m a t e r i a l i n t o f o u r c h a p t e r s t h a t follow t h e stages
of d e v e l o p m e n t . H i s first c h a p t e r looks a t Biblical a n g e l o l o g y .
He
sorts t h e m a n y a n g e l r e f e r e n c e s in t h e H e b r e w Bible a c c o r d i n g t o
f u n c t i o n , d i s c e r n i n g t w o m a i n s t r a n d s of t r a d i t i o n t h e
c o u n c i l m o t i f a n d a n g e l s ( ) as " m e s s e n g e r s " t h a t
f u s e d in texts like t h e L X X of J o b . " T h e G r e c o - R o m a n
heavenly
eventually
termino-
logy for t h e N e w A n g e l o l o g y " is t h e s u b j e c t of M a c h ' s s e c o n d c h a p ter. H e looks at issues i n v o l v e d in t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of a n g e l t e r m s f r o m

t h e H e b r e w Bible i n t o t h e S e p t u a g i n t . I n t e r e s t i n g l y f o r o u r study,
M a c h sees t h e use of in t h e L X X as a b l a n k e t t e r m f o r desi g n a t i n g heavenly beings.
I n his t h i r d a n d largest c h a p t e r M a c h c o n s i d e r s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of a n g e l beliefs in extra-Biblical writings, s u r v e y i n g t h e b r e a d t h of
the t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t angels. H i s sections o n c o m m u n i o n w i t h angels
(pp.
1 3 2 - 3 3 , 2 0 9 - 1 9 ) a r e r e l e v a n t t o this s t u d y . I n a
somewhat
b r o a d e r sense t h a n is t a k e n in c h a p t e r 4 of this study, M a c h
dis-
cusses c o m m u n i o n w i t h a n g e l s in t h e f o r m s of c o m p a n i o n s in h e a v enly a s c e n t , i n t e r p r e t e r s / m e s s e n g e r s , stars, et al. H e a t t r i b u t e s
the
g r o w t h of a n g e l o l o g y in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d to t h e rise
of a p o c a l y p t i c i s m . O n t h e w h o l e t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a g r e e s w i t h this
assertion. M a c h also sees t h e f u s i o n of Biblical a n g e l o l o g y w i t h G r e e k
m y t h o l o g y in texts like Joseph and Aseneth.
I n his final c h a p t e r M a c h looks at w h a t h e calls " t h e d a n g e r s of
h u m a n - a n g e l c o m m u n i o n " (Die Gefahren Dei Gemeinschaft).
On
those
o c c a s i o n s w h e n a n g e l s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d b u t a r e a b s e n t (e.g., 2 C h r
36:15) o r in p a r t i c u l a r w h e n t h e i r role is d o w n p l a y e d , n a m e l y in t h e
N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d t h e w r i t i n g s of J o s e p h u s , M a c h suggests this
a b s e n c e r e p r e s e n t s a n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e to t h e o t h e r w i s e b u r g e o n i n g
a n g e l beliefs of t h e p e r i o d . A c c o r d i n g to M a c h , J o s e p h u s c o n s i d e r s
a n g e l beliefs d a n g e r o u s b e c a u s e of t h e i r i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n to t h e
"political-ideological" p r o b l e m of a p o c a l y p t i c i s m . T h a t is, a p o c a l y p t i c
writings o f t e n h a d politically d a n g e r o u s t h o u g h t s a n d ideas, s u c h as
the o v e r t u r n i n g of t h i s - w o r l d p o w e r s , so t h a t J o s e p h u s a n d also t h e
r a b b i s a f t e r h i m d o w n p l a y e d b o t h a p o c a l y p t i c i d e a s as well as a n g e l
beliefs in t h e i r desire to c o o p e r a t e w i t h R o m a n rule. 2 3 S u c h a c o n n e c 23
M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 300-333.
tion b e t w e e n t h e b u r g e o n i n g of a n g e l beliefs a n d t h e political aspects

of a p o c a l y p t i c w r i t i n g s is n o t w a r r a n t e d b y t h e e v i d e n c e , h o w e v e r .
F o r M a c h , t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t also reflects a d e l i b e r a t e a n d c o n sistent d o w n p l a y i n g of a n g e l beliefs. T h i s is d u e , h o w e v e r , to t h e
theological a n d C h r i s t o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s t h a t w e r e c r e a t e d as C h r i s t
c a m e to b e u n d e r s t o o d as divine. W h i l e this m a y b e p e r c e p t i b l e as a
t r e n d in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n g e l beliefs o v e r a n e x t e n d e d p e r i o d of
t i m e (with t h e b e n e f i t of hindsight), the 78 o c c u r r e n c e s of t h e w o r d
in t h e N T reflect a v a r i e t y of beliefs. S i n c e t h e d o c u m e n t s
of t h e N T c o m e f r o m a v a r i e t y of c o m m u n i t i e s a n d slightly d i f f e r e n t
times, it m a y n o t b e p r u d e n t to t h i n k of t r e n d s w i t h i n w h a t is n o w a
c o r p u s t h e N T a s if it w e r e a single b o d y of literature in t h e past. 2 4
T h u s , M a c h ' s w o r k is v e r y u s e f u l in t h a t it h a s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r
a n d s o u g h t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n g e l beliefs in t h e
p r e - r a b b i n i c p e r i o d . H i s s t u d y t o u c h e d u p o n s o m e of t h e s a m e a r e a s
as t h e p r e s e n t investigation, s u c h as t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the righte o u s i n t o a n g e l s a n d t h e c o m m u n i o n of a n g e l s w i t h h u m a n s .
The
r e l a t i o n s h i p of h u m a n s a n d angels, h o w e v e r , still m e r i t s g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n , especially in light of s o m e r e c e n t c o n c l u s i o n s m a d e b y t h o s e

studying angelomorphic
(c) Other Important
Christology.25
Studies on Angel
Beliefs
T w o a u t h o r s h a v e l o o k e d closely a t a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s in the D e a d S e a
Scrolls. 2 6 C . N e w s o m p u b l i s h e d t h e first c o m p l e t e t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e
l o n g - a w a i t e d Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 5 ) f r o m Q u m r a n
in 1985. 2 7 T h e Songs c o n t a i n a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t of m a t e r i a l
on
angels (including a w i d e r a n g e of t e r m s for h e a v e n l y beings). N e w s o m ' s

p u b l i c a t i o n of the texts, a l o n g w i t h s o m e s u b s e q u e n t analysis in v a r i o u s articles, h a s h e l p e d to m a k e this difficult m a t e r i a l m o r e accssible to scholars. 2 8 Also, h e r e n t r y 011 " a n g e l s " in t h e A n c h o r Bible
24
For a similar critique of this point, see the review by L. Hurtado in J TS 45
(1994) 636.
25
See section (d) below.
26
More recently, M. Mach has written the entry for "Angels" in the Encyclopedia
of the Dead Sea Scrolls (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 24-27, which contains a helpful summary of the DSS evidence and some useful insights on the relationship of humans and angels in that literature.
27
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice: A Critical Edition (Atlanta: Harvard
Semitic Studies, 1985).
28
C. Newsom and Y. Yadin, "The Masada Fragment of the Qiirnran Songs of
the Sabbath Sacrifice" Israel Exploration Journal 34 (1984) 77-88; C. Newsom,
D i c t i o n a r y is a n excellent s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a n y look a t angels. 2 9 E v e n

a c u r s o r y g l a n c e at this e n t r y , h o w e v e r , will s h o w t h a t n o t
much
w o r k h a s b e e n d o n e o n t h e relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. 3 0
M . D a v i d s o n ' s m o n o g r a p h , Angels at Qumran, c o m p a r e d a n g e l t r a d i tions in t h e D e a d Sea Scrolls a n d 1 E n o c h ( c h a p t e r s 1 - 3 6 , 7 2 - 1 0 8 ) . 3 1
D a v i d s o n ' s s t u d y filled a n o t a b l e void b y c o l l e c t i n g a n d
beginning
to a n a l y z e t h e large b o d y of a n g e l i c l i t e r a t u r e f o u n d in t h e w r i t i n g s
from the D e a d
S e a Scrolls. H i s analysis, h o w e v e r , d i d n o t
delve
deeply into t h e relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. Nevertheless,

D a v i d s o n says t h a t t h e a u t h o r s of t h e Q u m r a n
sectarian
writings
a n d t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m 1 E n o c h largely c o n c e i v e of t h e r e a l m s of
h u m a n s a n d of angels as t w o distinct r e a l m s . H e a d m i t s t h a t
All writers presuppose a separation between the realms of angels and
humans, a spatial dualism, but this gap, in various ways, is frequently
bridged. Nevertheless, it appears that all our authors would hold to the
view that the proper dwelling-place of angels is in heaven, even though
m a n y of the angels engage in various activities around the cosmos. 32
So, in D a v i d s o n ' s analysis, t h e g a p is b r i d g e d , b u t n o i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
is m a d e b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
S o m e o t h e r s c h o l a r s h a v e m a d e i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e
g e n e r a l discussion of t h e n a t u r e of h u m a n s a n d angels. C . R . A.
M o r r a y - J o n e s h a s p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e a t t a i n m e n t of a n g e l i c life m a y
b e seen as " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l m y s t i c i s m . " 3 3 T h o u g h h e focuses o n t h e
r a b b i n i c a n d H e k h a l o t traditions, h e also looks a t t h e J e w i s h p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l . H e h a s also s e e n this s a m e p h e n o m e n o n in Paul. 3 4
M . B a r k e r ' s The Great Angel c o n s i d e r e d t h e i m p a c t of a n e x a l t e d
a n g e l t r a d i t i o n o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of C h r i s t o l o g y . 3 5 I n l o o k i n g at
"Merkabah Exegesis in the Qumran Sabbath Shirot" JJS 38 (1987) 11 30 ;C. Newsom,
"He Has Established for Himself Priests" in Archaeology and History in the Dead Sea
Scrolls, ed. L. Schiffman (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1990) 101-120.
29
C. Newsom, "Angels: O T " in ABD 1:248-253.
30
See her subsection on "Relations between Angels and Humans" in ABD 1:250
for a brief discussion on Gen 6:1-4.
31
M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran: A Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1-36, 72-108 and
the Sectarian Writings from Qumran (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994).
32
M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, p. 291.
33
C. R. A. Morray-Jones, "Transformational Mysticism in the ApocalypticMerkabah Tradition" JJS 43 (1992) 1-31.
34
C. R. A. Morray-Jones, "Paradise Revisited (2 Cor 12:1-12): The Jewish Mystical
Background of Paul's Apostalate. Part 1: The Jewish Sources" HTR 86 (1993)
177-217; "Part 2: Paul's Heavenly Ascent and Its Significance," pp. 265-292.
35
M. Barker, The Great Angel: A Study of Israel's Second God (London: SPCK, 1992).
t h e e v i d e n c e of " t h e sons of G o d , " she states, "All t h e texts in t h e

H e b r e w Bible distinguish clearly b e t w e e n t h e divine sons of E l o h i m /
E l y o n a n d t h o s e h u m a n b e i n g s w h o a r e called sons of Y a h w e h . " 3 6
T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n is v a l u a b l e , since " s o n s of G o d " is a t e r m
that
s o m e t i m e s refers to angels. H e r distinction a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h f o r m

of t h e divine n a m e is used m a y h a v e a n i m p a c t o n o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of t h e t e r m " s o n s of G o d " a n d its r e l a t i o n t o h u m a n s a n d
divine
beings. H e r a s s e r t i o n is b o r n e o u t by t h e e v i d e n c e , in t h a t t h e t e r m
" s o n s of E l o h i m " d o e s s e e m r e g u l a r l y t o r e f e r t o angels. 3 7 It is less
c l e a r t h a t t h e t e r m " s o n s of Y a h w e h " is exclusive to h u m a n s , since
t h e e v i d e n c e is fairly limited. 3 8
W . H o r b u r y ' s r e c e n t b o o k , Jewish
Messianism
and the Cult of Christ,
c o n t a i n s a n insightful section o n t h e " C o - o r d i n a t i o n of angelic a n d

[ h u m a n ] m e s s i a n i c deliverers." 3 9 H o r b u r y asks, " C o u l d t h e a n g e l i c
figures
w h o w e r e e n v i s a g e d as h e a v e n - s e n t deliverers h a v e
readily
b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a r t h l y l e a d e r s ? " 4 0 T o this h e r e s p o n d s in t h e
a f f i r m a t i v e , t h o u g h h e n o t e s t h a t , " d e l i v e r e r s c o n s i d e r e d in c o n t e m p o r a r y discussion of d i v i n e a g e n t s a r e n o t a l w a y s
unambiguously
angelic." 4 1
(d) Angelomorphic
Christology
In t h e 1990s several s c h o l a r s r e f o c u s e d scholarly a t t e n t i o n u p o n t h e

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of J e s u s C h r i s t w i t h t h e f o r m a n d / o r f u n c t i o n of a n
a n g e l t h a t is, a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y . A t t h e f o r e of this series
of studies w a s L. H u r t a d o ' s One God, One Lord, w h i c h a p p e a r e d in
its first e d i t i o n in 1988. H i s s t u d y s o u g h t to u n d e r s t a n d h o w n a s c e n t
C h r i s t i a n i t y c o u l d i n c o r p o r a t e J e w i s h m o n o t h e i s m and t h e w o r s h i p
of C h r i s t . H i s analysis i n c l u d e d a discussion of t h e r e l a t i o n of a n g e l o logy t o C h r i s t o l o g y . 4 2 H u r t a d o suggests t h a t t h e e a r l y
Christians
believed in a b i f u r c a t i o n of t h e g o d h e a d : G o d a n d C h r i s t . T h i s b i f u r c a t i o n s t e m s f r o m t h e i m p a c t of J e w i s h " d i v i n e a g e n c y " t r a d i t i o n s

u p o n t h e early C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t i o n s of C h r i s t ' s role. T h e distinctive
36
M. Barker, The Great Angel, p. 10.

E.g., Gen 6:2; Deut 32:8 (LXX); Job 1:6, 38:7; Ps 29:1. 82:1, 6; Dan 3:25.
38
See 1 Chr 28:6; Ps 2:7; Isa 9:6-7.
39
W. Horbury, Jewish Messianism and the Cult of Christ (London: SCM, 1998) 83.86
40
W. Horbury, Jewish Messianism, p. 83.
41
W. Horbury, Jewish Messianism, p. 84.
42
L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord: Early Christian Devotion and Andent Jewish Monotheism,
2nd ed. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998).
37
f e a t u r e of t h e C h r i s t i a n " m u t a t i o n " w a s t h a t t h e risen C h r i s t w a s

worshipped unlike a n y o t h e r divine a g e n t in t h e w i d e r J e w i s h m a t r i x .
H u r t a d o ' s discussion of " d i v i n e a g e n c y " d e a l t w i t h v a r i o u s aspects of
angelology f r o m t h e p e r i o d , including a c h a p t e r o n " E x a l t e d P a t r i a r c h s
as D i v i n e A g e n t s , " w h i c h a c t e d as a b a s i s f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y
G i e s c h e n , F l e t c h e r - L o u i s , a n d this a u t h o r .
by
43
L. H u r t a d o ' s w o r k elicited several responses, 4 4 t h e fullest of w h i c h

w a s b y L. S t u c k e n b r u c k , w h o looked specifically a t t h e issue of a n g e l
v e n e r a t i o n in t h e B o o k of R e v e l a t i o n a n d o t h e r r e l a t e d literature. 4 5
H i s m o n o g r a p h w a s largely a r e s p o n s e t o H u r t a d o ' s c l a i m s t h a t v e n e r a t i o n / w o r s h i p w a s a decisive f a c t o r in C h r i s t i a n i t y ' s
"mutation"
a w a y f r o m J u d a i s m . T h e w o r s h i p of a n g e l s as discussed b y
both
H u r t a d o a n d S t u c k e n b r u c k implies, at least, t h a t t h e r e is a c l e a r dist i n c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels; t h a t is, if angels w e r e in a n y

w a y a n o b j e c t of w o r s h i p by s o m e , t h e n t h e y w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n
c o n s i d e r e d to b e e q u i v a l e n t in n a t u r e t o h u m a n s . W h a t is u n c l e a r ,
h o w e v e r , is t o w h a t e x t e n t a n g e l v e n e r a t i o n w a s p r a c t i c e d . Y e t in
g e n e r a l a n g e l s ' r e f u s a l of w o r s h i p b y h u m a n s s e e m s to b e m o t i v a t e d
b y a c o n c e r n n o t for h u m a n - a n g e l e q u a l i t y b u t i n s t e a d f o r f o c u s i n g
reverence on God.
P. Carrell also investigated angel traditions in the Book of Revelation.
H i s a i m w a s to u n d e r s t a n d h o w a n d to w h a t e x t e n t t h o s e t r a d i t i o n s
i m p a c t e d t h e a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y t h e r e i n . 4 6 H i s d e f i n i t i o n of
t h e t e r m " a n g e l s " is " h e a v e n l y b e i n g s , distinct f r o m G o d a n d
from
human bangs, w h o exist t o serve G o d as m e s s e n g e r s , as t h e h e a v e n l y

c o n g r e g a t i o n a t w o r s h i p , a n d as a g e n t s of t h e divine will fulfilling a
variety of o t h e r functions." 4 ' E v e n t h o u g h h e e m p l o y s a tight definition
43
L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord, pp. 51-70; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology,
pp. 153-161; C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology and Soteriology (Tbingen:
Mohr Siebeck, 1997) 145-164; chapter 3 below.
44
P. Rainbow, "Jewish Monotheism as the Matrix for New Testament Christology:
A Review Article" N0vT33 (1991) 78-91; A. Chester, "Jewish Messianic Expectations,
Mediatorial Figures and Pauline Christology" in Paulus und das antike Judentums, ed.
M. Hengel and U. Heckel (Tbingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1991) 17-89; P. Davis, "Divine
Agents, Mediators, and New Testament Christology" JTS 45 (1994) 479-503.
45
L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology. A Study in Early Judaism and in
the Christology of the Apocalypse of John (Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1995).
w
P. Carrell, Jesus and the Angels: Angelology and Christology in the Apocalypse of John
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). R. Gundry, "Angelomorphic
Christology in the Book of Revelation" SBLSP (1994) 662-678, foresaw the need
for a study such as Carrell's.
47
P. Carrell, Jesus and the Angels, p. 14; italics mine.
of " a n g e l , " h e still i n c l u d e s a s e c t i o n o n e x a l t e d h u m a n s in his

" A n g e l o m o r p h i c F i g u r e s " c h a p t e r as a p a r t of the " a n g e l o l o g i c a l c o n text of t h e A p o c a l y p s e ' s C h r i s t o l o g y . " 4 8 F r o m t h e v a r i e t y of e v i d e n c e
t h a t h e surveys r e g a r d i n g h u m a n s a n d angels, h e c o n c l u d e s
that,
" W e c a n n o t b e c o n f i d e n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t J o h n [ a u t h o r of the A p o c a lypse, w r i t i n g a t t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y C E ] w o u l d h a v e b e e n

familiar with the idea t h a t a h u m a n could b e c o m e an angel."49
D. H a n n a h examined traditions regarding the archangel Michael
to see w h e t h e r these i n f o r m t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n angel Christology. 5 0
T h e p r o m i n e n c e of t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l in texts s u c h as D a n i e l , t h e
W a r Scroll, a n d t h e B o o k of R e v e l a t i o n l e n d s s u p p o r t to t h e assertion t h a t a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of J e s u s C h r i s t w i t h t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l is
highly plausible. H a n n a h ' s specific f o c u s o n M i c h a e l u n d e r s c o r e s t h e
c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n J e w i s h a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s a n d early
Christianity.
In his b o o k a n d in a l a t e r review of C . G i e s c h e n , H a n n a h is c a u tious in his a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e t e r m s " a n g e l , " " a n g e l i c , " a n d " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " w i t h r e g a r d to Christology. 5 1 O f p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e is his
n o t e t h a t " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " s h o u l d r e f e r to visual p o r t r a y a l s of C h r i s t
in t h e f o r m (based literally o n ) of a n a n g e l . T h e t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " in this s t u d y will refer to instances of h u m a n beings a p p e a r i n g in t h e f o r m of angels. T h e visual c o m p o n e n t of a n g e l p o r t r a y a l s
will b e discussed in c h a p t e r 2.
I n a s h o r t article o n p a t t e r n s of m e d i a t i o n a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n to
C h r i s t o l o g y , P. D a v i s h i n t e d a t t h e d i r e c t i o n s c h o l a r s w o u l d
next
explore. H e concludes:
O t h e r scholars have already noted a certain fluidity in the distinction
between God and his chief agents in some t e x t s . . . . By the same token,
when that agent is a h u m a n being, there might be some fluidity in the
distinction between the divine and the h u m a n in that particular case. 52
T w o s u b s e q u e n t studies o n C h r i s t o l o g y e x p l o r e d this possibility of
fluidity
48
in t h e distinction b e t w e e n t h e h u m a n a n d divine.
P. Carrell, Jesus and the Angels, pp. 77-90.

P. Carrell, Jesus and the Angels, p. 90.
50
D. Hannah, Michael and Christ: Michael Traditions and Angel Christology in Early
Christianity (Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999). Hannah's work built upon the seminal
study by W. Lueken, Michael (Gttingen: Vanderhoeck and Ruprecht, 1898).
51
D. Hannah, Michael and Christ, see esp. pp. 12-13; Review of C. Gieschen,
Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997) in JTS
51 (2000) 230-236.
52
P. Davis, "Divine Agents, Mediators, and New Testament Christology" JTS
45 (1994) 499.
49
C . G i e s c h e n is p e r h a p s t h e s t r o n g e s t a d v o c a t e f o r a n g e l o m o r p h i c
C h r i s t o l o g y . G i e s c h e n ' s w o r k is a collection of t h e a n t e c e d e n t s t o a n d
early e v i d e n c e for a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y t h r o u g h the f o u r t h c e n t u r y C E . 5 3 It is his a i m to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t " a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s . . . h a d
a significant i m p a c t o n t h e early e x p r e s s i o n of C h r i s t o l o g y . " 5 4
s u r v e y of t h e a n t e c e d e n t s i n c l u d e d a s e c t i o n o n
His
"angelomorphic
h u m a n s . " 5 5 F r o m his s u r v e y h e c o n c l u d e s t h a t " M a n y of these texts

testify t h a t h u m a n s c a n b e , o r b e c o m e , a n g e l o m o r p h i c w h i l e still
alive o n e a r t h , " a d d i n g , " h u m a n o n t o l o g y is n o t a q u e s t i o n t h a t t r o u bles t h e w r i t e r s of this l i t e r a t u r e . " 5 6 T h e c l a i m t h a t h u m a n s c o u l d
b e in s o m e w a y i d e n t i f i e d as angels in t h e i r e a r t h l y lives p u s h e d f u r tlier t h e b o u n d a r i e s of s c h o l a r s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e
relationship
b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s s t u d i e d t h e C h r i s t o l o g y a n d soteriology of L u k e Acts in light of a n g e l o m o r p h i c traditions. 5 Like G i e s c h e n , F l e t c h e r L o u i s ' s b a c k g r o u n d r e s e a r c h i n c l u d e d a significant section (the m o s t
t h o r o u g h of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d studies) o n a n g e l o m o r p h i c
ity.
58
human-
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s c o n c l u d e s his s u r v e y of this e v i d e n c e by saying
h e h o p e s to h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t " t h e r e w a s a well e s t a b l i s h e d
a n d significant t r a d i t i o n , o r e v e n t r a d i t i o n s , in w h i c h h u m a n
tity w a s u n d e r s t o o d in a n g e l i c c a t e g o r i e s . "
59
iden-
H e g o e s o n to say:
W e submit that an approach to the data . . . which does not impose a

rigid dualism, but rather accepts the openness and fluidity of h u m a n ,
angelic and Divine categories, allows for simplicity of interpretation,
and does most justice to the texts' own worldviews(s). Accordingly our
label 'angelomorphic', has proved heuristically invaluable. (Though of
course J e w s themselves used m a n y different terms equivalent to angelomorphic, such as holy ones, host, glorious ones, and were not afraid
to recognise that an angelomorphic h u m a n could be regarded as equivaient to 'a god'). 60
This approach
does create considerable confusion, however,
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s c o m e u n d e r s o m e criticism.
53
61
and
J . O ' N e i l l h a s cri-
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology.

C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 6.
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 152-183.
56
57
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts.
58
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, "Part : Jewish Angelomorphic Traditions," pp.
109-215.
59
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 211.
60
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 211-212.
61
Fletcher-Louis sometimes employs the term (angelic life) to
54
55
t i q u e d F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s c o n c l u s i o n s b e c a u s e " t h e s e c l a i m s to
onto-
logical i d e n t i t y a r e simply m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of t h e J e w i s h e v i d e n c e , "

a d d i n g , " t h e r e is a c l e a r a n d consistently m a i n t a i n e d d i f f e r e n c e in
kind b e t w e e n G o d a n d a n g e l s a n d h u m a n b e i n g s . " 6 2
O n e e x a m p l e f r o m a m o n g t h e texts to b e s t u d i e d will b e useful
for illustrating t h e q u e s t i o n a t h a n d . I n G a l a t i a n s 4 : 1 4 P a u l writes,
" a n d t h o u g h m y c o n d i t i o n w a s a trial to y o u , y o u d i d n o t s c o r n o r
despise m e , b u t r e c e i v e d m e as a n a n g e l of G o d , as C h r i s t J e s u s "
( , ). M o s t
interpreters
a r g u e t h a t P a u l h a s s o m e sort of c o m p a r i s o n in m i n d f o r i n s t a n c e ,
" y o u r e c e i v e d m e (as you) w o u l d receive a m e s s e n g e r / a n a n g e l of
G o d , as y o u w o u l d receive C h r i s t J e s u s
[ h i m s e l f ] . " I n his highly
r e g a r d e d c o m m e n t a i ) o n G a l a t i a n s , h o w e v e r , H . B e t z m a k e s this
interesting observation a b o u t the relationship between h u m a n s a n d
angels in his gloss o n 4:14, " T o b e s u r e , in a n t i q u i t y t h e r e w a s n o t
a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two, b e c a u s e o n e c o u l d n e v e r b e sure
w h e t h e r o n e was encountering a divine angel or a human messenger."63 B e t z ' s
s t u d e n t M . M i t c h e l l says c o n c e r n i n g t h e s a m e verse t h a t " t h e r e is
n o t h i n g in t h e p a s s a g e t o suggest t h a t P a u l likens h i m s e l f to t h e
s u p e r n a t u r a l e n v o y s , a n g e l s . " 6 4 T h e s e t w o j u x t a p o s e d o p i n i o n s clearly
d e m o n s t r a t e the c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n f u s i o n t h a t h a s arisen o v e r t h e m e a n i n g of P a u l ' s p h r a s e , b u t also t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d
angels generally. Recently C. Gieschen has argued for a strong angel
C h r i s t o l o g y u n d e r l y i n g this p h r a s e . 6 5 H i s exegesis, h o w e v e r , h a s b e e n
c h a l l e n g e d b y a n u m b e r of scholars. 6 6 T h u s , in c u r r e n t s c h o l a r s h i p
t h e r e s e e m s t o b e c o n s i d e r a b l e d e b a t e o v e r the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
describe his idea that individuals and communities are angelic in "this-life." The
use of this terminology confuses the issue further, however, since the term comes
from second century CE sources. The employment of it as a technical term implies
that the idea was widespread in the literature from an earlier period, but this is
not the case. Luke-Acts, pp. 184, 214-215.
62
J. O'Neill, Review of C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts in JTS 50 (1999) 225-230.
63
H. D. Betz, Galatians: A Commentary on Paul's Letter to the Churches in Galatia
(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979) 226; italics mine.
64
M. Mitchell, "New Testament Envoys" JBL 111 (1992) 646 n. 17. Contra
J. Fitzmyer, "But though the word is found in the New Testament in the
sense of a human messenger (Lk 7:24; 9:52; Jas 2:25), it is never used thus by
Paul." "A Feature of Qumran Angelology and the Angels of 1 Cor 11:10" NTS 4
(1957-58) 55.
65
66
See two reviews: J. Davila, JSJ 30 (1999) 344-346, and D. Hannah, JTS 51
(2000) 230-236.
(e)
Summary
W h a t p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p h a s said specifically a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d e a r l y
C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d is relatively limited. S c h f e r ' s s t u d y largely c o v e r e d
m a t e r i a l a f t e r o u r p e r i o d . T h e largest studies of t h e r e l e v a n t literat u r e p e r t a i n i n g to a n g e l s (e.g., M a c h a n d D a v i d s o n ) did n o t c o n s i d e r
this t o p i c as its o w n s u b j e c t . S m a l l e r studies, s u c h as C h a r l e s w o r t h
a n d H o r b u r y , c o v e r e d specific a s p e c t s of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .
I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of h u m a n s a n d angels
a r o s e in s o m e of the studies r e s e a r c h i n g a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y .
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s a n d G i e s c h e n did m o r e d e t a i l e d w o r k o n t h e s u b j e c t ,
b u t t h a t w o r k w a s d o n e in t h e c o n t e x t of
finding
evidence
for
a n t e c e d e n t s to a n g e l o m o r p h i c Christology. T h e s t r o n g e m p h a s i s u p o n
a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y in r e c e n t s c h o l a r s h i p o n a n g e l beliefs r e p resents s o m e t h i n g of a bias in s c h o l a r s h i p . It suggests t h a t angels c a n
o n l y b e discussed v a l u a b l y as t h e y relate to t h e h u m a n J e s u s
but
t h a t angels a r e n o t t h e m s e l v e s a valid s u b j e c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y in relation to h u m a n s g e n e r a l l y .

T h i s s t u d y a i m s t o investigate t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n angels a n d
h u m a n s as a p h e n o m e n o n w i t h i n t h e religious p u r v i e w of late S e c o n d
T e m p l e J u d a i s m , of which nascent Christianity was one part, a n d to a n s w e r
J. O ' N e i l l ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e r e w a s " a c l e a r a n d consistently m a i n tained difference in kind b e t w e e n G o d a n d angels a n d h u m a n beings." 5 7
L o o k i n g a t this p h e n o m e n o n
o n its o w n , w i t h o u t t h e p u r p o s e of
d e t e c t i n g its i n f l u e n c e o n l a t e r C h r i s t o l o g y , will a l l o w f o r a
more
u n b i a s e d view t h a t d o e s n o t privilege t h e e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g J e s u s .
N e x t , a s h o r t discussion of t h e c o n t e x t of s e c o n d T e m p l e
angel
t r a d i t i o n s is r e q u i r e d in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e a n t e c e d e n t s a n d c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s situation of the e v i d e n c e u p o n w h i c h this study focuses.
1.4
Historical
Context
Angels a r e f o u n d in texts f r o m all p e r i o d s of t h e H e b r e w t r a d i t i o n

f r o m t h e pre-Exilic d o w n to t h e B o o k of D a n i e l a n d b e y o n d . 5 8
67
J. O'Neill, JTS 50 (1999) 228.

For some good general summaries and surveys of angel traditions, see P. Schfer,
Rivalitat, pp. 940 ;Mach, Etitwicklwigsstadien; C. Newsom, "Angel: OT" in ABD 1:248253; and J . Ashton, "Bridging Ambiguities" in Studying John: Approaches to the Fourth
Gospel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994) 71-89.
68
T h e H e b r e w w o r d for a n g e l is
69
A t t h e m o s t g e n e r a l level
h a s t h e m e a n i n g of " m e s s e n g e r " o r " e n v o y . " T h e s a m e m e a n ings a p p l y for t h e G r e e k . 7 0 A m o r e t e c h n i c a l d e f i n i t i o n f o r

" a n g e l " is " a h e a v e n l y b e i n g t h a t m e d i a t e s b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d t h e
divine." 7 1 T h e t e r m " a n g e l " in t h e H e b r e w a n d G r e e k h a d t h e
flexi-
bility t o r e f e r t o e i t h e r h u m a n o r divine m e s s e n g e r s .
I n o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e a n g e l beliefs of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e
p e r i o d , it is i m p o r t a n t to b e a w a r e of t h e beliefs t h a t p r e c e d e d t h e m ,
as well as those t h a t w e r e c o n t e m p o r a r y in t h e w i d e r G r a e c o - R o m a n
milieu. 7 2 T h e logical s t a r t i n g p o i n t , t h e n , is a n g e l beliefs f r o m t h e
H e b r e w Bible. A s M a c h
suggests, beliefs a b o u t a n g e l s f r o m
the
H e b r e w Bible c a n b e g r o u p e d i n t o t w o m a i n c a t e g o r i e s : t h e divine
c o u n c i l a n d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d .
As in m a n y a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e r n c u l t u r e s , t h e H e b r e w
under-
s t a n d i n g of t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d w a s of a royal c o u r t w i t h Y a h w e h
as king a n d various divine beings at his service (Ps 82; 1 K g 2 2 : 1 9 - 2 2 ;
Job
1-2; Dan
7). 73 T h u s , e a r l y c o n c e p t i o n s of t h e h e a v e n l y
realm
e n g a g e d a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c terms. It s h o u l d c o m e as n o surprise, t h e n ,
to see l a t e r a n g e l beliefs d e m o n s t r a t i n g a similar u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
I n a n u m b e r of H e b r e w Bible texts G o d ' s visible f o r m to h u m a n s
is d e s c r i b e d as t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d (
7 4
. (
Scholars h
p r i m a r i l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a s a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n
(hypostasis) of G o d . 7 5 T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d c a r r i e s o u t p a r t i c u l a r
tasks o n e a r t h : m e s s e n g e r ( G e n 16, 22; J u d g 6, 13), p r o t e c t o r / w a r r i o r ( N u m 22; Ps 34), a n d e v e n d e s t r o y e r ( E x o d 4 : 2 4 [ L X X ] ) . T h a t
69
For definitions of the term, see " "in TDOT 8:308-325; BDB 521-522.
For definitions of the term, see "" in TD.NT 1:74-87; W. Arndt and
F. W. Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian
Writings (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1952) 7-8; Liddell-Scott, A Greek-English
Lexicon (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968) 7. The term is applied to some
gods as messengers: Hermes (Homer, Odyssey 5:29; Plato, Cratylus 407e), Iris (Homer,
liad 2:786, 3:121), and Nemesis (Plato, Laws 4:717d).
71
For definitions of "angel" see: ABD 1:248-255; DDD 81-96; Encyclopedia of the
Dead Sea Scrolls (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) 24-27.
72
For a survey of angel traditions in the Old Testament, see G. Heidt, Angelology
in the Old Testament (Washington DC: Catholic University, 1949).
78
E. Theodore Mullen, The Divine Council in Canaanite and Early Hebrew Literature
(Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980).
74
For references to the Angel of the Lord, see Gen 16, 22, 24; Exod 3:2; Num
20, 22; Judg 2, 5, 6, 13; Zech; et al., as well as eleven references in the NT (Matt,
Luke, and Acts).
75
On the Angel of the Lord, see J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the
Lord, pp. 192-238.
70
G o d ' s a n g e l c a r r i e s o u t tasks o n e a r t h t h a t m i g h t r e g u l a r l y b e p e r f o r m e d b y h u m a n s is i n t e r e s t i n g f o r o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e relat i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels, since o n c e a g a i n in this c a s e

early c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of angels, a n d in p a r t i c u l a r t h e A n g e l of t h e
Lord, apparently had an anthropomorphic
character.
A n e x t e n s i o n of t h e h e a v e n l y c o u r t c o n c e p t n o t e d a b o v e m a y h a v e
led to the i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n of o n e of t h e p r i m a r y d e n i z e n s of t h e
j u d i c i a l c o u r t setting: t h e a c c u s e r o r " S a t a n . " T h e H e b r e w
term
" s a t a n " literally m e a n s " a d v e r s a r y " o r " a c c u s e r " in a legal c o n t e x t . 7 6

T h i s f i g u r e a p p e a r s first in die B o o k of J o b in t h e h e a v e n l y c o u r t
scenes of c h a p t e r s 1 - 2 ; h e a p p e a r s in a similar s c e n e in Z e c h 3. 77
S a t a n r a r e l y a p p e a r s in J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e of t h e S e c o n d
Temple
p e r i o d . 7 8 I n t h e w r i t i n g s of t h e N T , S a t a n h a s d e v e l o p e d i n t o
an
evil b e i n g w h o s t a n d s d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d to G o d . T h e n a m e S a t a n
o c c u r s s o m e 39 t i m e s in t h e N T . M u c h h a s b e e n w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e
figure
of S a t a n t h r o u g h o u t history. 7 9 W e will n o t b e l o o k i n g i n t o
d e m o n o l o g y in o u r discussion; n e v e r t h e l e s s , S a t a n d o e s c o m e to b e
u n d e r s t o o d as a t e m p t e r of h u m a n s o n a n i n d i v i d u a l basis a n d m a y
e v e n i n v a d e t h e m ( L u k e 22:3, M a r k 8 : 2 7 8 0 . ( 3 3
T h e p r o p h e t s a r e relatively q u i e t o n t h e s u b j e c t of angels. O n l y
the post-Exilic p r o p h e t s Z e c h a r i a h a n d Ezekiel h a v e m u c h to say
about them. T h e r e are only two references f r o m the
pre-Exilic
p r o p h e t s : H o s 1 2 : 5 6 cf. G e n 3 2 : 2 2 3 0 a n d , less directly, t h e m e n t i o n of t h e c h e r u b i m in Isa 6 : I f f . T h e c h e r u b i m a n d s e r a p h i m a r e

o f t e n classified as angels. 8 1 S. O l y a n l o o k e d a t angelic " b r i g a d e " des-
76
BDB, p. 1370.
Satan also occurs once in 1 Chr 21:1.
78
Other figures mentioned in this literature do seem to fit the same role: Mastema
(Jubliees, Dead Sea Scrolls), Diablos (Life of Adam and Eve), Belial, etc.
79
For a succinct survey, see C. Breytenbach and P. L. Day, "Satan" in DDD
1369-1380. Also see V. Hamilton, "Satan" in ABD 5:985989. More thorough studies are undertaken by P. Day, An Adversary in Heaven: Satan in the Hebrew Bible (Atlanta,
GA: Scholars Press, 1988), and E. Pagels, The Origin of Satan (London: Penguin
Books, 1997).
80
The development of demonology seems to parallel that of angelology; i.e., there
is a proliferation in the Second Temple period and beyond. The discovery of the
Dead Sea Scrolls has opened up the study of demonology, which was largely centered on the New Testament. For a succinct review and look at the Dead Sea
Scrolls' demonology, see P. Alexander, "Demonology of the Dead Sea Scrolls" in
The Dead Sea Scrolls after 50 Years, ed. P. Flint and J . VanderKam (Leiden: E. J.
Brill, 1999) 2:331-353.
81
Cherubim are found in Gen 3:24; Exod 25, 26 (in descriptions of the Ark of
the Covenant), 36, 37; Kgs and Chr (in descriptions of the art of the Temple);
77
i g n a t i o n s in d e t a i l in his m o n o g r a p h , A
Him?
Thousand.
Thousands
Sewed
H u m a n s d o n o t a p p e a r to h a v e a significant i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h
t h e s e g r o u p s of angels, save t h e c h e r u b i m w i t h a fiery s w o r d d r i v i n g

A d a m a n d E v e o u t of t h e G a r d e n of E d e n in G e n 3 : 2 4 a n d I s a i a h
s e e i n g t h e s e r a p h i m in his vision (Isa 6).
O v e r t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , t h e r e s e e m s to h a v e b e e n
i n c r e a s i n g s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t i n d i v i d u a l elite angels, called a r c h a n g e l s .
T h e first m e n t i o n of n a m e d angels a p p e a r s to b e t h e B o o k of D a n i e l
( M i c h a e l 10:13, 21 a n d 12:1; a n d G a b r i e l 8:16, 9:21). 8 3 T h e f o u r m a i n
a r c h a n g e l s a r e M i c h a e l , 8 4 G a b r i e l , 8 5 R a p h a e l , 8 6 a n d Uriel, 8 7 a l t h o u g h
a n u m b e r of others are n a m e d in various texts. 88 T h e t e r m " a r c h a n g e l "
() itself d o e s n o t a p p e a r in t h e L X X . 8 9 T h e w r i t i n g s n o w
k n o w n as t h e A p o c r y p h a
p r o v i d e us w i t h t w o l e n g t h y tales t h a t
involve s o m e of t h e s e p r i n c i p a l angels: R a p h a e l a p p e a r s i n t h e B o o k
of T o b i t (3:17, 5:4, 7:8, 9:1 a n d 5, 11:2 a n d 7, 12:15) as a c o m p a n i o n to T o b i a s ; a n d U r i e l in 4 E z r a (originally p a r t of 2 Esdras)
as a n i n t e r p r e t e r of visions. B o t h t h e c r e a t i o n of a h i e r a r c h y a m o n g
t h e a n g e l s as well as t h e i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n of s o m e a n g e l s s e e m to
b e a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m s t h a t m a y h a v e a l l o w e d f o r a m o r e accessible n a t u r e f o r angels, w h i c h in t u m m a y h a v e p r o v i d e d t h e basis
f o r a m o r e d y n a m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
T h e a u t h o r s of t h e L X X
m a d e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e decisions as t h e y
w r o t e t h e i r n e w text. O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t to us is h o w the t e r m
is r e n d e r e d in t h e L X X . I n a l a r g e n u m b e r of cases w h e r e
a p p e a r s , t h e L X X t r a n s l a t e s . T h e cases t h a t a r e m o s t
Ezek 10; et al. Seraphim are found in Isa 6:2, 6. As noted in DDD "Angel I" (pp.
83-84), these groups were never interpreted as "angels" in any ancient texts.
82
S. Olyan, A Thousand Thousands Sewed Him.
83
According to the rabbis, the names of the angels came from the Babylonian
Exile (Gen R. 18:1). On Michael and Gabriel in Daniel, see, "Michael and Gabriel:
Angelological Problems in the Book of Daniel" in The Scriptures and the Scrolls, ed.
F. Garcia Martinez (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1992) 114-124.
84
See "Michael" in DDD 1065-1072; ABD 4:811. See also the aforementioned
study by D. Hannah, Michael and Christ.
85
See "Gabriel" in DDD 640-642; ABD 2:863.
86
See "Raphael" in DDD 1299-1300; ABD 5:621.
87
See "Uriel" in DDD 1670-1672; ABD 6:769.
88
See G. Barton. "The Origin of the Names of Angels and Demons in the
Extra-Canonical Apocalyptic Literature to 100 AD" JBL 31 (1912) 156-167, and
Y. Yadin, The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1962) 237-240.
89
Yet Michael and Gabriel appear in the Book of Daniel, and an analogous
figure appears in Josh 5:13-15.
illuminating for the present study are those w h e n the L X X has taken
s o m e o t h e r t e r m a n d t r a n s l a t e d it as . The L X X of t h e B o o k
of J o b is a g o o d e x a m p l e . 9 0 T h e H e b r e w t e x t of J o b c o n t a i n s t h e
t e r m only at 3 3 : 2 3 , b u t t h e L X X h a s 14 a d d i t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s
to , especially w h e n d e s c r i b i n g t h e h e a v e n l y c o u n c i l in c h a p t e r l. 9 1 T h i s suggests t h a t t h e a u t h o r of t h e L X X of J o b e n v i s i o n e d
the c o u r t scenes in p a r t i c u l a r as b e i n g p l a y e d o u t by h e a v e n l y actors.
J. G a m m i e d o e s n o t see a n y specific c h a n g e s in t h e f u n c t i o n of angels
in t h e L X X of J o b o v e r against t h e f u n c t i o n s of angels in t h e H e b r e w
Bible. 9 2 H o w e v e r , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t e r m is u s e d so m u c h
m o r e o f t e n t h a n in t h e H e b r e w suggests a n i n c r e a s e d interest
o r i n c r e a s e d use of a n g e l l a n g u a g e t o e x p l a i n divine activity.
T h e t e r m is n o t exclusive to Biblical texts. A n g e l s a r e also
f o u n d in i n s c r i p t i o n s a r o u n d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n region. 9 3 I t d o e s n o t
a p p e a r t h a t a n y of this m a t e r i a l suggests a close r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
h u m a n s a n d angels, h o w e v e r . V i r t u a l l y all the i n v o c a t i o n s s e e m t o
b e of deities r e f e r r e d t o w i t h t h e subtitle o r p a r t i c u l a r angels.
T h e s e i n s c r i p t i o n s m a y h a v e f u n c t i o n e d in a s i m i l a r w a y to t h e ritual m a g i c spells, such as p r o t e c t i o n o r curses. T h e p r e s e n c e of inscriptions t h a t use t h e t e r m " a n g e l " suggests t h a t a n g e l beliefs w e r e q u i t e
w i d e s p r e a d a n d m a y h a v e s p a n n e d religious g r o u p s (Jewish, C h r i s t i a n ,
and pagan).
M a g i c a l texts ( G r e e k , H e b r e w , a n d C o p t i c ) also m a k e m e n t i o n of
angels. 9 4 A l t h o u g h m u c h of this m a t e r i a l is difficult to d a t e ( r a n g i n g
a n y w h e r e f r o m t h e first t h r o u g h t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r i e s C E ) , s o m e of
the a n g e l beliefs d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e r e m a y d a t e b a c k i n t o o u r p e r i o d .
90
M. Mach discusses it in a separate section, pp. 105-113; J. Gammie, "The
Angelology and Demonology in the Septuagint of the Book of Job" HUCA 56 (1985)
1-19.
91
1:6, 14, 16, 17, 18, 2:1, 4:18, 5:1, 20:15, 36:14, 38:7, 40:11, 40:19, and 41:25.
92
J . Gammie, "The Angelology," pp. 11-12.
93
A brief survey of this material is considered in W. Carr, Angels and Principalities
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981) 40-42. A more thorough exposition
of some of the material may be found in A. R. R. Sheppard, "Pagan Cults of Angels
in Roman Asia Minor" Talanta 1 2 7 7 - 1 0 1(1980-1981)13,and S. Mitchell, Anatolia:
Land, Mm, and Gods in Asia Minor (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) 2:45-46, 106,
and 136. See also section in L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology, pp. 181-191.
94
H. D. Betz, The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation: Including the Demotic Spells
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); M. Meyer and R. Smith, Ancient
Christian Magic: Coptic Texts of Ritual Power (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1994);
R. Lesses, "Speaking with Angels: Jewish and Greco-Egyptian Revelatory Adjurations" HTR 89 (1996) 41-60; D. Aune, "The Apocalypse of John and Magic" NTS
33 (1987) 481-501. See also section in L. Stuckenbmck, Angel Veneration, pp. 192-200.
A s u r v e y of these texts s h o w s t h a t a n g e l s a r e o f t e n called u p o n b y

t h e spell-caster to p r o v i d e a w i d e v a r i e t y of services. I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
spells w e r e o f t e n cast for h e a l i n g of p a r t i c u l a r a i l m e n t s o r p r o t e c t i o n
f r o m evil forces. T h e r e w e r e also spells f o r sexual p o t e n c y to i n c r e a s e
a t t r a c t i o n to t h e o p p o s i t e sex. W h e n a n g e l s a r e i n v o k e d , it is u s u ally by n a m e . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e a r c h a n g e l s G a b r i e l a n d M i c h a e l w e r e
p o p u l a r , b u t R a p h a e l a n d a w i d e variety of o t h e r t h e o p h o r i c n a m e s
of a n g e l s a p p e a r . 9 5 It is n o t c l e a r h o w widely these types of ritual
texts w o u l d h a v e b e e n u s e d . It d o e s s e e m , h o w e v e r , t h a t f o r t h o s e
w h o u s e d these spells, iere w a s a n i n h e r e n t belief t h a t a n g e l s h a d
p o w e r to h e l p t h e m . M o r e o v e r , a n g e l s (and d e m o n s ) w e r e f u n c t i o n a l
p o w e r s in t h e i r w o r l d . If n o t h i n g else, t h e s e texts suggest t h a t specu l a t i o n a b o u t angels c o n t i n u e d well a f t e r o u r p e r i o d of s t u d y in a
v a r i e t y of g e n r e s .
T h e w i d e s p r e a d n a t u r e of a n g e l beliefs in t h e l i t e r a t u r e suggests
t h a t a vast m a j o r i t y of J e w i s h g r o u p s in this p e r i o d held s o m e level
of belief in angels a n d also t h a t angels w e r e p a r t of t h e w i d e r G r a e c o R o m a n culture. 9 5 N e v e r t h e l e s s , o n e text f r o m t h e e x t a n t l i t e r a t u r e of
t h e p e r i o d s e e m s to suggest t h a t a J e w i s h g r o u p d e n i e d t h e existence
of angels, so w e will a n a l y z e it h e r e to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r it h a s
b r o a d e r implications for the p r e s e n t study. D u r i n g Paul's
speech
b e f o r e t h e J e r u s a l e m c o u n c i l , A c t s 2 3 : 8 says, " F o r the S a d d u c e e s say

t h a t t h e r e is n o r e s u r r e c t i o n , n o r a n g e l , n o r spirit; b u t t h e P h a r i s e e s
a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m all." D . D a u b e h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e i m p o r t of this
passage is t h e S a d d u c e a n d e n i a l of r e s u r r e c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e d e n i a l
of t h e belief in angels. 9 7 D a u b e suggests t h a t t h e issue is w h e t h e r o r
n o t t h e S a d d u c e e s d e n y r e s u r r e c t i o n in t h e f o r m of a n a n g e l o r a
spirit. F o r D a u b e t h e S a d d u c e e s d e n y " t h e s p a n b e t w e e n d e a t h a n d
95
In the Testament of Solomon 22:20 (first-third centuries GE), we find the following reference to Jesus as an angel: "I [Solomon] said to him [Ephippas, a
demon], 'By what angel are you thwarted?' He said, 'By the one who is going to
be born of from a virgin and be crucified by the Jews.' "
96
For some interesting parallels, see Acts 14:11-12, where the Lycaonians believe
Paul and Barnabas to be Hermes and Zeus respectively. From classical literature we
have a number of examples where the Greek gods, in the guise of humans, visited
mortals: Apollodorus, The Library 2.4.8; Hesiod, Shield of Heracles 1-56; Homer, Odyssey
17.485; Iamblichus, De mysteriis Aegyptus 1.1 (Hermes is ); Plato,
Sophist 216B; Silus Italicus 7.176; Ps-Sophocles (in Clement of Alexandria, Stromata
5.14.111), 46; Ovid, Metamorpheses 8.611-724. See Geischen, Angelomorphic Christology,
p. 318.
97
D. Daube. "On Acts 23: Sadducees and Angels" JBL 109 (1990) 493-497. Cf.
r e s u r r e c t i o n , w h i c h , in w i d e s p r e a d belief, a g o o d p e r s o n s p e n d s in
the r e a l m o r m o d e of a n g e l o r spirit." 9 8 T h i s line of a r g u m e n t is
s u p p o r t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t L u k e d i s p a r a g e s t h e S a d d u c e e s ' d e n i a l of
t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n e l s e w h e r e (cf. L u k e 2 0 : 2 7 ; A c t s 4:1).
If D a u b e is c o r r e c t , t h e n t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t h e S a d d u c e e s d e n i e d
t h e existence of angels. If D a u b e is i n c o r r e c t , it still s e e m s h i g h l y
p r o b a b l e t h a t since this r e f e r e n c e in Acts is o u r only e x t a n t d e n i a l
of t h e belief in t h e e x i s t e n c e of angels b y a J e w i s h g r o u p , it m a y
a c t u a l l y a c t as t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t p r o v e s t h e rule. T h a t is, L u k e m a y
specifically m e n t i o n it b e c a u s e it is peculiar t h a t t h e S a d d u c e e s d o n o t
believe i n angels. It is especially p e c u l i a r given the f a c t t h a t angels
figure
p r o m i n e n t l y in t h e P e n t a t e u c h , w h i c h t h e S a d d u c e e s h e l d as
t h e i r scripture. 9 9
T h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n o t h e r g r o u p s f r o m w h o m t h e r e is n o e x t a n t
r e c o r d w h o did n o t believe in angels, b u t this s t u d y will p r o c e e d
with t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e belief in a n g e l s w a s a w i d e s p r e a d , if
n o t u b i q u i t o u s , p h e n o m e n o n for J e w i s h g r o u p s a n d t h a t t h o s e beliefs
w e r e likely k n o w n a n d s h a r e d w i t h t h e w i d e r G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r e .
Lastly, a brief discussion of t h e a p p r o a c h t a k e n t o w a r d t h e evidence
is p r o v i d e d to o r i e n t t h e r e a d e r .
1.5
Outline
T h e e v i d e n c e is e x a m i n e d in t w o p a r t s : a p p e a r a n c e a n d i n t e r a c t i o n .
T h e s e t w o p a r t s r e p r e s e n t t h e m a i n ways in w h i c h angels a n d h u m a n s
h a v e a r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e y c a n physically a p p e a r like o n e
another,
a n d t h e y c a n i n t e r a c t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r in v a r i o u s ways.
T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n to e a c h of the t w o p a r t s p r o v i d e s t h e l a r g e r c o n text for t h e a n g e l m a t e r i a l to b e discussed. P a r t o n e c o n t a i n s t w o
c h a p t e r s , t h e first of w h i c h e x a m i n e s t h e e v i d e n c e in w h i c h angels
a p p e a r in t h e f o r m of h u m a n b e i n g s . T h e s e c o n d e x a m i n e s t h e evid e n c e in w h i c h h u m a n b e i n g s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d in angelic categories.
T h e q u e s t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s is
a d d r e s s e d by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i m p a c t a p p e a r a n c e h a s o n identification.
F o r i n s t a n c e , if a n a n g e l a p p e a r s in t h e f o r m of a h u m a n , d o e s it
m e a n t h e r e is a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e angel?
98
D. Daube, "On Acts 23," p. 493.

E. Haenchen, The Acts of the Apostles: A Commentary (Philadelphia: The Westminster
Press, 1971) 638; Str-B. 2:767.
99
P a r t two consists of t h r e e chapters. I n c h a p t e r 4 the evidence f o r

the p o r t r a y a l of h u m a n s a n d angels living t o g e t h e r in c o m m u n i t i e s
is assessed. I n c h a p t e r 5 texts t h a t discuss angels e a t i n g with a n d
sharing in h u m a n hospitality are c o n s i d e r e d . I n c h a p t e r 6 the u n i q u e
case of h u m a n - a n g e l h y b r i d offspring s t e m m i n g f r o m the G e n 6:1 4
a c c o u n t is evaluated. T h e question of differentiation is considered in
these instances in w h i c h t h e r e is close c o n t a c t b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d
angels. F o r e x a m p l e , does a claim t h a t angels are a m o n g those in
a h u m a n c o m m u n i t y suggest t h e r e is a n e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n angels
a n d m e m b e r s of the c o m m u n i t y ? Close a n d i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t m a y
n o t m e a n t h a t there is a n y identification b e t w e e n angels a n d h u m a n s .
T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of this m o n o g r a p h is largely t h e m a t i c ; t h a t is to
say, m a t e r i a l is g r o u p e d b y t h e m e s such as " h u m a n s a p p e a r i n g as
angels." W i t h i n e a c h c h a p t e r the m a t e r i a l is t h e n divided into subsections, w h i c h on the w h o l e discuss o n e text.
E a c h c h a p t e r will h a v e a s u m m a r y conclusion section. T h e final
c h a p t e r brings those conclusions together, analyzes t h e m , a n d states
the implications of those conclusions for c u r r e n t scholarship.
T h e necessary g r o u n d w o r k has n o w b e e n laid to p r o c e e d to the
e x a m i n a t i o n of the evidence for the relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s
a n d angels in the late S e c o n d T e m p l e period.
PART ONE
APPEARANCE
PART ONE
APPEARANCE
Introduction
T h e first p a r t of this study e x a m i n e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s
a n d angels f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e i r physical f o r m o r a p p e a r a n c e . " A p p e a r a n c e " in this s t u d y will b e t a k e n to m e a n " t h e o u t w a r d f o r m as perceived ( w h e t h e r correctly o r not), especially visually." 1
Specifically, a n g e l s a p p e a r i n g in h u m a n f o r m (i.e., a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c )
a r e c o n s i d e r e d in c h a p t e r 2 a n d h u m a n s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as angels (i.e.,
a n g e l o m o r p h i c ) in c h a p t e r 3.
In attempting to understand the relationship between h u m a n s a n d
angels, it is n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c r i t e r i a by w h i c h t h e t w o
sets of b e i n g s m i g h t be identified o r distinguished. As a starting p o i n t ,
w e n o t e t h a t h u m a n s a r e flesh a n d b l o o d , w h i l e divine beings, like
angels, a r e i n c o r p o r e a l . It h a s a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d t h a t t h e
terms
a n d h a v e t h e s e m a n t i c r a n g e to r e f e r to b o t h h u m a n
a n d divine m e s s e n g e r s . T e r m s d e r i v e t h e i r m e a n i n g f r o m t h e i r c o n text. W h e t h e r a n d a r e m e a n t to r e f e r to h u m a n m e s sengers o r divine a g e n t s c a n o n l y b e d e t e r m i n e d b y l o o k i n g a t t h e i r
use in p a r t i c u l a r cases. E v e n w i t h a n a w a r e n e s s of c o n t e x t , h o w e v e r ,
S. M e i e r says, " t h e use of t h e t e r m maPk to i d e n t i f y b o t h
human
a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l m e s s e n g e r s results in s o m e p a s s a g e s w h e r e it is
u n c l e a r w h i c h of t h e t w o is i n t e n d e d if n o f u r t h e r details a r e p r o v i d e d . " A s e x a m p l e s h e gives J u d g 2 : 1 - 5 ; 5:23; M a i 3:1; Eccl 5:5. 2
C . N e w s o m n o t e s similarly, " A s t e r m s d e n o t i n g f u n c t i o n s , b o t h aggelos a n d maPk c a n r e f e r e q u a l l y t o h u m a n o r a n g e l i c beings. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e a r e p a s s a g e s in w h i c h it r e m a i n s d i s p u t e d w h e t h e r t h e
r e f e r e n c e is to a h e a v e n l y b e i n g o r a h u m a n o n e (see J u d g 2:1; M a i
3: l)." 3 It is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r t h a t , a l t h o u g h s o m e
passages
1
The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998)
59. "Appearance" will be used throughout rather than "form" since, as we will see,
angels can appear in a variety of forms.
2
S. Meier, "Angel: I" in DDD, p. 48.
3
C. Newsom, "Angel: O T " in ABD 1:248-249. See also JE 2:957, "As a result
m a y p r e s e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i v e difficulties f o r m o d e r n r e a d e r s , it is n o t
c o r r e c t to a s s u m e a u t o m a t i c a l l y t h a t a n y s u c h c o n f u s i o n existed f o r
ancient authors a n d audiences. This study considers any
passages
w h e r e s u c h a m b i g u i t y m i g h t exist to see (a) w h e t h e r t h e r e is a n y

lack of clarity a n d , if t h e r e is, (b) w h e t h e r this m e a n s a n identification
of angels a n d h u m a n s is i n t e n d e d .
A n o t h e r c r i t e r i o n s o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e used in i d e n t i f y i n g t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels is i n s t a n c e s w h e r e angels a n d
h u m a n s s e e m to s h a r e physical f o r m o r a p p e a r a n c e . A
statement
f r o m C . G i e s c h e n s u m m a r i z e s t h e c o n f u s i o n t h a t c a n arise:
Because angels often appear in the form of men, the distinction between
what is anthropomorphic and what is angelomorphic is difficult to
maintain. W h a t one person may interpret as ananthropomorphism,
another could see as a concrete description of an angelomorphic figure.4
C e n t r a l to G i e s c h e n ' s s t a t e m e n t is t h e d e f i n i t i o n of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c . "
H e defines it as " a n inclusive a d j e c t i v e w h i c h d e s c r i b e s a p h e n o m enon that has the variegated form a n d functions, even though
figure
m a y n o t b e explicitly identified as a n a n g e l . "
C.
the
Fletcher-
L o u i s d e f i n e s a n g e l o m o r p h i c as " w h e r e v e r t h e r e a r e signs t h a t a n
i n d i v i d u a l o r c o m m u n i t y possesses specifically angelic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o r status, t h o u g h for w h o m i d e n t i t y c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to t h a t of
a n a n g e l . " H e a d d s , " I n this c a s e w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e w o r d a n g e l t o
b e d e f i n e d b y t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d motifs w h i c h
c o m m o n l y o c c u r across a b r o a d s p r e a d of J e w i s h texts f r o m t h e seco n d T e m p l e a n d early r a b b i n i c p e r i o d s . " 6 A m o n g the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of a n g e l i c i d e n t i t y t h a t F l e t c h e r - L o u i s o u t l i n e s a r e : g i g a n t i s m , irid e s c e n c e , w e a r i n g of s y m b o l i c c l o t h i n g , a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n
the
a n g e l i c c o m m u n i t y a n d liturgy. T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , h e a r g u e s , c a n
b e a p p l i e d to h u m a n s in s o m e a n c i e n t texts, t h e r e f o r e a l l o w i n g us
t o speak of a n " a n g e l o m o r p h i c
humanity."7
T h e s e t w o d e f i n i t i o n s of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " a r e b r o a d l y inclusive:

f o r m , f u n c t i o n , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a n d status. I n s o m e w a y s s u c h b r o a d
of this diversity, there are some passages where it is uncertain whether a human
or superhuman messenger is meant."
4
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden: E . J .
Brill, 1997) '28.
5
6
G. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology and Soteriology (Tbingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 1997) 14-15.
7
c a t e g o r i z a t i o n s o n l y c l o u d t h e discussion. D . H a n n a h is m o r e exclusive in his use of the t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " with r e g a r d to Christology.

H e c o n f i n e s its use to i n s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e r e a r e "visual p o r t r a y a l s
of C h r i s t in t h e f o r m of a n a n g e l . " H e a d d s , " T h i s , m o r e precise
use of t h e t e r m t h a n t h a t f o u n d in m a n y r e c e n t studies, c o n f i n e s t h e
w o r d to its literal m e a n i n g : C h r i s t in t h e f o r m () of a n a n g e l . " 8
H i s m o r e exclusive use of the t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " is p r e f e r a b l e ,
since it allows f o r a precise r e l a t i o n of t h e t e r m to visual p h e n o m e n a .
T h e physical m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a n angel in h u m a n f o r m (or conversely,
a h u m a n d e s c r i b e d in a n g e l i c terms) d o e s n o t necessarily i m p l y a n y
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two. T h u s , t h e use of t h e t e r m
"angelo-
m o r p h i c " w i t h r e g a r d to h u m a n i t y s h o u l d b e c o n f i n e d to t h e visual
t h a t is, to d e s c r i b e t h e w a y i n w h i c h s o m e h u m a n s a r e
portrayed
visually. U s i n g t h e t e r m m o r e b r o a d l y f o r all of h u m a n i t y o b f u s c a t e s
t h e discussion of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
W h a t is n e e d e d , t h e n , for this s t u d y is to survey the v a r i e t y of
w a y s in w h i c h a n g e l s a p p e a r in t h e w r i t i n g s f r o m this p e r i o d so as
to o b t a i n a n a c c u r a t e i d e a of w h a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m i g h t rightly b e
c o n s i d e r e d t o b e constitutive of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c . "
T h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e p e r i o d f o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e of angels fits
i n t o t h r e e categories:
(1) cases in w h i c h n o p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e a n g e l is given;
(2) cases i n w h i c h angels a p p e a r in h u m a n f o r m , o r a n t h r o p o m o r phically. T h i s c a t e g o r y will b e t h e f o c u s of c h a p t e r 2; a n d
(3) a n g e l o p h a n i e s c a s e s in w h i c h t h e t e r m f o r a n g e l is p r e s e n t in
t h e text.
First, t h e vast m a j o r i t y of i n s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e t e r m s /
in t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m this p e r i o d s e e m to r e f e r to t h e h e a v e n l y o r d e r
of c r e a t u r e s o m i t a n y physical d e s c r i p t i o n (e.g., G e n 16; J u d g 2 : 1 4 ;
L u k e 1; Acts 11:13; G a l 3:19; R e v 8 1 6 1 0 ,
1 4 ;
to g l e a n m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m m a n y of t h e s e i n s t a n c e s
et al.). It is difficult
because
t h e c o n t e x t r e m a i n s a m b i g u o u s as to w h e t h e r t h e seer is a w a r e t h a t
t h e a n g e l is a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h u m a n .
It is u n c e r t a i n h o w best to i n t e r p r e t this i n f o r m a t i o n . It c o u l d suggest t h a t t h e r e w a s a w i d e l y u n d e r s t o o d o r g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d i d e a
D. Hannah, Michael and Christ: Michael Traditions and Angel Christology in Early
Christianity (Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999) 13.
of h o w angels looked, such t h a t o n m o s t occasions n o description

would b e necessary. O n the o t h e r h a n d , it m i g h t suggest t h e r e was
little interest in such m a t t e r s , the interest instead b e i n g in the f u n c tion of angels, w h a t e v e r their a p p e a r a n c e . T h i s question will h a v e
to r e m a i n o p e n , since the evidence simply does n o t provide a n y clues
as to h o w to a d j u d i c a t e .
W e n o t e h e r e briefly t h a t the second category into w h i c h the evidence of angel a p p e a r a n c e can be organized is instances w h e r e angels
a p p e a r in the f o r m of h u m a n beings, a n d in a subset of those, angels
are said to a p p e a r as y o u t h f u l males. T h e r e are also cases w h e r e a
b e i n g is r e f e r r e d to as a " m a n , " b u t the c o n t e x t suggests t h a t it m a y
be a n angel.
111 the third classification f o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e of angels t h e r e are
specific ( n o n - a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c ) visual c o m p o n e n t s associated with the
m a n i f e s t a t i o n of angels. T h e m o s t c o m m o n characteristics of this
i m a g e r y are: (a) a l u m i n o u s or fiery a p p e a r a n c e a n d (b) an awes o m e / f r i g h t e n i n g a p p e a r a n c e t h a t often leads to falling to die g r o u n d
(in fear a n d / o r reverence).
(a) Luminous/Fieiy
Appearance
Angels sometimes are k n o w n to a p p e a r with brilliant light. T h e Angel

of the L o r d a p p e a r s in the b u r n i n g b u s h (Exod 3:2; cf. Acts 7:30).
I n M a t t 28:3 the Angel of the L o r d is said to h a v e a n a p p e a r a n c e
t h a t " w a s like lightning, a n d his r a i m e n t white as s n o w . " Also, in
Acts 12:7, a n Angel of the L o r d a p p e a r s , " a n d a light s h o n e in the
cell."
Angels are also s o m e t i m e s described as stars (e.g.. J o b 38:7; R e v
1:20; 1 En. 23; 1 En. 104:2, 4, 6). T h e righteous are even said to be
t r a n s f o r m e d into stars after their d e a t h in 2 Bar. 5 1 : 3 - 1 3 .
In the D e a d Sea Scrolls, the " P r i n c e of L i g h t " is t h o u g h t by m o s t
scholars to be equivalent to the angel M i c h a e l (and also Melchizedek),
so this w o u l d indicate a relationship b e t w e e n a n angel a n d light.
I n R e v 10:1 the seer describes the angel in his vision: " T h e n I
saw a n o t h e r m i g h t y angel c o m i n g d o w n f r o m h e a v e n , w r a p p e d in
a cloud, with a r a i n b o w over his h e a d , a n d his face was like the
sun, a n d his legs like pillars of fire" (cf. R e v 19:17).
Interestingly in 2 C o r 11:14, Paul w a r n s t h a t " e v e n S a t a n m a y
a p p e a r as a n angel of light". T h i s suggests t h a t Paul, m u c h like m a n y
of his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , believed t h a t otherworldly beings h a v e the
ability to s h a p e - s h i f t (cf. A c t s 14:12). M o r e o v e r , S a t a n c a n d e c e i v e

p e o p l e b y t a k i n g o n t h e f o r m of a n " a n g e l of light." T h i s suggests
t h a t p e r h a p s o n e s o u r c e f o r t r u e r e v e l a t i o n w a s e x p e c t e d to b e a
luminous messenger.
I n t h e Apocalyse of Zephaniah
6:11
14 t h e a n g e l E r m i e l is d e s c r i b e d :
T h e n I arose and stood, and I saw a great angel standing before me

with his face shining like the rays of the sun in its glory since his face
is like that which is perfected in its glory. And he was girded as if a
golden girdle were upon his breast. His feet were like bronze which
is melted in a fire. And when I saw him, I rejoiced, for I thought that
the Lord Almighty h a d come to visit me. I fell u p o n my face a n d
worshipped him.
T h i s is e v e n seen in writings f r o m die N a g H a m m a d i literature ( C o d e x
II, 4). T h e Hypostasis
of the Archons
9 3 : 1 3 - 2 2 describes the
angel
Eleleth:
Now as for that angel, I cannot speak of his power: his appearance
is like fine gold and his raiment is like snow. No, truly, my mouth
cannot bear to speak of his power a n d the appearance of his face.
Eleleth, the great angel, spoke to me. "It is I," he said, "who a m
understanding. I a m one of the four light-givers, who stand in the
presence of the great invisible spirit." 9
T h i s brief s u r v e y of t h e e v i d e n c e across a v a r i e t y of texts ( a n d in
several texts to b e c o n s i d e r e d below) i n d i c a t e s t h a t brilliance
and
fiery a p p e a r a n c e s e e m to b e fairly c o m m o n i m a g e r y associated w i t h

t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of angels. H o w e v e r , D . H a n n a h , in a c r i t i q u e of
Gieschen, w a m s against overemphasizing imagery:
If a figure appears robed in light 01 with feet and legs aflame like
molten bronze 01 with a face shining like the sun and/01 lightning,
then Gieschen, among others, automatically assumes we are dealing
with an angel or angelomorphic being. T h e fact is that apocalypses
describe heavenly beings, be they God, angels, exalted patriarchs, cherub i m / s e r a p h i m , or whatever in broadly similar terms. 10
N e v e r t h e l e s s , i m a g e r y is i m p o r t a n t . N o r a r e t h e a p o c a l y p s e s t h e only
g e n r e in w h i c h this type of i m a g e r y c a n b e f o u n d . If c e r t a i n i m a g e r y
is r e g u l a r l y associated w i t h angels, t h e n it s e e m s t h a t w e c a n
say
Translation from R. Bullard and B. Layton, in 77w Nag Hammadi Library in

English, ed. J . Robinson (New York: Harper Collins, 1988) 161-170.
10
D. Hannah, Review of C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christolog}, in JTS 51 (2000)235.
t h a t a being d e m o n s t r a t i n g such characteristics is " a n g e l o m o r p h i c "

w i t h o u t saying t h a t the b e i n g is a n angel. T a k e n f r o m the reverse
perspective, a n angel m a y b e " a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c " w i t h o u t being a
h u m a n being. G i v e n this m o r e restricted use of the t e r m "angelom o r p h i c , " h o w e v e r , it will rarely be applicable to h u m a n beings.
(b) Fear and. Falling to the Ground
A n o t h e r characteristic c o m m o n l y associated with the m a n i f e s t a t i o n
of angels is fear a n d often falling to the g r o u n d o n the p a r t of the
seer. Again, b e g i n n i n g with the Angel of the L o r d , we see in N u m
22:31, " T h e n the L o r d o p e n e d the eyes of B a l a a m , a n d h e saw the
angel of the L o r d s t a n d i n g in the way, with his d r a w n sword in his
h a n d ; a n d h e b o w e d his h e a d , a n d fell o n his face." T h e r e is n o
physical description of the angel, b u t o n c e B a l a a m is able to see the
angel, h e is reverent. I n M a t t 2 8 : 4 - 5 the A n g e l of the L o r d o p e n s
the t o m b of Jesus, a n d " f o r fear of h i m [the A n g e l of the L o r d ] the
g u a r d s t r e m b l e d a n d b e c a m e like d e a d m e n . B u t the angel said to
the w o m e n , ' D o n o t be afraid; for I k n o w t h a t y o u seek J e s u s w h o
was c r u c i f i e d ' " ; also, Luke 1 : 1 1 - 1 2 has, " A n d t h e r e a p p e a r e d to h i m
an angel of the L o r d standing on the right side of the altar of incense.
A n d Z e c h a r i a h was t r o u b l e d w h e n h e saw him, a n d fear fell u p o n
h i m " (cf. L u k e 1:30).
I C h r 21:20 records the a p p e a r a n c e of a n angel t h a t causes fear,
" N o w O m a n was t h r e s h i n g w h e a t ; h e t u r n e d a n d saw the angel,
a n d his f o u r sons w h o w e r e with h i m hid themselves."
Interestingly in D a n 8 : 1 6 1 7 the angel G a b r i e l is called a " m a n , "
yet his presence causes fear in Daniel, " A n d I h e a r d a m a n ' s voice
b e t w e e n the b a n k s of the Ulai, a n d it called, ' G a b r i e l , m a k e this
m a n u n d e r s t a n d the vision.' So h e c a m e n e a r w h e r e I stood; a n d
w h e n h e c a m e , I was f r i g h t e n e d a n d fell u p o n m y f a c e . "
I n Acts 10:3 4 t h e angel w h o a p p e a r s to the c e n t u r i o n , Cornelius,
causes t e r r o r in the soldier:
About the ninth hour of the day he saw clearly in a vision an angel
of God coming in and saying to him, "Cornelius." And he stared at
him in terror, and said, "What is it, Lord?" And he said to him, "Your
prayers and your alms have ascended as a memorial before God."
All these e x a m p l e s suggest t h a t a c o m m o n reaction to the m a n i f e s tation of a n angel to a h u m a n is fear. T h i s seems to imply t h a t in
at least the cases m e n t i o n e d , t h e r e is likely n o e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n the
t w o beings. T h e h u m a n s a r e f e a r f u l specifically b e c a u s e t h e a n g e l is
a w e s o m e in s o m e respect.
A m o n g t h e e v i d e n c e of t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of angels l e a d i n g t o t h e
seer falling to t h e g r o u n d a r e s o m e cases in w h i c h t h e r e a s o n f o r
falling to t h e g r o u n d is i n t e n t to w o r s h i p t h e b e i n g . " W h e n J o s h u a
is told t h e t r u e i d e n t i t y of t h e b e i n g b e f o r e h i m in J o s h 5 : 1 3 - 1 5 , h e
falls to t h e g r o u n d to w o r s h i p (cf. E z e k 1:28; 1 En.
Mart.
14:14). In t h e
Ascen. Isa. 7:21 t h e p r o p h e t says, " A n d I fell o n m y f a c e to
w o r s h i p h i m , a n d t h e a n g e l w h o led m e w o u l d n o t let m e , b u t said

to m e , ' W o r s h i p n e i t h e r t h r o n e , n o r angel f r o m t h e six h e a v e n s f r o m
w h e r e I w a s sent to lead y o u , before I tell y o u in the seventh h e a v e n . ' "
Similarly, in R e v 19:10, " T h e n I fell d o w n at his feet to w o r s h i p
h i m , b u t h e said to m e , ' Y o u m u s t n o t d o that! I a m a fellow serv a n t w i t h y o u a n d y o u r b r e t h r e n w h o h o l d t h e t e s t i m o n y of J e s u s .
W o r s h i p G o d ' " (cf. R e v 22:8). O n c e a g a i n , t h e i d e a t h a t
humans
w o u l d a t t e m p t to w o r s h i p angels implies at least s o m e i n e q u a l i t y of

status b e t w e e n
them.
T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of f e a r a n d falling to t h e g r o u n d is n o t limited
to a n g e l o p h a n i e s , h o w e v e r . It s e e m s to b e a n a s p e c t of e n c o u n t e r i n g divine b e i n g generally. So in E x o d 3:6 at t h e b u r n i n g b u s h M o s e s
h i d e s his face b e c a u s e h e is a f r a i d to look a t G o d . F e a r t h a t h u m a n
b e i n g s will die if t h e y see G o d is a r e c u r r i n g t h e m e (cf. E x o d 20:19),
a n d in t w o cases in J u d g 6 : 2 3 a n d 13:22 (as well as E x o d 3:2) t h e
h u m a n s h a v e a c t u a l l y seen t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a n d f e a r d e a t h as
if t h e y h a v e seen G o d .
S o t w o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e l e m e n t s o f t e n s e e m to b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a n a n g e l in t h e e a r t h l y r e a l m . T h e s e cases suggest a t least t h a t t h e angels a r e a p p e a r i n g n o t in h u m a n f o r m b u t
in a m o r e a w e s o m e f o r m w i t h b r i g h t light t h a t c a u s e s the s e e r to
fall to t h e g r o u n d in f e a r o r w o r s h i p . T h e e v i d e n c e of this c a t e g o r y
suggests t h a t , in a t least t h e s e cases, t h e r e c a n b e n o i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. T h i s is only a subset of t h e large b o d y
of e v i d e n c e , h o w e v e r .
It is i m p o r t a n t , t h e n , b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g t h e analysis of texts to s u m m a r i z e a n d d e f i n e fairly precisely w h a t is m e a n t b y t h e t e r m " a n g e l "
in this investigation. A g e n e r a l d e f i n i t i o n of a n a n g e l is " a h e a v e n l y /
11
On the issue of angel veneration, see L. Struckenbruck, Angel Veneration and

Christology. A Study in Early Judaism and in the Christology of the Apocalypse of John
(Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1995) for a thorough survey, esp. pp. 81 85.
divine being t h a t m e d i a t e s between the earthly a n d heavenly realms."

M o r e specifically, t h o u g h , a n A N G E L is a b e i n g that:
(1) H a s as a p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n the delivery of G o d ' s m e s s a g e / p l a n
to h u m a n beings (and s o m e t i m e s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h a t message).
(2) Typically resides in h e a v e n b u t also travels to e a r t h to p e r f o r m
various tasks.
(3) Is able to alter its f o r m (e.g., c a n be a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c ) , especially w h e n o n e a r t h .
(4) Is n o t b o u n d by limitations of the earthly r e a l m , such as the passage of time, d e a t h , h u n g e r , sexual desire, etc.
T o this m o r e specific u n d e r s t a n d i n g , two m o r e pieces of i n f o r m a tion m a y b e a d d e d w h e n a n angel a p p e a r s to h u m a n beings (an
angelophany):
(1) T h e angel will often h a v e a fiery/luminous a p p e a r a n c e , a n d
(2) T h e angel will often cause f e a r / f a l l i n g to the g r o u n d in the seer.
T h i s definition of angel c a n b e a u g m e n t e d or s u p p o r t e d by the following definitions.
A N G E L O M O R P H I C r e f e r s t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a n a n g e l .
S o m e t h i n g t h a t is " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " looks like an angel (as described
above). T h i s t e r m , t h e n , should be e m p l o y e d in parallel with the
t e r m " a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c . " J u s t as G o d c a n be u n d e r s t o o d in " a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c " t e r m s w i t h o u t b e i n g a h u m a n being, so too a h u m a n
m a y be c o n s i d e r e d " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " w i t h o u t being a n angel.
G O D t h e c r e a t o r , resides in h e a v e n , is t r a n s c e n d e n t , is u n s e e n
a n d u n k n o w a b l e (except t h r o u g h m e d i a t i o n ) to those in the h u m a n
r e a l m . G o d is served by a m y r i a d of h e a v e n l y / d i v i n e beings t h a t
also reside in h e a v e n , b u t these beings are n o t e q u a l to G o d .
H U M A N t h e species Homo sapiens, c r e a t e d by G o d , b o u n d by
physical limitations, especially the passage of time, mortality, h u n g e r ,
sexual desire, etc. T h e y are u n a b l e to alter their physical f o r m a n d
u n a b l e to r e a c h the heavenly r e a l m of their o w n accord.
E A R T H L Y t h i n g s p e r t a i n i n g to the physical world of t h e senses,
c r e a t e d by G o d .
H E A V E N L Y t h i n g s p e r t a i n i n g to the spiritual world (could also
be referred to as otherworldly). It is the r e a l m of G o d a n d the o t h e r
h e a v e n l y / d i v i n e beings. Related to this definition is the t e r m D I V I N E ,
w h i c h often has the s a m e m e a n i n g as H E A V E N L Y . A possible solu-
tion to s o m e of the l a n g u a g e p r o b l e m s scholars currently face m i g h t

be limiting the use of the t e r m " d i v i n e " to G o d , while using " h e a v enly" for the m y r i a d of beings t h a t reside in the h e a v e n s . S u c h a
c h a n g e , h o w e v e r , works very m u c h against c o n v e n t i o n a l uses, so for
the p u r p o s e s of this study, H E A V E N L Y a n d D I V I N E will b e used
interchangeably.
CHAPTER TWO
" B L I N D E D BY T H E
A N G E L S AS H U M A N
LIGHT":
BEINGS
I n this c h a p t e r t h e texts in w h i c h a n g e l s a p p e a r in t h e f o r m of
h u m a n b e i n g s as well as a p p a r e n t l y divine b e i n g s t h a t a r e r e f e r r e d
to as " m e n " a r e e x a m i n e d . I n a n u m b e r of texts, m a n y f r o m t h e
H e b r e w Bible, a n g e l s a r e d e s c r i b e d as a p p e a r i n g in t h e f o r m of
h u m a n s a n d a r e e v e n i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m h u m a n s until t h e i r t r u e
n a t u r e is revealed. I n s o m e o t h e r texts, a n g e l s a r e d e s c r i b e d as y o u n g
m e n . T h e evidence indicates that, even with such a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c
d e s c r i p t i o n s of angels, t h e y r e m a i n e d distinct f r o m h u m a n s .
2.1
The Book of Genesis
I n t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d t h e H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s existed
side b y side w i t h t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h o s e s a m e s c r i p t u r e s i n t o G r e e k ,
t h e S e p t u a g i n t ( L X X ) , a n d p e r h a p s also into A r a m a i c , t h e T a r g u m i m .
A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e r e w e r e a l t e r n a t i v e versions of t h e P e n t a t e u c h , s u c h
as J u b i l e e s , t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n , a n d t h e S a m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h
c i r c u l a t i n g . T h e H e b r e w Bible as it is n o w k n o w n c o m e s to us prim a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e m e d i e v a l M a s o r e t e s . 1 T h u s it c a n n o t be g u a r a n t e e d t h a t a n y p a r t i c u l a r passage h a s b e e n a c c u r a t e l y t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m
S e c o n d T e m p l e t i m e s t h r o u g h to t h e p r e s e n t , n o r t h a t it w a s t r e a t e d
as n o r m a t i v e b y all J e w s a t t h a t time.
T h e safest p a t h , t h e n , is t o c o n s i d e r w h a t all v e r s i o n s t h a t w o u l d
h a v e (or at least a r e likely to have) existed in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e
a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d h a v e to say a b o u t t h e selected passages.
(a) Genesis
In G e n
18-19
18:1 3 A b r a h a m , w h o is resting in his t e n t f r o m t h e m i d -
d a y h e a t , sees t h r e e m e n ( ) . H e h u r r i e s o u t to g r e e t t h e m
a n d o f f e r t h e m hospitality in his t e n t :
1
But the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls has provided us with some direct knowledge of the Hebrew Scriptures in the Second Temple period (e.g., the Isaiah scroll).
[1] And the Lord appeared to him [Abraham] by the oaks of M a m r e ,

as he sat at the door of his tent in the heat of the day. [2] H e lifted
up his eyes and looked, and behold, three m e n stood in front of him.
W h e n he saw them, he ran from the tent door to meet them, and
bowed himself to the earth, [3] and said, " M y lord, if I have found
favour in your sight, do not pass by your servant."
T h e c l a u s e , " A n d t h e L o r d a p p e a r e d to h i m " acts as a sort of i n t r o d u c t i o n , a l o n g w i t h t h e setting m a t e r i a l , " a s h e [ A b r a h a m ] sat at
the d o o r of his t e n t in t h e h e a t of t h e d a y " (v. 1). It is n o t entirely
c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e L o r d a p p e a r s to A b r a h a m s e p a r a t e l y f r o m t h e
t h r e e " m e n , " b u t l a t e r w e find t h a t " t w o " m e n = angels g o o n t o
S o d o m ( G e n 19:1a, 5, 8, 12, 16), while A b r a h a m d e b a t e s w i t h t h e
L o r d ( G e n 18:22). T h i s suggests t h a t o n e of t h e t h r e e " m e n " is m e a n t
to b e t h e L o r d . 2
T h e visitors tell A b r a h a m t h a t , a l t h o u g h b o t h h e a n d his wife
S a r a h a r e e x t r e m e l y old, t h e y will n e v e r t h e l e s s h a v e a child (v. 10).
T h i s p r o n o u n c e m e n t fulfills G o d ' s p r o m i s e of p r o g e n y to A b r a h a m
( G e n 12:2; 17:2 ) a n d is a p p a r e n t l y t h e r e a s o n for d i e visit to A b r a h a m
a n d S a r a h , since o n c e t h e n e w s is d e l i v e r e d , t h e " m e n " set o u t f r o m
t h e r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y A b r a h a m (v. 16). S o t h e b e i n g s c a r r y o u t a n
angelic f u n c t i o n : delivery of a d i v i n e m e s s a g e . T h e n t h e L o r d b e g i n s
to tell A b r a h a m a b o u t t h e f a t e of S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h ( w . 1 7 - 2 1 ) .
T h e " m e n " t u m a w a y f r o m t h e r e a n d h e a d to S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h
(v. 22), l e a v i n g A b r a h a m t o p l e a d w i t h t h e L o r d o n b e h a l f of a n y
r i g h t e o u s in S o d o m ( w . 2 2 3 3 ) .
Chapter
19 b e g i n s b y s e e m i n g l y r e f e r r i n g to t h e t w o m e n
who
h a d left t h e L o r d a n d A b r a h a m (18:22) as " t w o a n g e l s " ( ) .

T h e t w o a r r i v e in S o d o m in t h e e v e n i n g (v. 1). L o t g r e e t s t h e visit o r s w i t h a n e n t r e a t y to r e m a i n w i t h h i m t h r o u g h t h e n i g h t . H i s
w o r d s e c h o t h o s e of A b r a h a m t o his t h r e e visitors. T h e visitors a g r e e
t o stay w i t h L o t a f t e r first saying d i e y w o u l d r e m a i n in t h e street
(v. 2). L o t f e e d s t h e m e n (v. 3). B e f o r e t h e visitors a r e a b l e to settie in f o r t h e n i g h t , h o w e v e r , t h e t o w n s m e n s u r r o u n d L o t ' s h o u s e ,
d e m a n d i n g t h e m e n b e given t o t h e m . T h e visitors a r e o n c e a g a i n
r e f e r r e d t o as a n g e l s in v. 15, w h e n t h e y w a r n L o t t o leave t h e city
with his f a m i l y o r b e d e s t r o y e d a l o n g w i t h t h e city.
Immediately
2
A. Johnson has noted that there is often an ambiguity between the singular
and plural in the Hebrew Bible when referring to the Godhead. This ambiguity is
seen particularly when the Angel of the Lord is mentioned (e.g., Judg 6 and 13)
but also where angels are present, such as Gen 18 and 32. A. Johnson, The One
and the Many in the Israelite Conception of God (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1961).
a f t e r t h e y a r e r e f e r r e d t o as " a n g e l s " in v. 15, in v. 16 " t h e m e n "

seize L o t a n d his f a m i l y a n d e n s u r e t h e y leave t h e city b e f o r e t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t c o m e s in v. 24. N o m o r e is said a b o u t t h e " m e n . "
C h a p t e r s 18 a n d 19 s e e m to b e a c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e . T h e t w o
" m e n " w h o leave G o d a n d A b r a h a m in 18:16 s e e m to b e t h e s a m e
t w o b e i n g s d e s c r i b e d as " a n g e l s " in c h a p t e r 19. J . V a n S e t e r s h a s
a r g u e d persuasively o n t h e basis of linguistic analysis t h a t t h e t w o
c h a p t e r s s e e m to m a k e o n e n a r r a t i v e . 3 E v e n if t h e t w o t r a d i t i o n s
o r i g i n a t e d s e p a r a t e l y , t h e y a r e p r e s e r v e d t o g e t h e r f r o m t h e earliest
r e c o r d s , so it s e e m s safe to c o n s i d e r t h e m as a u n i f i e d n a r r a t i v e .
T o understand how Gen 1 8 1 9
as well as a n y o t h e r H e b r e w Bible
texts w e r e b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , it is
necessary to e x a m i n e t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in t h e v a r i o u s e x t a n t sources
( L X X , Q u m r a n , etc.) f r o m t h a t p e r i o d . I n this s u b s e c t i o n , t h e v a r ious s o u r c e s will b e m a r k e d o u t w i t h h e a d i n g s for clarity. T h e s a m e
m e t h o d e x a m i n i n g all t h e e x t a n t late S e c o n d T e m p l e
interpreta-
tions of Biblical textswill b e e m p l o y e d t h r o u g h o u t this m o n o g r a p h ,

e v e n if t h e v a r i o u s s o u r c e s a r e n o t m a r k e d o u t w i t h h e a d i n g s .
(i) The
Septuagint
T h e L X X m a i n t a i n s t h e s a m e t e r m s as t h e H e b r e w in t h e M a s o r e t i c
text. G e n 18:2 says t h e r e w e r e " t h r e e m e n " ( ), w h i c h is
m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t c h a p t e r 18. C h a p t e r 19 says " t h e t w o a n g e l s "
(oi ) a r r i v e d in S o d o m . T h e r e a r e n o significant v a r i a n t s .
It is difficult, if n o t impossible, t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t t h e old G r e e k o r
Hebrew
Vorlage said. T h e L X X , t h e n , is m o s t useful in telling us
w h a t a t least o n e set of J e w i s h i n t e r p r e t e r s f r o m t h e p e r i o d
were
t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e b e i n g in this p a s s a g e . P r e s u m a b l y the author(s)

of t h e L X X w o u l d h a v e seen G e n 1 8 - 1 9 m u c h as it w a s told in t h e
H e b r e w t r a d i t i o n . T h r e e visitors c a m e to A b r a h a m , t w o a n g e l s a n d
t h e L o r d , likely in h u m a n f o r m . T h e angels w e n t o n to S o d o m to
see to t h e salvation of L o t a n d his f a m i l y . W i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e
n a r r a t i v e , t h e h u m a n s i n v o l v e d d o n o t s e e m a b l e to d i s c e r n t h e t r u e
n a t u r e of t h e " m e n . " A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e " m e n " s e e m to b e m o r e
t h a n m e r e l y h u m a n beings: o n e , explicitly called t h e L o r d , d e b a t e s
w i t h A b r a h a m a b o u t t h e f a t e of S o d o m , w h i l e t h e o t h e r t w o , w h o
a r e t h e n called angels, see to the salvation of L o t a n d his family.
s
J. Van Seters, Abraham in History and Tradition (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1975) 214-216.
(ii) The Dead Sea Scrolls

N o n e of t h e e x t a n t Biblical f r a g m e n t s of G e n e s i s f r o m t h e D e a d S e a
Scrolls c o n t a i n s c h a p t e r s 1819. H o w e v e r , in a small f r a g m e n t k n o w n
as " 4 Q A g e s of C r e a t i o n " ( 4 Q 1 8 0 ) , w h i c h h a s b e e n d a t e d o n p a l e o g r a p h i c g r o u n d s to t h e first c e n t u r y C E , f r a g m e n t s 2 4 i n c l u d e a
s t a t e m e n t t h a t s e e m s to r e f e r to G e n
18. 4 S i n c e t h e text is f r a g -
m e n t a r y , its g e n r e c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h a n y c o n f i d e n c e . It
d o e s s e e m , h o w e v e r , given t h e v a r i o u s allusions t o P e n t a t e u c h a l n a r ratives, as if t h e f r a g m e n t is o n e of a n u m b e r of texts f r o m a m o n g
t h e finds a t Q u m r a n t h a t r e p r e s e n t a r e w o r k i n g o r m i d r a s h of t h e
Biblical texts. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , f r a g m e n t 1 m a k e s r e f e r e n c e to A z a z e l
a n d also t o t h e " a n g e l s " to w h o m a r e b o r n t h e g i a n t s ( p e r h a p s a
reference to G e n 6 or 1
En.).
T h e s h o r t r e f e r e n c e in f r a g m e n t 2 says, " [ m e ] n f r o m t h e o a k s of
M a m r e a n g e l s [ ] t h e y [. . .]" 5 T h o u g h f r a g m e n t a r y , t h e statem e n t s e e m s t o r e f e r to G e n 18:1 a n d calls t h e visitors " a n g e l s . " T h i s
is n o t a p a r t i c u l a r l y s u r p r i s i n g exegesis, since r e a d i n g c h a p t e r s
18
a n d 19 of G e n e s i s as a c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e leads to t h e s a m e c o n elusion, b u t 4 Q 1 8 0 p r o v i d e s e v i d e n c e t h a t a t least o n e
interpreter
was making the connection.

(iii) The Book of Jubilees
T h e B o o k of J u b i l e e s ( Jub.)
largely tells its tale in t h e first p e r s o n
f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of a n a n g e l of P r e s e n c e , w h o in 1 : 2 7 - 2 8 is told
b y G o d t o i n s t r u c t M o s e s a b o u t t h e " c r e a t i o n until m y s a n c t u a r y is
built in t h e i r m i d s t f o r e v e r a n d e v e r . " A t 16:1 the G e n
18 n a r r a -
tive is r e c o u n t e d , " A n d o n t h e n e w m o o n of t h e f o u r t h m o n t h , w e
a p p e a r e d to A b r a h a m a t t h e o a k of M a m r e a n d w e t a l k e d w i t h h i m
a n d w e also c a u s e d h i m to k n o w t h a t a son w o u l d b e g i v e n t o h i m
b y S a r a h , his w i f e . " T h e
first-person
plural " w e " indicates that the
speaker is identifying himself as o n e of the diree w h o visited A b r a h a m

e i t h e r the L o r d o r his c o m p a n i o n angels. Also a t 18:7, t h e angels
record that "we saved Lot because the L o r d r e m e m b e r e d
Abraham
a n d h e b r o u g h t h i m o u t f r o m t h e m i d s t of t h e o v e r t h r o w . "
Jub.
is a retelling of t h e n a r r a t i v e of G e n e s i s t h r o u g h E x o d
12,
See HJPAJC III.i:421-422 and 318-325.

Original text by J. Allegro in DJD F (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1968)
pp. 77-79, pi. xxvii.
5
w h i c h is n o t unlike a n u m b e r of texts f o u n d a t Q u m r a n , s u c h as
t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n . T h e p r e s e n c e of c o p i e s of Jub. a t Q u m r a n .
as well as a r e f e r e n c e t o Jub.
in t h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t
1 6 : 3 - 4 ) , m e a n s it d a t e s t o n o l a t e r t h a n a r o u n d
(CD
100 B C E . Jib.
is
p r e s e n t e d as a r e v e l a t i o n to M o s e s a t Sinai b y a n " a n g e l of t h e
P r e s e n c e . " T h e a n g e l o f t e n speaks in t h e
first-person
first-person
singular
and
p l u r a l w h e n associating himself w i t h o t h e r angels. T h i s
is u n i q u e in t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e p e r i o d .
It s e e m s c o r r e c t t o i n f e r h e r e , t h e n , t h a t t h e a u t h o r of Jub.
has
i d e n t i f i e d t h e a n g e l of t h e P r e s e n c e as also h a v i n g a p p e a r e d
Abraham
l o n g a g o . Jub.
to
r e p r e s e n t s a n o t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e
G e n e s i s story in w h i c h a n a n g e l is t h e visitor to A b r a h a m .
The
angels' p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n is to deliver t h e n e w s of S a r a h ' s p r e g n a n c y

b u t also to save L o t . Jub.,
t h e n , r e p r e s e n t s a witness to t h e o n g o i n g
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n e s i s in t h e earliest p e r i o d . It focuses o n angels

a n d uses t h e m as n a r r a t o r s in t h e tale of t h e i r visit to A b r a h a m .
(iv) Josephus
J o s e p h u s ' Antiquities
(Ant.) p r e s e n t s J e w i s h h i s t o r y f r o m t h e c r e a t i o n
t h r o u g h his o w n d a y . I n Ant. 1.196 J o s e p h u s says t h a t A b r a h a m " s a w

t h r e e a n g e l s [] a n d t a k i n g t h e m t o b e s t r a n g e r s [
] , a r o s e a n d saluted t h e m . " It is n o t entirely c l e a r in
J o s e p h u s w h e t h e r A b r a h a m k n e w t h e t r u e n a t u r e of t h e t h r e e m e n ,
b u t h e n e v e r t h e l e s s t r e a t e d t h e m as h e w o u l d a n y h u m a n g u e s t to
his h o m e . W e l e a r n f r o m J o s e p h u s t h a t t h e angels () w h o h a d
visited A b r a h a m , u p o n arrival in S o d o m , w e r e " y o u n g m e n of r e m a r k a b l y fair a p p e a r a n c e [ ]" (200).
J o s e p h u s w r o t e in R o m e in t h e l a t t e r h a l f of t h e first c e n t u r y C E .
H i s w r i t i n g s w e r e i n t e n d e d f o r a G r a e c o - R o m a n a u d i e n c e . It m a k e s
sense t h a t h e m i g h t h a v e a d a p t e d a s p e c t s of his w r i t i n g s to fit his
c u l t u r a l milieu. J o s e p h u s uses t h e t e r m to m e a n b o t h h u m a n
a n d divine m e s s e n g e r s . 6 H o w e v e r , in s o m e places w h e r e f r o m t h e
It seems clear that occurrences of in the B.J. and Vita refer to human
messengers. However, when we get to the Ant., we see being used in places
where we would expect the term to mean divine being from the Hebrew Scripture.
Two noticeable exceptions are 1:200 and 5:279 (Gen 19 and Judg 13), where the
term / occurs. It is interesting to note that in the famous passage
on the war (3:400), when Josephus recounts his proclamation to Vespasian that he
would become Caesar, Josephus says that he came to Vespasian ' .
Biblical texts w e m i g h t e x p e c t angels, J o s e p h u s c h o o s e s o t h e r t e r m s ,

s u c h as " y o u n g m e n , " to c o n v e y his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s e d i v i n e
b e i n g s to his a u d i e n c e .
(v) Philo
I n Ahr. 107 P h i l o says t h a t A b r a h a m ' s visitors in G e n 18 w e r e " t h r e e
t r a v e l e r s in t h e f o r m of m e n , w h o s e m o r e divine n a t u r e w a s n o t
a p p a r e n t to h i m [ A b r a h a m ] . " 7 H o w e v e r , P h i l o m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e
visitors w e r e i n d e e d angels, saying t h e y visited A b r a h a m b e c a u s e t h e y
w e r e c e r t a i n of his v i r t u e so t h a t " a n g e l s r e c e i v e d hospitality f r o m
m e n " (115).
P h i l o J u d a e u s w a s a J e w w h o lived in A l e x a n d r i a , E g y p t , a n d w a s
a close c o n t e m p o r a r y of b o t h J e s u s a n d P a u l (c. 30 B C E c . 5 0 C E ) .
M a n y of his w r i t i n g s a i m e d to s h o w t h e similarities b e t w e e n Jewish
beliefs a n d G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y . Philo o f t e n i n t e r p r e t e d Biblical i d e a s
allegorically. H i s a n g e l o l o g y w a s also a l l e g o r i z e d , m o s t l y
equating
w i t h (divine) . 8 A s d i v i n e " w o r d s " o r " t h o u g h t s , " t h e y

c a r r i e d o u t specific tasks t h a t G o d h a d willed b u t h a d n o i n d e p e n d e n t p e r s o n a l i t y o r existence of t h e i r o w n .
E . G o o d e n o u g h c o n c l u d e s t h a t P h i l o ' s a n g e l o l o g y w a s o n e n o t of
a n g e l s w i t h specific n a m e s (e.g., M i c h a e l ) a n d f u n c t i o n s (e.g., p r o t e c t i o n of Israel), b u t i n s t e a d
his angels are only of God, and not of a sort remotely to
provoke or admit individual mythological elaboration. H e could not
possibly have made room for a literal Gabriel 01 Michael in his thinking, and allegorised away all resemblance of the C h e r u b i m to that
Palestinian tradition which seems to have been accepted a n d developed by the Pharisees. 9
Similarly, H . A. W o l f s o n says t h a t " O n t h e w h o l e , P h i l o c o n s i d e r s
t h e a n g e l s as m e r e l y a s p e c i a l k i n d of i m m a n e n t p o w e r s in
the
w o r l d . " 1 0 P h i l o , it s e e m s , t h e n , m a i n l y allegorizes t h e a p p e a r a n c e of
Similarly, Philo, Abr. 107, "for he [Abraham] in the middle of the day beholding as it were three men travelling (and he did not perceive that they were in reality of a more diving nature), ran up and entreated them with great perseverance
not to pass by his tent."
8
E.g., Conf. 27 "The divine and holy thoughts, who are often called angels"
( ).
9
. Goodenough. By Light, Light The Mystic Gospel of Hellenistic Judaism (Amsterdam:
Philo Press, 1969) 79-80.
10
H. Wolfson, Philo: Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1948) 372.
angels. T h u s , it is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t in this case, w h e r e J o s e p h u s a n d

the L X X
h a v e " a n g e l , " P h i l o calls t h e visitors " m e n , 5 ' as in t h e
H e b r e w , b u t t h e n m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e y w e r e angels.
(vi) The Targumim
T a r g u m O n q e l o s (Tg. Onq.) m a i n t a i n s t h e use of " m e n " in c h a p t e r
18 a n d t w o angels in c h a p t e r 19. T a r g u m Neofiti (Tg. Neo.) specifically
says t h a t t h r e e a n g e l s a p p e a r e d to A b r a h a m ( c h a p t e r 18), as d o e s
T a r g u m P s e u d o - J o n a t h a n (Tg. Ps.-J.).
E v e n m o r e interestingly, in Tg.
Neo. w e a r e told t h a t t h r e e angels a r e s e n t b e c a u s e e a c h a n g e l c a n

only b e sent to e a r t h for o n e specific task. T h e t h r e e tasks assigned
to t h e s e a n g e l s w e r e : (1) a n n o u n c i n g t h e b i r t h of a child to A b r a h a m
a n d S a r a h , (2) s a v i n g L o t a n d his f a m i l y f r o m d e s t r u c t i o n in S o d o m ,
a n d (3) c a r r y i n g o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of S o d o m . Also i n t e r e s t i n g is
t h e f a c t t h a t in Tg. Ps.-J.
t h e t w o a n g e l s w h o w e r e in S o d o m , a b o u t
w h o m w e h e a r n o t h i n g f u r t h e r in t h e H e b r e w Bible t r a d i t i o n s , r e a p p e a r in G e n 2 8 w i t h J a c o b ' s d r e a m of t h e l a d d e r . "

T h e T a r g u m i m a r e n o t easily d a t e d . Tg. Onq. is likely t h e oldest,
w i t h a d a t e f o r its final r e d a c t i o n a r o u n d t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e t h i r d
c e n t u r y C E . 1 2 T h e final r e d a c t i o n of Tg. Neo. likely d a t e s to d i e f o u r t h
c e n t u r y C E . 1 3 S u g g e s t e d d a t e s f o r Tg. Ps.-J.
v a r y f r o m t h e t i m e of
E z r a d o w n to t h e C r u s a d e s ; it p r o b a b l y c a m e i n t o its final f o r m in
t h e s e v e n t h o r e i g h t h c e n t u r y C E . ' 4 T e x t s w i t h s u c h late d a t e s m i g h t
r e a s o n a b l y b e q u e s t i o n e d as s o u r c e s of late S e c o n d T e m p l e
angel
belief. H o w e v e r , t h e d i s c o v e r y of A r a m a i c t r a n s l a t i o n s of Biblical
texts a t Q u m r a n m u c h like t h e T a r g u m i m suggests t h a t this t y p e of
t r a n s l a t i o n m a y d a t e t o a n early p e r i o d . 1 5 M o r e o v e r , b y t h e first c e n t u r y C E , A r a m a i c h a d b e c o m e t h e v e r n a c u l a r of the J e w s in Palestine
d i r o u g h to Babylon a n d beyond. 1 6 T h u s , b e a r i n g in m i n d die difficulties
11
See C. Rowland, "John 1:51, Jewish Apocalyptic and Targumic Tradition"

NTS 30 (1984) 498-507, esp. p. 503.
15
B. Grossfield, Tie Targum Onqelos to Genesis, p. 32. P. Alexander dates the BabyIonian redaction to the fourth-fifth century CE, "Targum, Targumim" in ABD 6:321.
13
M. McNamara, Targum Neofiti 1: Genesis, p. 45. P. Alexander agrees (p. 323).
14
M. Maher, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan: Genesis, pp. 11-12. P. Alexander again concurs (p. 322). R. Ilayward, "The Date of Targum Pseudo-Jonathan: Some Comments"
JJS 40 (1989) 7-30, argues that the evidence for such a late date is not compelling
and should be reassessed.
15
Qumran targumim: fragments: 4QtgLev (4H56), 4QtgJ0b (4H57), and the
more substantial 11QtgJ0b(11H0). Also noteworthy is the Genesis Apocryphon
(1Q20), which is an expansion/interpretation of Genesis in Aramaic.
16
M. Meg 2:1 says concerning the recitation of the Scroll of Esther during the
w i t h r e s p e c t to d a t i n g , it is p r u d e n t to c o n s i d e r t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m
the T a r g u m i m as p e r h a p s c o n t a i n i n g t r a d i t i o n s t h a t g o b a c k to t h e
late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d .
T h e e v i d e n c e s e e m s to suggest t h a t n e a r t h e first c e n t u r y C E , m a n y
i n t e r p r e t e r s u n d e r s t o o d t h e t h r e e " m e n " w h o a p p e a r e d to A b r a h a m
as angels. T h a t t h e y a p p e a r e d as h u m a n s d o e s n o t s e e m to h a v e
m e a n t t h e y w e r e in a n y w a y t r a n s f o r m e d ; r a t h e r , t h e y
remained
angels, t a k i n g o n a h u m a n f o r m to c a r r y o u t t h e i r specific tasks.

(b) Genesis 32
I n G e n 3 2 : 2 2 - 3 1 ( 2 3 - 3 2 ) J a c o b struggles with a " m a n " o n t h e b a n k s
of t h e J a b b o k f o r d . 1 T h e tale says:
[22] T h e same night he [Jacob] arose a n d took his two wives, his two
maids, and his eleven children, a n d crossed the ford of the J a b b o k .
[23] H e took them and he m a d e them cross over the wadi, and they
crossed with his belongings. [24] J a c o b remained alone, and a m a n
[ ]wrestled with him until the break of dawn. [25] A n d he realised
that he could not prevail against him, and so he touched his hip joint
and dislocated his hip (joint), while J a c o b wrestled with him. [26] A n d
he said, "Let me loose for the dawn is breaking." A n d he said. "I will
not let you go unless you bless me." [27] And he said to him. " W h a t
is your name?" and he said "Jacob." [28] And he said, " N o longer
shall your n a m e be called J a c o b , but instead, Israel, since you strove
with G o d [ ]and with m e n [ ]a n d you prevailed." [29] A n d
J a c o b requested, "Tell me, please, your n a m e , " a n d he said, " W h y do
you ask this, my name?" and he blessed him there. [30] And J a c o b
called the n a m e of the place Peniel since, "I have seen G o d []
face to face and my life has been spared." [31] And the sun rose upon
him as he crossed over Penu'el and he limped because of his hip.
T h e first t w o verses set t h e s c e n e f o r t h e u p c o m i n g e n c o u n t e r w i t h
the m y s t e r i o u s a d v e r s a r y . Interestingly the l a r g e r J a c o b n a r r a t i v e leads
us to e x p e c t a c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n J a c o b a n d his b r o t h e r
Esau.
J a c o b is fleeing f r o m E s a u , w h o is still a n g r y w i t h J a c o b f o r tricking

h i m o u t of his b i r t h r i g h t (25:31) a n d especially for stealing his blessi n g (27:45). J a c o b divides his p e o p l e i n t o t w o g r o u p s (32:7) a n d c a m p s
festival of Purim, "If he read it by heart, or if he read it in Aramaic or in any

other language, he has not fulfilled his obligation." See also m. Yad. 4:5. Also, in
the Talmud, b. Sabb 115a, there is a story that Garnliel I had a Targum of Job
immured during a building project.
17
The following translation is my own. It employs the verse numbers of English
translations. The corresponding verses in the Hebrew (BHS) are one number higher.
for t h e e v e n i n g (32:21). H e h a s directly r e q u e s t e d G o d ' s h e l p a g a i n s t

E s a u ( 3 2 : 9 - 1 2 ) . T h a t s a m e e v e n i n g , J a c o b m a k e s his i m m e d i a t e f a m ily f o r d t h e river (v. 2 2 2 3 ) , w h e r e h e is t h e n left a l o n e (v. 24). 1 8
A n u n k n o w n a d v e r s a r y r e f e r r e d to only as a " m a n " ( )t h e n sets
u p o n J a c o b . S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s , led b y G u n k e l , h a v e n o t e d
that
this story m a y reflect a v e r y a n c i e n t , folktale t r a d i t i o n of a
river
d e m o n a t t e m p t i n g to p r e v e n t crossing of t h e river d u e to its d a n gers. 1 9 G u n k e l g o e s as f a r as to suggest t h a t this story originally h a d

little t o d o w i t h J a c o b . 2 0 T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e origin of this tale
is plausible, so it will n o t b e d e b a t e d h e r e . I t is sufficient t o n o t e
t h a t , if this e x p l a n a t i o n is c o r r e c t , t h e n the o r i g i n a l f o r m of t h e story
a l r e a d y i n c l u d e d a spiritual b e i n g as t h e o p p o n e n t , n o t G o d .
J a c o b a n d his a d v e r s a r y wrestle t o a s t a l e m a t e . T h e
mysterious
o p p o n e n t t h e n realizes t h a t h e will n o t p r e v a i l o v e r J a c o b (v. 25),

so h e uses e i t h e r a special w r e s t l i n g t e c h n i q u e o r , as v o n R a d h a s
called it, " m a g i c a l p o w e r " to dislocate J a c o b ' s h i p j o i n t . 2 1 E v e n this
is n o t successful in f r e e i n g h i m f r o m J a c o b ' s h o l d , so h e i m p l o r e s
J a c o b to f r e e h i m " b e c a u s e t h e d a w n is b r e a k i n g " (v. 26). W i t h i n
t h e c o n t e x t of t h e story, n o r e a s o n is given for t h e c o n c e r n o v e r t h e
m o r n i n g ' s arrival. H o w e v e r , this o n c e a g a i n fits w i t h G u n k e l ' s suggestion t h a t t h e story originally r e f e r r e d to a d e m o n a t t a c k , since
s u c h a c r e a t u r e w o u l d only b e a b l e to f u n c t i o n a t night. 2 2
J a c o b , n o w obviously holding the u p p e r h a n d , puts a condition
o n t h e release of his o p p o n e n t : h e r e q u i r e s a blessing. J a c o b is clearly
z e a l o u s to o b t a i n a blessing ( G e n . 27). Blessings a r e a n
important
t h e m e in G e n e s i s ; t h e y c o m e p r i m a r i l y f r o m G o d ( G e n 12, 39) a n d
otherwise from venerable
figures
(e.g., t h e p a t r i a r c h s u p o n
their
d e a t h b e d s , G e n 2 7 , 4 8 4 9 ) . W i t h w h o m did J a c o b s u p p o s e h e w a s
wrestling to m a k e s u c h a d e m a n d ? It d o e s n o t s e e m likely t h a t h e
t h o u g h t his o p p o n e n t w a s E s a u . T h i s q u e s t i o n m u s t r e m a i n
unan-
s w e r e d , b u t to s o m e e x t e n t , given t h e c o n t e x t of blessings 111 G e n e s i s ,
18
There is some confusion as to whether Jacob did indeed cross the river himself,
v. 22, but regardless, in v. 24 it is made clear that Jacob is alone when he is met.
19
H. Gunkel, 77le Folktale in the Old Testament, trans. John W. Rogerson (Sheffield:
Almond Press, 1987) 83-87.
20
H. Gunkel, Folktale, p. 87.
21
G. von Rad, Genesis: A Commentary, trans. J . Marks (London: SCM, 1961) 315.
22
H. Gunkel, Folktale, p. 85. Tg. Neo. says that the morning is the time when
the angels praise God, and Sariel, Jacob's opponent, is the leader of the angels.
See also Tg. Ps.-J. and Gen. Rab. 78:1.
it s e e m s t h a t J a c o b s u p p o s e d his o p p o n e n t to b e s o m e o n e of g r e a t
p o w e r , w h o w a s a b l e to give h i m a n efficacious blessing,
perhaps
even G o d .
J a c o b ' s a d v e r s a r y r e s p o n d s to this c o n d i t i o n of a blessing b y requesting J a c o b ' s n a m e (v. 27). T h i s suggests t h a t w h o e v e r w e s u p p o s e t h e
o p p o n e n t to b e , h e did n o t k n o w J a c o b , a l t h o u g h this w o u l d w e i g h
a g a i n s t a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e o p p o n e n t as G o d a n d fit b e t t e r w i t h
G u n k e l ' s h y p o t h e s i s of folktale origins. J a c o b d e c l a r e s his n a m e , t h e n
t h e o p p o n e n t says, " N o l o n g e r shall y o u r n a m e b e called J a c o b , b u t
i n s t e a d , Israel, since y o u strove 2 3 w i t h G o d ( ) a n d w i t h
men
( );a n d y o u p r e v a i l e d " (v. 28). 24 H e r e w e a r e g i v e n o u r
main
piece of e v i d e n c e f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h e G e n e s i s a d v e r s a r y .
Certainly,
t h a t J a c o b strove with m e n b a r k e n s b a c k first to his t i m e in R e b e c c a ' s

w o m b w h e n h e g r a b b e d o n t o E s a u ' s heel at t h e i r b i r t h (25:26), a n d
t h e n also to E s a u , L a b a n , a n d this m a n l i k e
figure.
W h e n v. 2 8 says t h a t J a c o b " s t r o v e w i t h G o d , " it is m o s t likely

r e f e r r i n g t o t h e p r e s e n t w r e s t l i n g m a t c h , since n o w h e r e else d o e s
J a c o b h a v e s u c h a n i n t i m a t e , physical i n t e r a c t i o n with a divine being.
T h u s , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t t h e J a b b o k w r e s t l i n g m a t c h is w h e n
J a c o b "strove" with G o d a n d prevailed. T h a t J a c o b prevailed over
his o p p o n e n t is n o t explicitly s t a t e d , b u t it c a n b e i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n of a blessing is m e t a n d J a c o b is n o l o n g e r
d e t a i n e d . T h e v i c t o r y c o m e s at a price, h o w e v e r , since J a c o b l i m p s
d u e to his i n j u r y . T h e i n j u r y is a p a l p a b l e a n d striking c o n s e q u e n c e .
J a c o b is physically w o u n d e d a f t e r w r e s t l i n g w i t h a divine o p p o n e n t .
T h i s is a v e r y i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e divine.
J a c o b t h e n r e s p o n d s by r e q u e s t i n g his o p p o n e n t ' s n a m e . His request
g o e s unfulfilled, w i t h t h e a d v e r s a r y saying, " W h y d o y o u ask m e this,
m y n a m e [ " ? ] A similar r e q u e s t is p u t to t h e A n g e l
of t h e L o r d in J u d g 13:17; M a n o a h asks, " W h a t is y o u r n a m e , so t h a t
w h e n y o u r w o r d s c o m e true, w e m a y h o n o u r you?" T o w h i c h the Angel
of t h e L o r d r e s p o n d s (v. 18) in t h e e x a c t s a m e w o r d s as t h e G e n e s i s
o p p o n e n t , " W h y d o y o u ask this, m y n a m e [ " ? ]
T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d t h e n acids, " I t [his n a m e ] is i n c o m p r e h e n s ible" (v. 18).
23
Note that the exact meaning of the term is unknown. The common translation of "strive" is adopted for this discussion. See BDB, p. 975a.
24
The name change occurs again in Gen 35:10 and is mentioned numerous
times; see Gen 46:2; 2 Kgs 17:34; Ps 135:4; et al.
O n c e J a c o b is blessed a n d his o p p o n e n t leaves, h e r e n a m e s t h e

p l a c e P e n i e l b e c a u s e h e h a s " s e e n G o d f a c e t o face a n d s u r v i v e d . "
S e e i n g G o d is l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g in t h e H e b r e w Bible ( G e n 16:13; E x o d
2 4 : 1 1 , 33:20; J u d g 6 : 2 2 - 2 3 cf. Tripartite Tractate NHC
I, 6 4 : 2 8 - 6 5 : 1 ) .
I n t h e J u d g 13 story, t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d r e t u r n s to M a n o a h a n d
his wife. M a n o a h says to his wife, " W e shall surely die, f o r w e h a v e
seen God" (13:22). T h i s is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t e q u a t i o n : M a n o a h
and
his wife saw t h e Angel of the Lord (v. 17, 21), b u t e q u a l l y t h e y h a v e

seen God (v. 22). J a c o b s e e m s t o h a v e a c c o m p l i s h e d s o m e t h i n g v e r y
r a r e i n d e e d : h e h a s seen G o d (cf. E z e k 1:26; J o h n 1:18, 4:12). J a c o b ' s
p r o c l a m a t i o n , " I h a v e seen G o d f a c e to f a c e , a n d m y life w a s s a v e d , "
is i l l u m i n a t e d b y t h e e q u a t i o n m a d e in J u d g e s . J a c o b w r e s t l e d w i t h
G o d a n d s a w h i m f a c e to f a c e , b u t a g a i n , a l a t e r i n t e r p r e t e r c o u l d
see t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d t r a d i t i o n s t h a t e q u a t e it w i t h G o d
and
u n d e r s t a n d J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t to b e a n A n g e l of t h e L o r d . 2 5
T h e p r o p h e t H o s e a is a w a r e of a similar t r a d i t i o n as the G e n e s i s
story in c h a p t e r 1 2 : 2 - 5 (3~6). 2 6 H o s e a is t h e o n l y p r e - E x i l i c p r o p h e t
to refer to a n a n g e l ( 2 7 . (
according to his ways, and requite him according to his deeds. [3]
In the w o m b he took his brother by the heel, and in his m a n h o o d
he strove [ ]with G o d [ 4 ]
.[]H e strove with the angel
[ ] and prevailed [], he wept and sought his favor. He
met G o d at Bethel, and there G o d spoke with him[5] the Lord the
G o d of hosts, the Lord is his name.
T h e close linguistic a n d n a r r a t i v e ties b e t w e e n H o s 12 a n d G e n 32
strongly suggest t h e y a r e related. O n l y h e r e a n d in G e n 32 d o e s t h e
v e r b " s t r i v e " a p p e a r . Also, t h e v e r b " p r e v a i l " a p p e a r s in
b o t h texts. F u r t h e r m o r e , m e n t i o n of J a c o b ' s g r a b b i n g of E s a u ' s heel,
" s t r i v i n g " w i t h G o d , a n d m e e t i n g w i t h h i m a t B e t h e l all firmly locate
t h e origins of this p e r i c o p e in t h e J a c o b Cycle. C h a p t e r 12 of H o s e a
h a s b e e n t h e t o p i c of m u c h i n t e r t e x t u a l exegesis. 2 8 T h e
25
importance
See Tg. Onq. and Tg. Ps.-J.

Translation mine. As with Genesis, the verse numbers follow English transladons; the corresponding verse numbers in Hebrew (BHS) are one number higher.
27
But Isa 6:26 mentions the Seraphim, and Ezek 10 mentions the Cherubim.
28
See especially L. Esiinger, "Hosea 12:5a and Genesis 32:29: A Study in Inner
Biblical Exegesis" JSOT 18 (1980) 91-99; M. Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient
Israel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); M. Gertner, "The Masorah and the Levites:
An Essay in the History of a Concept" VT 10 (1960) 241-272 with "Appendix: An
Attempt at an Interpretation of Hosea 12," pp. 272-284.
26
of H o s 12:4 f o r this s t u d y lies in s h o w i n g t h a t f r o m a n e a r l y p e r i o d

a t r a d i t i o n existed in w h i c h J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t w a s u n d e r s t o o d as a n
angel.
M a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s believe t h a t the w o r d in v. 4 is a gloss. 29
S e v e r a l r e a s o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y p u t f o r w a r d . T h e t e x t itself still m a k e s
sense if o n e r e m o v e s a n d inserts ( as f o u n d in v. 1) o r e v e n
p e r h a p s ( v. 3) as possible originals. S o m e a n c i e n t r e a d e r s c o u l d
c e r t a i n l y c o n s t r u e a verse t h a t r e a d ' J a c o b s t r o v e w i t h G o d a n d h e
p r e v a i l e d " as p r o b l e m a t i c . I n light of t h e t r a d i t i o n s e x t a n t in t h e
H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s (e.g., m a n , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d , et al.), a c h a n g e
of t o w o u l d n o t b e difficult to i m a g i n e . A c h a n g e t o
w o u l d e l i m i n a t e a n y p r o b l e m a t i c r e a d i n g s t h a t m i g h t arise if
G o d w e r e p r e s e n t in v. 4. A d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t for this suggestion is
p r o v i d e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t H o s e a n o w h e r e else m e n t i o n s
and
that the Genesis passage contains the word for " G o d , " which
e l s e w h e r e in t h e H e b r e w Bible is u n d e r s t o o d as " g o d s " = a n g e l s o r
lesser d i v i n e beings.
N o n e of these c o m m e n t a t o r s s e e m s to suggest, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e
c h a n g e to o c c u r s f o r a n y r e a s o n o t h e r t h a n t o say t h a t J a c o b
w r e s t l e d w i t h a lesser, divine b e i n g . T h a t is, n o n e posits a switch t o
t h a t h a d as its m o t i v a t i o n t h e i d e a of as h u m a n
"mes-
s e n g e r . " 3 0 T h u s e v e n if t h e " a n g e l " m e n t i o n e d in H o s 12 is a l a t e r

gloss to t h e text, t h e r e d a c t o r s e e m s to h a v e h a d in m i n d a divine
b u t lesser b e i n g t h a n G o d w i t h w h o m J a c o b w r e s d e d a n d o v e r w h o m
J a c o b w a s a b l e t o prevail. M o r e o v e r , t h e L X X , w h i c h r e a d s ,
supports
31
T h a t t h e L X X u p h o l d s suggests t h a t if it w a s
a gloss, t h e n it h a p p e n e d fairly early in d i e t r a d i t i o n . H . G i n s b e r g

h a s a r g u e d t h a t a b e i n g k n o w n as " E l - b e t h - e l " e q u i v a l e n t
to a n
a n g e l w a s w o r s h i p p e d in a cult t h a t evolved f r o m t h e P e n u e l story. 3 2

If h e is c o r r e c t , this s u p p o r t s t h e i d e a t h a t J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t
was
u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel (or at least divine being) f r o m a n early p e r i o d .

A t first g l a n c e , t h e r e s e e m s n o r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t H o s e a , writ29
See especially H. Wolff, Hosea, trans. G. Stanstell (Philadelphia: Fortress Press,

1974) 206-212 and F. Andersen and D. N. Freedman, Hosea (New York: Doubleday,
1980) 606-610.
30
The common translation of ;see BDB 521b.
31
Note that there are no extant fragments of IIos 12 among the Dead Sea
Scrolls, nor is it referred to specifically by Philo or Josephus.
32
H. L. Ginsberg, "Hosea's Ephraim, More Fool Than Knave: An Interpretation
of Hosea 12:1-14" JBL 80 (1961) 343-347.
i n g in t h e p r e - E x i l i c p e r i o d , c h a n g e d t h e G e n e s i s t r a d i t i o n o r k n e w
of a n a l t e r n a t e t r a d i t i o n t h a t h e l d J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t w a s a n a n g e l .
H o w e v e r , H o s 12, i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r stating t h a t J a c o b wrestled w i t h
t h e a n g e l / G o d a n d p r e v a i l e d , says t h a t J a c o b w e p t in s u p p l i c a t i o n
(). T h a t J a c o b w e p t is m a i n t a i n e d n o w h e r e else in t h e J a b b o k
t r a d i t i o n s , so it c e r t a i n l y a p p e a r s t h a t H o s e a e i t h e r (a) k n e w of a
t r a d i t i o n a b o u t J a c o b t h a t varies f r o m t h e o n e r e c o r d e d in G e n e s i s
o r (b) a l t e r e d t h e G e n e s i s story. I n e i t h e r case, this l e n d s c r e d e n c e
to t h e possibility t h a t w a s i n d e e d original. C e r t a i n l y , t h e G e n e s i s
p a s s a g e w a s v a g u e e n o u g h to allow r o o m f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d it
s e e m s t h a t r e g a r d l e s s of w h e n it o c c u r r e d , t h e a u t h o r / r e d a c t o r
of
H o s 12 a l t e r e d t h e G e n e s i s t r a d i t i o n of J a c o b w r e s t l i n g w i t h G o d to
J a c o b wrestling with an angel.
I n Ant. b o o k 1, J o s e p h u s deals directly w i t h t h e G e n 32 story. H i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is q u i t e i l l u m i n a t i n g in t h a t h e c h o o s e s a n u m b e r of
t e r m s to d e s c r i b e J a c o b ' s m y s t e r i o u s o p p o n e n t . Ant. 1 : 3 3 1 - 3 3 4 states:
[331] These preparations going smoothly through the entire day, at night
he put his company in motion; when they crossed a ford called J a b a c chos, J a c o b being left behind, encountered a p h a n t o m []
the struggle had been begun by itwrestled and overcame the phantom
[], [332] which now had the faculty of speech and spoke
to him; It advised him that he should rejoice in his achievement a n d
that it was no minor adversary whom he mastered, but a divine angel
[ ] he h a d defeated, and that he should deem this a sign
of great blessings to come a n d that his people would never be forsaken, nor that any mortal m a n would suipass him in strength. [333]
H e then called u p o n him to take the n a m e of Israel, which according to the Hebrew tongue means "the opponent of an angel of G o d "
[ ]. This proclamation indeed lie gave at the
request of Jacob. For he, perceiving him to be an angel of G o d [
], 33 besought him to declare what destiny awaited him. T h e phantorn [], having spoken, vanished; [334] a n d J a c o b , delighted
with this, named the place Phanuel, which means, "the face of God." 3 4
J o s e p h u s ' s a c c o u n t of t h e J a b b o k struggle follows r o u g h l y t h e s a m e
n a r r a t i v e s e q u e n c e as the G e n e s i s story, b u t t h e r e a r e s o m e significant
33
Note Thackery translates this as "a messenger of God," which is appropriate
in the context of the opponent delivering the news of Jacob's destiny, but "angel"
carries with it the idea of "messenger" and also remains consistent with the previous uses of .
34
Greek text from Loeb editions Josephus, Ant. I-IV, trans. H. Thackeray (1961).
differences w i t h respect to t h e o p p o n e n t . J a c o b sends his f a m i l y across

t h e J a b b o k , is left a l o n e , a n d wrestles w i t h a n u n k n o w n
opponent.
I t is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h e d i f f e r e n t t e r m s e m p l o y e d b y J o s e p h u s t o
n a m e J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t . J o s e p h u s is u n i q u e a m o n g e x t a n t s o u r c e s in
using " p h a n t a s m " to d e s c r i b e J a c o b ' s a d v e r s a r y , selecting it o n several o c c a s i o n s t o d e n o t e h e a v e n l y beings. 3 5 J o s e p h u s m a y h a v e c h o sen this t e r m to m a i n t a i n t h e m y s t e r i o u s n a t u r e of t h e
adversary.
T h a t J o s e p h u s takes p a i n s to say t h a t this s p e c t e r c o u l d t h e n s p e a k

s e e m s t o suggest t h a t , in his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e tale, J a c o b w o u l d
n o t h a v e i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o g n i z e d his o p p o n e n t ' s a n g e l i c ( a n d t h u s
m e s s e n g e r ) status. P e r h a p s J o s e p h u s saw in this t h e m y t h i c a l r o o t s
suggested b y m o d e r n i n t e r p r e t e r s like G u n k e l , for w h o m t h e origirial o p p o n e n t w a s a river d e m o n . 3 6 T h e o p p o n e n t t h e n tells J a c o b
t h a t h e h a s w o n a g r e a t v i c t o r y a n d suggests t h e n a m e c h a n g e f r o m
J a c o b to Israel ( J o s e p h u s m o v e s m e n t i o n of J a c o b ' s i n j u r y to t h e
e n d of his retelling). 3 , J a c o b , r e c o g n i z i n g his o p p o n e n t ' s t r u e n a t u r e ,
presses h i m f o r details of his o w n destiny ( J o s e p h u s d o e s n o t explicitly m e n t i o n r e c e i p t of a blessing). 3 8 Finally, J a c o b n a m e s t h e p l a c e
P l i a n u e l , t h e " f a c e of G o d . " 3 9
H o w e v e r , in this s a m e section, J o s e p h u s also calls J a c o b ' s a d v e r sary a " h e a v e n l y a n g e l " a n d a n " a n g e l of G o d , " w h i c h s e e m s t o
i n d i c a t e t h a t J o s e p h u s , like H o s 12, u n d e r s t o o d " m a n " to m e a n s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a h u m a n o r G o d . F o r J o s e p h u s , it s e e m s t h a t J a c o b ' s
o p p o n e n t w a s a n a n g e l of G o d , a divine b e i n g , b u t n o t G o d
him-
self. J o s e p h u s ' s e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e m e a n i n g of t h e n a m e Israel s u p p o r t s this view, since h e says t h a t Israel m e a n s " t h e o p p o n e n t of a n
35
In Ant. 5.213, Josephus uses to describe the Angel of the Lord in
Judg 6:11-24 and in 3.62 to characterize the Angel of the Lord in the burning
bush. He uses the term mostly to refer to angels: Ant. 1.325, 331, 333 (Gen 32),
5.213, 277 (Judg 6 and 13), though also for "visions"; see also B.J. 3.353 and
5.381; Ant. 2.82 and 10.272 (Daniel's vision).
36
H. Gunkel, Folktale, pp. 83.87
37
This seems a more logical place to mention the injury, since, as the Genesis
account unfolds, the injury has nothing to do with Jacob's eventual yielding but
relates to the aetiology in Gen 32:33 of the Jews' prohibition against eating the
sinew of the hip.
38
Josephus recounts that the angel tells Jacob "no mortal man will surpass him
in strength." In this instance of the foretelling, Josephus seems to demonstrate dependence on the LXX version of the story, which says Jacob will be "
" (. 29).
39
For a discussion of the significance of the name Phanuel, see G. Vermes, "The
Archangel Sariel," in Christianity, Judaism, and Other Graeco-Roman Cults, ed. J. Neusner
(Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1975) 3:159-166.
a n g e l of G o d " r a t h e r t h a n " o n e c o n t e n d i n g / s t r i v i n g w i t h G o d . " H i s

i n t e r p o l a t i o n clearly s h o w s t h a t t h e G e n e s i s p a s s a g e left o p e n
identity of J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t a n d t h a t a t least o n e
first-century
the
Jewish
i n t e r p r e t e r t o o k this b e i n g t o b e a n a n g e l of G o d .
T h e t e x t k n o w n as t h e L a d d e r of J a c o b [Lad. Jac.)
p r e s e n t s sev-
eral p r o b l e m s to t h e e x e g e t e d u e to its t r a n s m i s s i o n history. 4 0

Jac.
Lad.
survives o n l y in t h e S l a v o n i c v e r s i o n a n d c o n t a i n s m a n y l a t e r
c o r r u p t i o n s , edits, a n d c h a n g e s t o t h e text. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is i n t e r esting to c o n s i d e r s o m e of d i e u n i q u e a s p e c t s of this text. D a t e s f o r

Lad. Jac. h a v e b e e n suggested a r o u n d t h e first c e n t u r y C E , b u t t h e s e
a r e b y n o m e a n s certain. 4 1
T h e r e a r e seven c h a p t e r s in Lad. Jac. T h e first six a p p e a r t o b e
J e w i s h , w i t h t h e seventh seemingly a C h r i s t i a n e x p a n s i o n of t h e text. 4 2
T h e g e n e r a l s e q u e n c e of e v e n t s in Lad. Jac.
follows t h a t of G e n
2 8 : 1 0 22, b u t t h e r e a r e m a n y e x p a n s i o n s , etc. U p o n e a c h of twelve

steps (a s y m b o l i c n u m b e r ) a r e said to be t w o faces. M u c h a k i n to
t h e l a t e r T a r g u m i c a n d r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l , Lad. Jac. says t h a t at t h e
t o p is a n e x c e e d i n g l y a w e s o m e face. A b o v e t h a t f a c e is G o d . Lxid.
Jac. 4 : 1 5 says:
[1] And the angel [Sariel] said to me, " W h a t is your name?" [2] And
I said, "Jacob" [3] [He announced], "Your n a m e shall no longer be
called J a c o b , but your n a m e shall be similar to my name, Israel." [4]
And w h e n I was going from Phandana of Syria to meet Esau my
brother, he came to me a n d blessed m e and called me Israel. [5] A n d
he would not tell m e his n a m e until I adjured him.
A few i n d i c a t o r s in this s h o r t p a s s a g e relate it to t h e J a b b o k e v e n t ,
p r i m a r i l y the c h a n g e of J a c o b ' s n a m e to Israel. T h e n a m e Israel is
said t o b e "like" t h a t of his i n f o r m a n t , Sariel. 4 3 Sariel is also n a m e d
as t h e a n g e l a g a i n s t w h o m J a c o b wrestles in Tg. Neo. J a c o b ' s
n a m e is "like" t h a t of o n e of t h e n a m e d a r c h a n g e l s ( 1 Q M
new
9:14-15,
Ork 1 E11. 20). T h i s s e e m s to i m p l y , a t least, t h a t J a c o b ' s n a t u r e is

to b e c h a n g e d to s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n simply h u m a n , since h e h a s
a n a m e like t h a t of a n a r c h a n g e l . F u r t h e r i n d i c a t o r s a r e the specific
m e n t i o n of t h e blessing a n d t h a t t h e n a m e of J a c o b ' s angelic visitor
40
Translation by H. Lunt, "The Ladder of Jacob" in OTP 2:408-409.

H. Lunt, Ladder, in OTP 2:401-411.
42
J. Charlesworth, "The Ladder of Jacob" in ABD (New York: Doubleday, 1991)
3:609.
43
Note that the names are similar in that (a) they are both theophoric, and (b)
and are transpositions of the same (unpointed) Hebrew consonants.
41
is n o t given until h e is p r e s s e d (cf. G e n 32:29). A n a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t

of c o n t a c t m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d f r o m t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l
reference,
P h a n d a n a of Syria, w h i c h likely p o i n t s t o w a r d t h e J a b b o k event. 4 4

F r o m this s h o r t text, w e c a n see y e t a n o t h e r w a y in w h i c h
the
J a b b o k tale w a s i n t e r p r e t e d . H e r e , as in Tg. JVeo., Sariel c o m e s t o

J a c o b , c h a n g e s his n a m e , a n d blesses h i m . N o struggle is explicitly
m e n t i o n e d , b u t c e r t a i n l y t h e r e is a visit f r o m a n a n g e l . J a c o b ' s n e w
n a m e , Israel, is said to b e like t h a t of t h e a r c h a n g e l , w h i c h suggests
t h a t f r o m this p o i n t f o r w a r d h e h a s a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e
divine via his n e w n a m e . T h i s is akin to w h a t w e h a v e j u s t seen
a b o v e in Philo. Israel is a p o w e r f u l n a m e , w h i c h b r i n g s w i t h it a
c h a n g e in n a t u r e .
T h e r e is o n e s e g m e n t f r o m a G r a e c o - R o m a n a u t h o r o n t h e G e n
32 p a s s a g e . D e m e t r i u s ' s writings, t h o u g h r e c o r d e d in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y G E w r i t i n g s of E u s e b i u s , likely d e r i v e f r o m t h e e n d of t h e t h i r d
c e n t u r y B C E . 4 5 T h i s f r a g m e n t is c o n t a i n e d in E u s e b i u s ,
Evangelien
Praeparatio
9.21.1-19:46
While he was on his way to C a n a a n , an angel of G o d [

] wrestled [] with him and struck the broad part of Jacob's
thigh; it became stiff and he limped on it. It is for this reason that
the tendon in the thigh of animals is not eaten. And the angel [
] said to him that from then on he would no longer be called
J a c o b but Israel.
It seems t h a t d i e t r a d i t i o n of J a c o b wrestling a n angel is q u i t e a n c i e n t ,
so t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e E u s e b i u s o r a n i n t e r m e d i a t e h a n d
i n s e r t e d it. T h e r e f o r e , w e h a v e f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e of J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t
b e i n g i n t e r p r e t e d as a n angel. It w a s m a i n t a i n e d in t h e t r a d i t i o n by
E u s e b i u s as well.
Lastly, t h e r e is e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e C h r i s t i a n a p o l o g i s t J u s t i n M a r t y r
(c. 1 0 0 - 1 6 5 CE). I n his " d i a l o g u e " with a J e w i s h i n t e r l o c u t o r , T r y p h o ,
J u s t i n discusses a n u m b e r of p a s s a g e s f r o m t h e H e b r e w
Scriptures
in o r d e r to d e m o n s t r a t e to T r y p h o t h a t J e s u s w a s p r o p h e s i e d
in
those writings. T h e Dialogue w a s w r i t t e n a r o u n d 135 C E , so it is o n

the m a r g i n s of t h e t i m e f r a m e f o r this study, b u t J u s t i n b r i n g s a n
44
H. Lunt, in 0 7 7 2:409 n. 4b, says that Phandana of Syria represents PaddamAram, a key geographical reference from Gen 33:18 (as in Apocalypse of Abraham
2:3), which is also the same location mentioned in the Prayer of Joseph.
45
C. Holladay, FragmentsfromHellenistic Jewish Authors, vol. 1: Historians (Chico,
CA: Scholars Press, 1983) 51-52.
46
See C. Holladay, Fragments, p. 67.
i n t e r e s t i n g p e r s p e c t i v e t o t h e q u e s t i o n of J e s u s ' s n a t u r e a n d
these
passages. H e m e n t i o n s t h e G e n 32 a c c o u n t o n t w o occasions. 4 7 A t
125.5, h e writes: 4 8
T h e n a m e Israel, then, means a m a n who overcomes power (),
for Isra is a " m a n who overcomes" a n d El is "power." T h a t Christ
would do this w h e n He became m a n was thus foretold by the mystery of J a c o b ' s wrestling with Him who appeared to him, in that He
ministered to the will of the Father, nevertheless, H e is God, because
H e is the first-born of all creatures. . . . By touching J a c o b ' s thigh and
making it n u m b , Christ showed that he, too, would grow n u m b [i.e.,
in physical a n d mental suffering], at His crucifixion. But his n a m e
from the beginning was Israela n a m e which H e conferred u p o n the
blessed J a c o b when he blessed him with his own name, proclaiming
thereby that all who come to the Father through H i m are part of
blessed Israel.
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e c h a p t e r J u s t i n tells T r y p h o t h a t h e will discuss " t h e p o w e r () of t h e n a m e I s r a e l " (125:1). J u s t i n states
t h a t " I s r a e l " is t h e n a m e given to t h e " f i r s t - b o r n of all c r e a t u r e s "
(cf. P h i l o , Conf. 146; C o l 1:15) 49 a n d a t t r i b u t e s t h e n a m e t o C h r i s t .
H e links J a c o b a n d J e s u s by e q u a t i n g J a c o b ' s n u m b thigh w i t h Christ's
s u f f e r i n g ( n u m b n e s s ) at the C r u c i f i x i o n .
W i t h i n t h e Dialogue J u s t i n i n t e r p r e t s a n u m b e r of t h e o p h a n i e s f r o m
t h e H e b r e w Bible as p r o o f t h a t J e s u s as t h e son of G o d
existed
b e f o r e t h e i n c a r n a t i o n . 5 0 C h r i s t c o n f e r s t h e n a m e Israel, his o w n
n a m e , u p o n J a c o b w h e n h e blesses h i m at t h e J a b b o k . J u s t i n uses
this c o n n e c t i o n to s h o w t h a t C h r i s t m a n i f e s t e d himself in t h e a n c i e n t
p a s t a n d p r o v i d e d t h e m e a n s w h e r e b y J e w s c o u l d also c o m e to salv a t i o n , since t h e y a r e actually m e m b e r s in "blessed I s r a e l , " w h i c h
in its essence m e a n s p a r t a k i n g in J e s u s t h r o u g h J a c o b .
47
Justin also mentions Gen 32 in his next chapter, 126, but there he simply reiterates the Biblical story.
48
Translation my own with special reference to Gieschen, p. 160; Greek text
from Migne, PG vol. 6.
49
See also NHC 11:105, which says, "And a first-bom called 'Israel,' i.e., 'the
man who sees god (cf. Philo, PJ),' also having another name, 'Jesus the Christ,'
who is like the Saviour." Translation from Hans-Gebhard Bethbe and Orval S.
Wintermute in The Nag Hammadi Library in English, ed. J. Robinson (San Francisco:
Harper, 1978) 166.
50
The burning bush (59:1), the visitors at Mamre (58:4-13), and the warrior
that appeared to Joshus (62:5). See O. Skarsaune, The Proof from Prophecy: A Study
in Justin Martyr's Proof Text Tradition: Text-Type, Provenance, Theological Profile (Leiden:
E . J . Brill, 1987).
Finally, in t h e Dialogue with Trypho 5 8 : 3 J u s t i n says t h e f o l l o w i n g

about Jesus:
H e is called God, and H e is and shall be God. And when all had
agreed on these grounds, I continued: "Moreover, I consider it necessary to repeat to you the words which narrate how H e who is both
Angel and G o d and Lord, a n d who appeared as a m a n to A b r a h a m ,
and who wrestled in h u m a n form with J a c o b , was seen by him when
he fled from his brother Esau."
J u s t i n d e s c r i b e s J e s u s as t h e o n e " w h o is b o t h a n g e l a n d G o d " a n d
locates h i m in t h e a n c i e n t p a s t in b o t h t h e G e n e s i s p a s s a g e s c o n s i d e r e d in this s u b s e c t i o n : as a visitor to A b r a h a m ( G e n 18:Iff.) a n d
the o n e w h o w r e s t l e d w i t h J a c o b ( G e n 32:24~32). 5 1 So, for Justin,
J e s u s is a divine b e i n g , a n a n g e l a n d G o d , b u t w h o a p p e a r e d as a
m a n in t h e a n c i e n t past. C l e a r l y , J u s t i n w o u l d n o t i n t e n d a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of J e s u s s i m p l y b e c a u s e h e a p p e a r e d as a m a n .
T h u s , t h e t r a d i t i o n of J a c o b w r e s t l i n g w i t h a n u n k n o w n assailant
a t t h e J a b b o k is a t t e s t e d in a n u m b e r of sources. G e n 32 itself is a n
e n i g m a t i c tale t h a t d o e s n o t clearly d e f i n e t h e o p p o n e n t of J a c o b ,
t h o u g h by inference it seems t h a t J a c o b struggled widi G o d . S u b s e q u e n t
i n t e r p r e t e r s , p e r h a p s h a v i n g difficulties w i t h this i d e a , a l m o s t u n i versally u n d e r s t a n d t h e " m a n " at t h e J a b b o k f o r d to b e a n a n g e l .
T h e a u t h o r , o r p e r h a p s a l a t e r r e d a c t o r of H o s e a , likely b e g a n
this t r e n d of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a t a fairly early d a t e , as early as H o s e a
itself in t h e pre-Exilic p e r i o d . As w e saw, G e n e s i s itself c o n t a i n e d
t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h a n i n t e r p r e t e r c o u l d see t h e " m a n " as a n angel.
T r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a m e a n d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d f r o m t h e rest
of t h e H e b r e w c a n o n o n l y s u p p o r t this h y p o t h e s i s .
T h i s e v i d e n c e all s e e m s t o suggest t h a t it is l e g i t i m a t e to look at
t h e G e n 32 p a s s a g e , as i n t e r p r e t e d in a n d a r o u n d t h e first c e n t u r y
C E , as a c a s e of a n g e l i c - h u m a n i n t e r a c t i o n . If w e a s s u m e this starting point, then we can further consider the relationship
between
a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s in t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e last c e n t u r i e s B C E
and
first C E . T h e J a b b o k n a r r a t i v e s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a case in w h i c h
a n a n g e l , in t h e f o r m o r at least t h e a p p e a r a n c e of m a n , w r e s t l e d
w i t h a h u m a n b e i n g . T h i s is a v e r y i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t w i t h a divine
51
Also Dial. 59:1: "When I
further, to show you from the
Angel, and God, and Lord, and
and Isaac, appeared in a flame
had spoken these words, I continued: 'Permit me,

book of Exodus how this same One, who is both
man, and who appeared in human form to Abraham
of fire from the bush, and conversed with Moses.' "
b e i n g . I n f a c t , Tg. Neo.
the
angel
" e m b r a c e d . " W h a t w a s t h e o u t c o m e of this struggle? J a c o b ' s
actually says t h a t J a c o b a n d
name
w a s c h a n g e d , h e w a s blessed, a n d h e w a s i n j u r e d ! J a c o b ' s h i p i n j u r y
is m a i n t a i n e d in a l m o s t all t h e t r a d i t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e it is t h e
etiology of t h e p r o h i b i t i o n of e a t i n g of t h e t h i g h . Still, the w o u n d
s t a n d s as a striking i n d i c a t o r of t h e kind of i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t J a c o b
h a d w i t h t h e divine. It w a s so real t h a t h e w a s i n j u r e d a n d h a d a
l i m p ( t h o u g h t h e r e is n o suggestion t h a t t h e w o u n d w a s p e r m a n e n t ,
a n d t h e M i d r a s h suggests t h a t it w a s not).
It is easy to see w h y s o m e l a t e r t h o u g h t t h a t J a c o b , b y v i r t u e of
b e i n g involved in s u c h a n i n c r e d i b l e struggle, m i g h t h a v e u n d e r s t o o d
himself to b e a n a n g e l (see 3.6 below). H i s n a m e c h a n g e a n d his intim a t e relationship with G o d o r angels elevate h i m a b o v e o t h e r h u m a n s .
2.2
The Book of Joshua
J o s h u a e n c o u n t e r s a " m a n " as h e a n d t h e Israelites a r e
encamped
o u t s i d e of J e r i c h o . 5 2 J o s h 5 : 1 3 - 1 5 states:
[13] W h e n J o s h u a was by Jericho, he lifted up his eyes and looked,
and behold, a m a n [ ]stood before him with his drawn sword
in his hand; a n d J o s h u a went to him and said to him, "Are you for
us, or for our adversaries?" [14] And he said, "No; but as commander of the army of the Lord [ ]I have now come." And
Joshua fell on his face to the earth, and worshiped, and said to him,
" W h a t does my lord bid his servant?" [15] And the commander of
the Lord's army said to J o s h u a , "Put off your shoes from your feet;
for the place where you stand is holy." And J o s h u a did so.
T h e e n d of the story a p p e a r s to b e missing, since i m m e d i a t e l y foll o w i n g v. 15, in c h a p t e r 6, w e h a v e t h e a c c o u n t of t h e Israelites surr o u n d i n g a n d c a p t u r i n g J e r i c h o . W i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e story,
J o s h u a d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e a b l e i m m e d i a t e l y to d e t e r m i n e
t h e entity b e f o r e h i m is a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a h u m a n b e i n g .
asks t h e " m a n " f o r w h i c h side h e
fights
(v. 13). T h e " m a n "
that
He
tells
J o s h u a h e is t h e c o m m a n d e r of t h e a r m y of t h e L o r d ( ) .
52
P. Miller, The Divine Warrior in Ancient Israel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1973) 128-131. See also F. Abel, "L'apparition du chef de l'arme de Yahveh
Josu (Jos. V. 13-15)" in Miscellanea Biblica et Orientalia (Rome: Pontificio Istituto
Bibtico, 1951) 109-113; R. Nelson, Joshua: A Commentary (Louisville: Westminster
John Knox Press, 1997) 80-83.
T h e r e a r e a f e w f a c t o r s suggesting t h a t t h e " m a n " in this s c e n e m i g h t

h a v e b e e n s u b s e q u e n t l y u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l .
T h e L X X uses t h e t e r m f o r t h e " c o m m a n d e r
t h e a r m y of t h e L o r d . " I n t h e w r i t i n g s of t h e late S e c o n d
of
Temple
p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d , this t e r m is o f t e n applied to the a r c h a n g e l M i c h a e l

(7*. Ab.
I:4fE; Jos. Asen.
14:7; 2 En 2 2 : 6 [J] a n d 3 3 : 1 0 [A]; 3
Bar.
11:13:3; Gk. Apoc. Ezra 4 : 2 4 cf. D a n 8:11, 12:1 [ R a p h a e l in Gk. Apoc.

Ezra 1:4]). 53 M i c h a e l is said to s t a n d against " p r i n c e s " of o t h e r n a t i o n s
in D a n
10:13, 20. H e also h a s a m i l i t a r y role in 1 Q M , R e v
12:7.
T h e r e s e e m s g o o d r e a s o n to s u p p o s e , t h e n , t h a t b y t h e t i m e of t h e
L X X this b e i n g c o u l d h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l , w h i c h h a d
at first a p p e a r e d to J o s h u a in the f o r m of a m a n .
T h e s c e n e e n d s w i t h J o s h u a b e i n g told h e is o n s a c r e d g r o u n d
(v. 15). T h i s is r e m i n i s c e n t of M o s e s ' s t h e o p h a n y / a n g e l o p h a n y 5 4 ( E x o d
3:5, cf. Acts 7:33), suggesting t h a t J o s h u a is in t h e p r e s e n c e of a
divine being, p e r h a p s even the angel of the L o r d (cf. E x o d 2 3 : 2 1 5 5 . ( 2 2
S u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s s u c h as P h i l o a n d J o s e p h u s a r e silent, p e r h a p s b e c a u s e of t h e i n c o m p l e t e n a t u r e of t h e narrative. 5 6 T h e T a r g u m
u n d e r s t a n d s t h e " m a n " to b e a n a n g e l (T. Joshua
5:13: " a n
angel
sent f r o m before the Lord").

T h e p r e s e n c e of t h e divine c o m m a n d e r of t h e a r m y of t h e L o r d
i n a u g u r a t e s t h e h o l y w a r t h a t is to t a k e p l a c e ( J o s h 6 2 4 ) . T h a t this
" m a n " is a d i v i n e l e a d e r of G o d ' s a r m i e s s e e m s
straightforward.
T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m t o b e a n y i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e b e i n g is a n y t h i n g
o t h e r t h a n divine. T h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t d i e s a m e title u s e d f o r t h e
b e i n g in t h e L X X w a s l a t e r u n d e r s t o o d to a p p l y to angels, esped a i l y t h e a r c h a n g e l M i c h a e l . T h e m o s t t h a t m i g h t b e said f r o m this
p a s s a g e is t h a t a divine b e i n g , t h e c o m m a n d e r of t h e a r m y of t h e
L o r d , c o u l d likely h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t of as a n a n g e l (at least b y t h e
a u t h o r of t h e L X X
and subsequent interpreters
[Tg. Neb.])
who
a p p e a r s as a m a n until h e reveals his t r u e i d e n t i t y t o J o s h u a .
53
See W. Lueken, Michael (Gttingen: Vanderhoeck and Ruprecht, 1898) 104,

157-166. It may well be the case that its use in the LXX of Joshua influenced its
use in other late Second Temple writings.
54
Exod 3:2 says that the Angel of the Lord ( ; )appeared
to Moses in the burning bush.
55
Cf. 1 Chr 21:16 for the Angel of the Lord with a militaristic role.
56
There is also no extant evidence from Qumran.
2.3
The Book of Judges
T h r e e p a s s a g e s f r o m J u d g e s a r e of p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e . E a c h r e f e r s
to t h e " A n g e l of t h e L o r d . " O n e p a s s a g e t h a t h a s c a u s e d s o m e c o n fusion f o r m o d e r n i n t e r p r e t e r s is J u d g 2 : 1 - 2 , w h i c h states:
[1] Now the angel of the Lord [ ; ] went up
from Gilgal to Bochim. And he said, "I brought you up from Egypt,
and brought you into the land which I swore to give to your fathers.
I said, '1 will never break my covenant with you [2] and you shall
make no covenant with the inhabitants of this land; you shall break
down their altars.' But you have not obeyed my command. W h a t is
this you have done?"
I n t e r p r e t e r s a r e u n d e c i d e d as to w h e t h e r t h e " a n g e l " h e r e refers to
a h u m a n o r d i v i n e m e s s e n g e r . 5 ' T h e difficulty s e e m s t o s t e m f r o m
t h e fact t h a t t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d p r o c e e d s f r o m o n e p o i n t o n
e a r t h t o a n o t h e r . H e d o e s n o t simply a p p e a r , n o r d o e s h e d e s c e n d
f r o m h e a v e n . T h e m e s s e n g e r p e r f o r m s his task of delivering t h e w o r d s
of G o d ( w . l b 3 ) . T h e n J u d g 2:4 says, " W h e n t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d
s p o k e t h e s e w o r d s to all the p e o p l e of Israel, t h e p e o p l e lifted u p
t h e i r voices a n d w e p t . " A decisive f a c t o r m i g h t b e v. 5, h o w e v e r ,
w h i c h states, " A n d t h e y called t h e n a m e of t h a t p l a c e B o c h i m ; a n d
t h e y sacrificed t h e r e to the L o r d . " R e n a m i n g , sacrificing, o r c o n s e c r a t i n g a l o c a t i o n a f t e r e n c o u n t e r i n g a divine b e i n g is n o t u n c o m m o n in t h e H e b r e w Bible (e.g., G e n 2 8 : 2 2 , 32:30; J u d g 6:24, 13:23).
M o r e o v e r , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d is g e n e r a l l y a m e s s e n g e r f o r G o d ,
a n d s o m e t i m e s it is a m b i g u o u s w h e t h e r t h e h u m a n r e c i p i e n t is speaking w i t h t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d o r G o d directly; f o r e x a m p l e , in
Exorl 3:2 t h e A n g e l of the L o r d a p p e a r s in t h e b u r n i n g b u s h , b u t
in t h e s u b s e q u e n t d i a l o g u e , it is c l e a r M o s e s is s p e a k i n g directly w i t h
t h e L o r d . 5 8 T h i s suggests t h a t it m a k e s m o s t sense to t a k e t h e A n g e l
of t h e L o r d in this c a s e as a divine m e s s e n g e r . T h i s b e i n g m a y h a v e
a p p e a r e d in h u m a n f o r m , b u t t h e story d o e s n o t i n c l u d e a n y detail.
W e d o n o t h e a r of this b e i n g a g a i n until J u d g 6:11.
57
R. Baling, Judges (New York: Doubleday, 1975) 61, where Yahweh's envoy is
an " a n g ^ c being"; C. Newsom, ABD 1:249 lists Judg 2:1 as an example of a passage where it "remains disputed whether the reference is to a heavenly being or a
human one," as does S. A. Meier, DDD, p. 48.
58
See S. Cook, "The Theophanies of Gideon and Manoah" JTS 28 (1927)
368-380; A. lohnson, The One a?1d the Many; also J. Ashton, Studying John (Oxford:
University Press, 1994) 71-89.
I n J u d g 6 : 1 1 - 2 4 die Angel of d i e L o r d visits G i d e o n as t h e Israelites

h a v e b e e n t a k e n o v e r b y t h e M i d i a n i t e s . J u d g 6:11 says, " N o w t h e
a n g e l of t h e L o r d c a m e a n d sat u n d e r t h e o a k a t O p h r a h , w h i c h
b e l o n g e d to J o a s h t h e A b i e z r i t e , as his son G i d e o n w a s b e a t i n g o u t
w h e a t in t h e w i n e press, to h i d e it f r o m t h e M i d i a n i t e s . " J o s e p h u s ,
Ant 5 . 2 1 3 calls t h e visitor " a s p e c t e r [ ] in t h e f o r m of
a y o u n g m a n [ ]. 5 9 G i d e o n is told t h a t h e is to deliver
his p e o p l e o u t of t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n (6:14); so a g a i n t h e p r i m a r y p u r pose of t h e visitation s e e m s t o b e t h e b e a r i n g of news. G i d e o n is
u n c e r t a i n t h a t t h e p e r s o n s p e a k i n g to h i m is t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d ,
so h e asks h i m t o r e m a i n as h e p r e p a r e s a gift (v. 18). H e
returns
w i t h a m e a l t h a t e c h o e s t h e s a m e level of hospitality t h a t A b r a h a m
s h o w e d his visitors ( G e n 18:1-8). T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d tells G i d e o n
to p u t his f o o d o f f e r i n g o n a r o c k , w h i c h h e d o e s (v. 20). T h e a n g e l
t o u c h e s t h e o f f e r i n g w i t h his staff; t h e o f f e r i n g is c o n s u m e d by
fire,
a n d a t t h e s a m e m o m e n t t h e a n g e l v a n i s h e s (v. 21). G i d e o n
then
d i s c e r n s t h a t his visitor w a s i n d e e d t h e L o r d a n d f e a r s t h a t h e will

die, "Alas, L o r d G o d ! F o r n o w I h a v e seen t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d
face to face. B u t t h e L o r d said to h i m , ' P e a c e b e t o y o u ; d o n o t
f e a r , y o u shall n o t d i e ' . " G i d e o n , like J a c o b in G e n 2 8 a n d 32, erects
a n a l t a r a t t h e site of his t h e o p h a n y .
I n J u d g 1 3 : 3 - 2 1 , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a p p e a r s to M a n o a h
and
his wife, a n n o u n c i n g t h e b i r t h of his son, S a m s o n . 5 0 T h e a n g e l
first
a p p e a r s o n l y to M a n o a h ' s wife. J u d g 13:6 says, " T h e n t h e w o m a n

c a m e a n d told h e r h u s b a n d ,
m a n of G o d c a m e to m e , a n d his
c o u n t e n a n c e w a s like the c o u n t e n a n c e of t h e a n g e l of G o d , v e r y terrible; I d i d n o t ask h i m w h e n c e h e w a s , a n d h e did n o t tell m e his

n a m e ' . " 6 1 T h e a n g e l ' s a p p e a r a n c e b r i n g s f e a r . W h e n his wife tells
h i m of t h e visit, M a n o a h e n t r e a t s t h e L o r d to h a v e t h e " M a n
of
G o d " visit a g a i n so t h a t M a n o a h himself m i g h t l e a r n w h a t h e is t o

d o w i t h his foretold son. T h e angel r e a p p e a r s , a g a i n only to M a n o a h ' s
wife, b u t this t i m e she r u n s t o tell M a n o a h , w h o l e a r n s t h a t w h a t
his wife h a s said is t r u e . H e t h e n asks t h e a n g e l t o r e m a i n w i t h h i m
so t h a t h e m i g h t f e e d h i m . O n c e a g a i n , the issue of hospitality c o m e s
i n t o play. T h e a n g e l says, " I f y o u d e t a i n m e , I will n o t e a t of y o u r
f o o d ; b u t if y o u m a k e r e a d y a b u r n t o f f e r i n g , t h e n o f f e r it t o t h e
59
60
61
The Targum on Judges maintains the "Angel of the Lord" as the visitor.
R. Boling, Judges, p. 219.
Cf. 1 Kgs 17:18, where Elijah is called "man of God."
L o r d " (v. 16a). W e also l e a r n t h a t " M a n o a h d i d n o t k n o w t h a t h e

w a s t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d " (v. 16b).
J o s e p h u s , in Ant. 5 . 2 7 7 , says t h a t t h e visitor w a s " a s p e c t e r " () t h a t " a p p e a r e d to h e r f r o m G o d
[one ms. r e a d s " a n g e l of
G o d " ] in t h e likeness of a c o m e l y a n d tall y o u t h . " A f t e r this o p e n i n g verse, J o s e p h u s refers to t h e visitor as a n " a n g e l " (five times). 6 2
W h e n M a n o a h ' s wife tells h i m of t h e a n g e l , J o s e p h u s says t h a t she
extolled " t h e y o u n g m a n ' s c o m e l i n e s s a n d s t a t u r e in s u c h wise t h a t
h e in his j e a l o u s y w a s d r i v e n b y t h e s e praises to d i s t r a c t i o n a n d to
c o n c e i v e t h e suspicions t h a t s u c h p a s s i o n a r o u s e s " (279). 6 3
T h u s , i n t h e B o o k of J u d g e s t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a p p e a r s o n
t h r e e occasions. T h e e v i d e n c e of J u d g 2 is s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s , in
t h a t t h e b e i n g is called t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d , b u t t h e r e is n o t h i n g
else n o t a b l e a b o u t t h e e v e n t . I n c h a p t e r s 6 a n d 13, t h e A n g e l of t h e
L o r d visits G i d e o n a n d M a n o a h respectively. T h e a n g e l is n o t i m m e diately r e c o g n i z e d b u t is t a k e n to b e a h u m a n visitor a n d o f f e r e d
gifts a n d hospitality. 5 4 O n c e the A n g e l of t h e L o r d ' s identity is k n o w n ,
h o w e v e r , t h e h u m a n seers f e a r f o r t h e i r lives, since t h e y h a v e seen
t h e d i v i n e . It s e e m s t h a t t h e a n g e l s a p p e a r e d
as h u m a n
beings.
J o s e p h u s says t h a t t h e visitor in e a c h of these t w o cases w a s a s p e c t e r

t h a t a p p e a r e d as a y o u n g m a n .
2.4
The Books of Zechciriah and. Ezekiel
T h e B o o k of Z e c h a r i a h , c o n t r a r y to t h e m a j o r i t y of the p r o p h e t i c
writings, c o n t a i n s a n u m b e r of r e f e r e n c e s t o angels. A n a n g e l w h o
e x p l a i n s t h e visions of t h e p r o p h e t is o f t e n p r e s e n t (1:9, 14; 2:1 7;
4
5 : 5 - 1 0 ; 6 : 4 ) . I n c h a p t e r 3 t h e r e is a c o u r t
J o b 1 - 2 . J o s h u a , t h e h i g h priest, s t a n d s b e f o r e t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d ,
S a t a n , a n d G o d . O f p a r t i c u l a r interest is t h e " m a n " in t h e v i s i o n a r y
m a t e r i a l of Z e c h 1 : 8 - 1 1 w h o s e e m s to h a v e a n g e l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
[8] I saw in the night, and behold, a m a n [ ;] riding upon a
red horse! He was standing a m o n g the myrtle trees in the glen; and
behind him were red, sorrel, and white horses. [9] T h e n I said, " W h a t
are these, my lord?" T h e angel who talked with me said to me, "I
62
On Josephus's use of see footnote 35 above.

Perhaps this situation as described in Josephus is akin to Gen 6 and also 1
Cor 11:10.
64
This aspect of human-angel interaction is discussed in chapter 5.
63
will show you what they are." [10] So the m a n who was standing
a m o n g the myrde trees answered, "These are they w h o m the Lord
has sent to patrol the earth." [11] A n d they answered the angel of
the Lord [ ; ] who was standing a m o n g the
myrde trees, " W e have patrolled the earth, a n d behold, all the earth
remains at rest."
T h i s e v i d e n c e c o m e s in a vision. T h e b e i n g o n t h e h o r s e is called
a m a n in v. 8 b u t s e e m s to b e called a n A n g e l of t h e L o r d in v. 11.
T h e r e is n o a p p a r e n t i n d i c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , t h a t simply b e c a u s e this
b e i n g is r e f e r r e d to as a " m a n , " h e is a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a n angel.
Also in Z e c h 2:1 a n d 2:4, t h e vision of t h e " m a n " w i t h a m e a s u r i n g
r o d i n his h a n d m a y r e f e r to a n a n g e l , a l t h o u g h it is difficult to disc e r n m u c h f r o m this e v i d e n c e .
T h e visions of t h e p r o p h e t Ezekiel w e r e v e r y influential for r a b b i n i c
a n d mystical s p e c u l a t i o n as well as early C h r i s t i a n i t y . 6 5 I n t e r e s t i n g l y ,
t h e r e w e r e p r o h i b i t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e s t u d y of E z e k 1 (m. H a g 2:1) b y
the r a b b i s , a n d it w a s to b e a v o i d e d as a s c r i p t u r a l r e a d i n g (m. M e g
4:10). E z e k 1 : 2 6 - 2 7 says:
[26] A n d above the firmament over their heads there was the likeness
of a throne, in appearance like sapphire; and seated above the likeness
of a throne was a likeness as it were of a h u m a n form. [27] And
upward from what had the appearance of his loins I saw as it were
gleaming bronze, like the appearance of fire enclosed round about;
and downward f r o m what had the appearance of his loins I saw as it
were the appearance of fire, and there was brightness round about him.
T h i s figure m a y b e G o d o r m a y b e a n o t h e r divine b e i n g . A m a n like figure a p p e a r s also in 8:2, " T h e n I b e h e l d , a n d , lo, a f o r m t h a t
h a d t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a m a n ; b e l o w w h a t a p p e a r e d to b e his loins
it w a s fire, a n d a b o v e his loins it w a s like t h e a p p e a r a n c e of b r i g h t ness, like g l e a m i n g b r o n z e . " T h i s s a m e b e i n g w o u l d also s e e m t o b e
the r e f e r e n t of 40:3: " W h e n h e b r o u g h t m e t h e r e , b e h o l d , t h e r e w a s
a m a n , w h o s e a p p e a r a n c e w a s like b r o n z e , w i t h a line of f l a x a n d
a m e a s u r i n g r e e d in his h a n d ; a n d h e w a s s t a n d i n g in t h e g a t e w a y . " 6 6 T h e identity of this figure is n o t c e r t a i n . It p r o b a b l y refers
to a n a n g e l in t h e sense t h a t angels a r e divine b e i n g s b u t less t h a n
G o d . T h i s b e i n g s e e m s t o h a v e a specific, h o n o r e d
role,
being
65
On this see C. Rowland, "The Influence of the First Chapter of Ezekiel on
Jewish and Early Christian Literature" (Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 1974).
66
W. Zimmerli, Ezekiel I & II (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979-1983) 2:348.
e n t h r o n e d in h e a v e n . T h i s m a n l i k e figure of Ezekiel, especially c h a p ter 1, likely s e r v e d as t h e basis f o r t h e " o n e like a son of m a n " seen
in vision in D a n 7:13, w h i c h in t u r n likely i n f l u e n c e d i d e a s in t h e
P a r a b l e s of E n o c h , 4 E z r a , as well as t h e N T . 6 7
T h e d a z z l i n g a p p e a r a n c e of t h e m a n l i k e figure is c e r t a i n l y r e m i niscent of a n g e l o p h a n i e s . O t h e r t h a n this, n o t h i n g identifies this b e i n g
w i t h a n a n g e l in t h e c o n t e x t of Ezekiel. E v e n if w e a c c e p t t h a t t h e
b e i n g is i n t e n d e d to b e a n a n g e l , it s e e m s unlikely t h a t t h e m a n l i k e
figure
is i n t e n d e d to b e h u m a n .
2.5
The Book of Dcmiel
In t h e B o o k of D a n i e l , t h e o n l y b o o k in t h e H e b r e w Bible
that
speaks of t h e a r c h a n g e l s M i c h a e l (10:13, 21; 12:1) a n d G a b r i e l (8:16;

9:21), several p a s s a g e s a r e r e l e v a n t to t h e discussion of a n g e l s p o r t r a y e d as h u m a n s .
T h e B o o k of D a n i e l c a n b e easily d i v i d e d i n t o t w o p a r t s : c h a p ters 1 - 6 , w i t h
fictional
tales of D a n i e l ' s life in t h e c o u r t of B a b y l o n ,
a n d c h a p t e r s 7 - 1 2 , w i t h a series of visions b y D a n i e l . T h e first p a r t

is told in t h e t h i r d p e r s o n , w h i l e t h e visions a r e in t h e first p e r s o n .
M o r e o v e r , a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e of t h e b o o k t h a t is a t t e s t e d as
early as t h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s is t h a t c h a p t e r s 2 : 4 b 7 : 2 8
a r e in
A r a m a i c , w h i l e t h e rest of t h e b o o k is in H e b r e w . T h e H e b r e w sections a r e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d to b e later. T h e r e d a c t i o n of t h e text

is d a t e d fairly precisely to d i e time of t h e reign of A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s
( 1 6 7 - 1 6 3 BCE).68
M o s t of t h e r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l c o m e s f r o m t h e visions, b u t
one
n a r r a t i v e f r o m t h e first p a r t is r e l e v a n t . I n t h e L X X of D a n i e l 3:92
(= D a n 3:25) K i n g N e b u c h a d n e z z a r h a s cast S h a d r a c h ,
Meshach,
a n d A b e d n e g o i n t o a fiery f u r n a c e f o r t h e i r r e f u s a l to w o r s h i p
g o l d e n idol. A f t e r t h e y a r e cast i n t o t h e fire, t h e king's c o u n s e l o r

looks in, saying, " B u t I see f o u r m e n loose, w a l k i n g in t h e m i d s t of
t h e fire, a n d t h e y a r e n o t h u r t ; a n d t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e f o u r t h is
like a n a n g e l of G o d " (
67
C. Rowland, The Open Heaven. A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early Christianity
(New York: Crossroad, 1982) 95; A. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven (Leiden: E.J. Brill,
1977) 192.
68
This date is widely accepted; see HJPAJC 1111:247.
). 69 T h e H e b r e w text h a s t h e c o u n s e l o r say t h e b e i n g is "like a

son of G o d . " T h i s r e a d i n g is also f o u n d in T h e o d o t i o n . T h e
i n c i d e n t is recalled in t h e Pr Azar
same
1:26, b u t in this case t h e b e i n g is
specifically called a n a n g e l : " B u t t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d c a m e d o w n

i n t o t h e f u r n a c e t o b e w i t h A z a r i a h a n d his c o m p a n i o n s , a n d d r o v e
the fiery flame o u t of t h e f u r n a c e . "
I n this i n c i d e n t a n a n g e l h a s a p p a r e n t l y c o m e to p r o t e c t the t h r e e
m e n . W h e n t h e k i n g ' s c o u n s e l o r looks in, h e sees f o u r " m e n . " H i s
physical m a n i f e s t a t i o n as a m a n d o e s n o t suggest, h o w e v e r , t h a t h e
is a h u m a n b e i n g . F a r f r o m it; t h e e x p e c t a t i o n is t h a t t h e t h r e e m e n
w o u l d be c o n s u m e d b y t h e fire. S i n c e t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n c o n s u m e d ,
the p r e s e n c e of t h e f o u r t h m a n = a n g e l s e e m s d i e likely r e a s o n . Still,
it is also possible t h a t t h e t h r e e m e n m a y h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t t o h a v e
b e c o m e angelic for a b r i e f d u r a t i o n .
W i t h i n d i e v i s i o n a r y m a t e r i a l t h e r e a r e several p a s s a g e s of i n t e r est. First, D a n 8 : 1 5 states, " W h e n I, D a n i e l , h a d seen t h e vision, I
s o u g h t to u n d e r s t a n d it; a n d b e h o l d , t h e r e s t o o d b e f o r e m e o n e h a v ing t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a m a n
[ ; ( T h :
)]." At 9:21 t h e r e is a clear description of G a b r i e l (the archangel)

as a m a n : " W h i l e I w a s s p e a k i n g in p r a y e r , t h e m a n G a b r i e l [ ,
/ ] , w h o m I h a d seen in t h e vision a t t h e first, c a m e t o
m e in swift flight a t t h e t i m e of t h e e v e n i n g sacrifice." T h e "first
vision" refers b a c k t o D a n 8:15, w h e r e h e is called " o n e h a v i n g t h e
a p p e a r a n c e of a m a n . " T h e n a m e G a b r i e l is itself a p l a y 011 w o r d s .
T h e H e b r e w m e a n s " m a n . " 7 0 T h u s , G a b r i e l is " m a n of G o d . "
T h e vision in D a n 1 0 : 5 6 m a y also r e f e r to t h e " m a n " G a b r i e l : ' 1
[5] I lifted up my eyes and looked, and behold, a m a n clothed in
linen, whose loins were girded with gold of Uphaz. [6] His body was
like beryl, his face like the appearance of lightning, his eyes like flaming
torches, his arms and legs like the gleam of burnished bronze, and the
sound of his words like the noise of a multitude.
T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s e e m s to s h a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of l u m i n o u s a p p e a r a n c e ( a p p e a r a n c e like l i g h t n i n g , eyes like torches) w i t h o t h e r a n g e l o -
69
Theodotion reads . Here the Hebrew
is "sons of god" () , which is also rendered as angels in the LXX of Deut 32:8.
70
BOB, pp. 149-150.
71
Cf. Ezek 8:2, "Then I beheld, and, 10, a form that had the appearance of a
man; below what appeared to be his loins it was fire, and above his loins it was
like the appearance of brightness, like gleaming bronze."
p h a n i e s as discussed a b o v e . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , in 10:7 o t h e r s w h o d o n o t
see t h e vision a r e still f e a r f u l a n d flee, c o m m o n r e a c t i o n s to t h e m a n ifestation of angel. 7 2 T h e i m a g e of t h e " m a n " c l o t h e d in l i n e n will
r e c u r in o t h e r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of angels. It is a l r e a d y s e e n in
Lev
6:10; E z e k 9:2, 3, 11; 10:2, 6, 7; 44:17. T h i s i m a g e of b e i n g " c l o t h e d

in l i n e n " o c c u r s o n c e m o r e in D a n
12:6: " A n d I said t o t h e m a n
c l o t h e d in linen, w h o w a s a b o v e t h e w a t e r s of t h e s t r e a m ,
'How
l o n g shall it b e till t h e e n d of t h e s e w o n d e r s ? ' "

C . R o w l a n d h a s a r g u e d f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e of D a n 10:6ff. o n s u b s e q u e n t l i t e r a t u r e : JA
14, Apoc. Abr., a n d R e v 1:13. 7 3 T h e i n f l u e n c e
of this p a s s a g e o n l a t e r w r i t i n g s suggests t h a t it m a y h a v e i n f l u e n c e d
L u k e ' s i d e a s a b o u t a n g e l i c a p p e a r a n c e s . P. C a r r e l l , unlike R o w l a n d ,
sees D a n 1 0 : 5 - 6 as a d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e " a n g e l " in E z e k 9:2, linking it b y t h e p h r a s e " c l o t h e d in l i n e n . " Y e t E z e k 9:2 is n o t clearly
a n a n g e l ; C a r r e l l infers this f r o m the p h r a s e " c l o t h e d in l i n e n . "
T w o f u r t h e r p a s s a g e s also s e e m to r e f e r to G a b r i e l . D a n
10:16
r e a d s , " A n d b e h o l d , o n e in t h e likeness of the sons of m e n t o u c h e d

m y lips; t h e n I o p e n e d m y m o u t h a n d spoke. I said to h i m w h o stood
before me,
m y l o r d , b y r e a s o n of t h e vision p a i n s h a v e
u p o n me, a n d I retain n o strength'." D a n
10:18 h a s " A g a i n
come
one
h a v i n g t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a m a n t o u c h e d m e a n d s t r e n g t h e n e d m e . "
G a b r i e l a p p e a r s in D a n i e l in t h e f o r m of a h u m a n b e i n g . H e c a r ries o u t t h e role c o m m o n to angels: delivery a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
divine i n f o r m a t i o n to h u m a n s .
M i c h a e l ' s physical a p p e a r a n c e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is n o t described.
M i c h a e l is called t h e " p r i n c e " ( )in 10:21, 12:1. I n t h e L X X h e
is called a n a n g e l a t 10:21; 12:1. I n t h e T h e o d o t i o n r e c e n s i o n , h o w ever, in b o t h cases h e is r e f e r r e d to as " " 7 4 M i c h a e l ' s p r i n c e l y
role s e e m s t o b e as a d e f e n d e r of Israel a g a i n s t its
opponents
h u m a n a n d p r e s u m a b l y s u p e r h u m a n . H e s e e m s to b e a c o u n t e r p a r t
to G a b r i e l (if G a b r i e l is t h e m a n l i k e figure of 10:18).
Lastly, it is i m p o r t a n t to c o n s i d e r t h e " o n e like a son of m a n " in
D a n 7:13. T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this e n i g m a t i c p h r a s e h a s c a u s e d a n
e n o r m o u s a m o u n t of scholarly d e b a t e , particularly a m o n g N T scholars
i n t e r e s t e d in its r e l e v a n c e for t h e use of t h e title " s o n of m a n " in
72
Cf. Acts 9:7 and 22:9.

C. Rowland, "A Man Clothed in Linen Daniel 10:6ff. and Jewish Angelology"
JSJVT 24 (1985) 99-110.
74
Unfortunately, no relevant sections of Daniel have survived in the Qumran
material.
73
the N T . 7 5 T h e r e is n o n e e d to detail these a r g u m e n t s h e r e . I n s t e a d w e

focus o n t h e issue of t h e h u m a n - a n g e l r e l a t i o n s h i p . D a n 7:13 says:
I saw in the night visions, and behold, with the clouds of heaven there
came one like a son of m a n [ ; ], and he came
to the Ancient of Days and was presented before him.
T h e r e a r e p r i m a r i l y t w o c a m p s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . O n e sees t h e p h r a s e
as r e f e r r i n g t o a n i n d i v i d u a l b e i n g , w h e t h e r as a n e x a l t e d
human
m e s s i a h o r as a n a n g e l i c figure (cf. 1 E n o c h 46:3; R e v 1 : 1 3 - 1 4 ; 4

E z r a 13:2f.). T h e o t h e r r e a d s t h e p h r a s e in light of D a n 7:18 a n d
27 a n d sees it as a collective t e r m f o r Israel.
T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a single i n d i v i d u a l d o m i n a t e d m a n y
cen-
turies of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . O n l y m o r e r e c e n t l y h a s t h e collective i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b e e n suggested a n d c h a m p i o n e d . 7 6 J . C o l l i n s c o n c l u d e s :

In summary, the traditional interpretations of the "one like a h u m a n
being" in the first millennium overwhelmingly favor the understanding of this figure as an individual, not as a collective symbol. T h e most
usual identification was the messiah, but in the earliest adaptations of
the vision (the Similitudes, 4 Ezra, the Gospels) the figure in question
had a distinctly supernatural character. 7 7
C . R o w l a n d h a s m a d e a s t r o n g case for s e e i n g t h e " o n e like a son
of m a n " as r e f e r r i n g to a s i n g u l a r b e i n g . H e writes, " I f the S o n of
Man
figure
h a d m e r e l y b e e n a s y m b o l of the Saints of t h e
Most
H i g h , w e m i g h t h a v e e x p e c t e d to find t h e s a m e kind of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e S o n of M a n a n d t h e saints w h i c h w e find in r e s p e c t t o
t h e b e a s t s a n d kings in v. 18, b u t this is lacking." 7 8 T h e son of m a n
h a s also b e e n identified as t h e h i g h priest. 7 9
U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e " o n e like a
son of m a n " is i n t e n d e d to refer to a n angel, e v e n die angel Michael. 8 0
75
D. Burkett, The Son of Man Debate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1999) is an excellent, up-to-date survey of the entire issue. For a concise look at
the evidence for the son of man as an angel, see A. Yarbro Cons, Cosmology and
Eschatology in Jewish Christian Apocalypticism (Leiden: E. j . Brill, 1996) 172-185.
76
J. Collins, Daniel (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993) 304-310, discusses the
"one like a son of man" in Dan 7 in detail in an excursus.
77
J . Comns, Daniel, p. 308.
78
C. Rowland, The Open Heaoen, p. 180. This is also the position of J. Collins,
Daniel, pp. 308-310.
79
See C. Fletcher-Louis, "The High Priest as Divine Mediator in the Hebrew
Bible: Dan 7:13 as a Test Case" SBLSP (1997) 161-193.
80
Cf. also 1 En. 46:1, where the "the son of man" is said to have "a face like
that of a human being, while his countenance was full of grace like that of one
among the holy angels."
F o r t h e p u r p o s e s of this investigation it is n o t w o r t h w h i l e t o p e n e t r a t e
m u c h f u r t h e r , since (a) t h e r e f e r e n t r e m a i n s d e b a t e d , a n d (b) if it is
a c c e p t e d , it c e r t a i n l y s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e m a n l i k e
figure
is
s o m e t h i n g m u c h m o r e t h a n h u m a n b u t a p p e a r s only in h u m a n f o r m .
T h e B o o k of D a n i e l reflects i n c r e a s e d s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e role
of a n g e l s in t h e w o r l d , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r t h e a r c h a n g e l s M i c h a e l a n d
G a b r i e l . T h e b e i n g t h a t h e l p s t h e t h r e e m e n in D a n
3 appears
h u m a n b u t possesses s u p e r h u m a n p o w e r to save t h e m e n f r o m t h e
fire. G a b r i e l is d e s c r i b e d v e r y m u c h in a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c t e r m s . H e
still c a r r i e s o u t t h e f u n c t i o n of a n a n g e l , h o w e v e r . M i c h a e l is called
a " p r i n c e , " b u t h e s e e m s to h a v e s u p e r h u m a n status a n d m a y b e
e q u a l to t h e " o n e like a son of m a n . "
2.6
The Book of Tobit
T h e B o o k of T o b i t a p p e a r s in t h e L X X b u t n o t t h e H e b r e w Bible
a n d t h e r e f o r e is f o u n d t o d a y in t h e A p o c r y p h a . I t s e e m s p r o b a b l e
t h a t T o b i t w a s w r i t t e n in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B C E , so it is r o u g h l y
c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h t h e B o o k of D a n i e l . 8 1 S o m e A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s
of T o b i t a r e p r e s e r v e d at Q u m r a n ( 4 Q 1 9 6 4,199Q200is in H e b r e w ) ,
h e l p i n g to verify its a n t i q u i t y . 8 2 T o b i t is s o m e t h i n g of a n historical
fiction
w i t h a d i d a c t i c f u n c t i o n . T h e story is set in t h e Assyrian c a p -
ital, N i n e v e h , in t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y B C E . T o b i a s is sent o u t b y his

f a t h e r , T o b i t , w h o despite m a n y g o o d d e e d s h a s g o n e blind. T o b i a s
is t o j o u r n e y to M e d i a to collect m o n e y t h a t T o b i t is o w e d , w h i c h
h e will t h e n use to live, since h e c a n n o l o n g e r e a r n a living d u e
to his b l i n d n e s s .
I n c h a p t e r 5 T o b i a s s e n d s his son to find a travel c o m p a n i o n f o r
his j o u r n e y t o M e d i a . T o b i a s m e e t s w i t h t h e a n g e l R a p h a e l , h o w e v e r , w h o a p p e a r s as a m a n :
[3] T h e n Tobit gave him the receipt, a n d said to him, "Find a m a n to
go with you a n d I will pay him wages as long as I live; and go a n d
get the money." [4] So he went to look for a man; and he found Raphael,
who was an angel, [5] but Tobias did not know it. Tobias said to
him, " C a n you go with me to Rages in Media? Are you acquainted
with that region?" [6] T h e angel replied, "I will go with you; I am
familiar with the way, and I have stayed with our brother Gabael."
81
HJPAJC Uli :224.

These scrolls are very fragmentary, however, and do not provide any relevant
evidence for the discussion of angels in this section.
82
T h e Sinaiticus version of T o b i t 5 : 5 calls R a p h a e l a " y o u n g
man"
(). T o b i a s clearly d o e s n o t d i s c e r n R a p h a e l ' s t r u e identity,

so w i t h i n t h e n a r r a t i v e , w e m u s t a s s u m e h e a p p e a r s as a
human
being. T o b i a s b r i n g s R a p h a e l to his f a t h e r , w h o e n q u i r e s of R a p h a e l :
[10] " M y brother, to what tribe and family do you belong? Tell m e . "
[11] But he answered, "Are you looking for a tribe and a family 01
for a m a n whom you will pay to go with your son?" And Tobit said
to him, "I should like to know, my brother, your people and your
n a m e . " [12] H e replied, "I am Azarias the son of the great Ananias,
one of your relatives."
R a p h a e l c o n t i n u e s to h i d e his real identity. T o b i a s w o u l d n o t
be
a b l e to see h i m , b u t h e d o e s n o t r e v e a l his i d e n t i t y until c h a p t e r 12.

I n T o b 12:15 t h e a r c h a n g e l p r o c l a i m s , " I a m R a p h a e l , o n e of t h e
seven h o l y angels w h o p r e s e n t t h e p r a y e r s of t h e saints a n d
enter
i n t o t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e glory of t h e H o l y O n e . " A t this r e v e l a t i o n ,

those seeing h i m a r e a f r a i d (12:16), b u t R a p h a e l c a l m s t h e m . R a p h a e l
t h e n says h e m u s t a s c e n d b a c k to t h e h e a v e n s (12:20).
T h i s is o n e of t h e m o s t s u s t a i n e d a n d i n t r i g u i n g tales of a n a n g e l ' s
activity o n e a r t h . R a p h a e l k e e p s his i d e n t i t y secret until his task is
c o m p l e t e . T h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t h e is a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a n
a n g e l the e n t i r e t i m e . H e is o n e of t h e s e v e n a r c h a n g e l s w h o a r e in
G o d ' s p r e s e n c e . A l t h o u g h R a p h a e l is a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c , h e d o e s n o t
s e e m t o u n d e r g o a n y p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of b e i n g b u t simply
a n a l t e r a t i o n of his physical f o r m , w h i c h allows h i m t o c a r r y o u t his
f u n c t i o n as travel c o m p a n i o n a n d p r o t e c t o r .
2.7
The Gospels
Angels a p p e a r to h u m a n s o n t h r e e o c c a s i o n s in t h e L u k a n i n f a n c y
n a r r a t i v e : t o Z e c h a r i a h ( 1 : 1 1 - 2 4 ) , to M a r y ( 1 : 2 6 - 3 8 ) , a n d t o t h e
shepherds ( 2 : 9
8 3
. ( 2 1,15I n d i e first o c c u r r e n c e a n A n g e l of t h e L o r d
( ) a p p e a r s t o Z e c h a r i a h to a n n o u n c e t h e b i r t h of a
son, J o h n t h e Baptist, to his wife, E l i z a b e t h . Z e c h a r i a h a t first is
a f r a i d (v. 12), b u t t h e a n g e l tells h i m n o t to f e a r (v. 13). Z e c h a r i a h
ss
In the Matthean infancy narrative the angel of the Lord is said to appear to
Joseph (1:20; 2:13, 19) "in a dream" telling hirn God's plan in order to protect the
life of Jesus.
is d o u b t f u l , since h e a n d his wife a r e old (v. 18). 84 As a t o k e n of t h e

t r u t h of the s t a t e m e n t , t h e a n g e l identifies himself as n o n e o t h e r t h a n
G a b r i e l (v. 19). O n c e this is r e v e a l e d to Z e c h a r i a h . h e is m a d e m u t e
until t h e b i r t h of his son (v. 20). 8 5
T h e angel G a b r i e l is t h e n sent to M a r y (v. 26) to a n n o u n c e t o
h e r t h e m i r a c u l o u s b i r t h of J e s u s ( w . 3 1 - 3 3 ) . B e c a u s e she is u n w e d
(v. 34), M a r y is d u b i o u s , b u t t h e angel tells h e r t h a t t h e h o l y spirit
will e n t e r h e r , a n d she will c o n c e i v e . T h e a n g e l t h e n n o t e s
that
M a r y ' s c o u s i n , E l i z a b e t h , t h o u g h of a d v a n c e d age, w a s a b l e to c o n ceive, " F o r w i t h G o d n o t h i n g will b e i m p o s s i b l e " (v. 37). I n t h e t h i r d

m e n t i o n of a n g e l s in t h e L u k a n i n f a n c y n a r r a t i v e , t h e A n g e l of t h e
L o r d a p p e a r s to s h e p h e r d s in t h e fields of t h e r e g i o n (2:9). T h e s h e p h e r d s a r e a f r a i d at first, b u t t h e a n g e l tells t h e m n o t to f e a r , t h e n
a n n o u n c e s t h e b i r t h of J e s u s ( w . 1 0 - 1 1 ) . O n c e h e d o e s so, t h e h e a v ens a r e filled w i t h a n g e l s w h o sing p r a i s e ( w .
13-14). 8 6
T h e s e t h r e e o c c u r r e n c e s a r e a m b i g u o u s as t o t h e o u t w a r d a p p e a r a n c e of t h e a n g e l . T h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of t h e a n g e l is to deliver
a message. W e are n o t told in w h a t physical f o r m t h e angel a p p e a r e d ,
a l t h o u g h t h e r e a c t i o n of f e a r b y t h e seers suggests t h a t t h e divine
n a t u r e of t h e a n g e l w a s a p p a r e n t .
All f o u r c a n o n i c a l gospels c o n t a i n t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e e m p t y t o m b
of J e s u s . E a c h of t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s m e n t i o n s b e i n g s w h o a r e
either
explicitly called o r s e e m to b e angels. T h e s e b e i n g s a n n o u n c e p e r h a p s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m e s s a g e of t h e N T , n a m e l y t h a t J e s u s h a s

risen f r o m t h e d e a d . All f o u r a c c o u n t s h a v e w o m e n c o m i n g to t h e
t o m b to a n o i n t J e s u s . T h e f o u r c a n o n i c a l g o s p e l s d a t e f r o m
p e r i o d 70 to 110 C E .
the
87
First, M a r k 16:5 states, " A n d e n t e r i n g t h e t o m b , t h e y [the t h r e e

w o m e n ] saw a young m a n
[ ] sitting o n t h e r i g h t side,
84
The announcement to Elizabeth is patterned on the announcement to Manoah
and his wife in Judg 13.
85
Interpreters have noted some strong similarities between the appearance of
Gabriel to Zechariah and the appearance of Gabriel in Dan 9:2021, such as its
occurrence at a time of prayer, fear of the angel, and the muteness of the visionary after the vision. For a good summary of the secondary evidence, see R. Brown,
The Birth of the Messiah (New York: Doubleday, 1993) 270-271.
86
The angelic liturgy is a well-attested motif in Second Temple Judaism, e.g.,
SSS; Jub. 2, 6, 15, 30-31; Apoc. Ab. 17; T. Levi 3; et al.
87
R. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament (New York: Doubleday, 1997)
163-164; 216-217; 273-274; and 373-376.
d r e s s e d in a w h i t e r o b e [ ] ; a n d t h e y w e r e
T h i s y o u n g m a n tells t h e m ,
[6] " D o
H e has
But go,
Galilee;
amazed."
not be amazed; you seek Jesus of Nazareth, who was crucified.

risen, he is not here; see the place where they laid him. [7]
tell his disciples and Peter that he is going before you to
there you will see him, as he told you."
O n t h e s u r f a c e t h e r e is little in this p a s s a g e itself to suggest t h a t

M a r k i n t e n d e d t h e b e i n g a t the t o m b to b e a n a n g e l . M a r k uses t h e
t e r m six t i m e s (1:2, 13; 8:38; 12:25; 13:27; 13:32), so h e
c o u l d h a v e e m p l o y e d it h e r e b u t h a s c h o s e n n o t t o d o so.
The
w o m e n ' s a m a z e m e n t , although p e r h a p s associated with the presence

of t h e y o u t h f u l m a n , s e e m s to b e p r e d i c a t e d o n J e s u s ' s a b s e n c e . It
is possible t h a t t h e w h i t e r o b e is a signal of a n g e l i c status, since this
is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a n g e l o p h a n i e s (cf. D a n
10:5 6; A c t s 1:10; R e v
1:14; 6:11); h o w e v e r , it is n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e w o m e n t a k e a n y n o t i c e
of t h e b e i n g ' s a p p e a r a n c e , o n l y of the a b s e n c e of J e s u s ' s b o d y .
Still, t h e m e s s a g e d e l i v e r e d b y t h e y o u n g m a n is a n
important
o n e t h a t s e e m s to b e u n k n o w n t o a n y o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g s in M a r k ' s
n a r r a t i v e . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e is n o o t h e r p e r s o n w i t h i n t h e n a r r a t i v e
w h o w o u l d b e this " y o u n g m a n , " since in t h e o n l y o t h e r o c c u r r e n c e
of t h e t e r m , a t 1 4 : 5 1 5 2 , a y o u n g m a n w h o follows J e s u s
w e a r i n g o n l y a l i n e n c l o t h is seized b u t flees n a k e d .
C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s suggests t h a t " y o u t h f u l n e s s w a s also a s s u m e d of
angels, to t h e p o i n t t h a t a r e f e r e n c e t o ' y o u t h ' c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d
a e u p h e m i s m for a n a n g e l . " 8 8 T h e r e is c e r t a i n l y significant diversity
in t h e s o u r c e s t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e angels b e i n g p o r t r a y e d as y o u t h f u l
m e n . B e y o n d t h e e m p t y t o m b n a r r a t i v e s , w e see it also in J o s e p h u s ,
T o b i t , a n d t h e S h e p h e r d of H e r m a s (see below). B u t , e v e n if this
t e r m w a s a e u p h e m i s m , it is n o t c l e a r t h a t a r e f e r e n c e t o a y o u t h ful h u m a n m a l e t h a t w a s i n t e n d e d to b e u n d e r s t o o d as a n
angel
w o u l d m e a n a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
It s e e m s , h o w e v e r , t h a t this figure in M a r k is i n t e n d e d to b e a n
angel. H e c a r r i e s o u t t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of a n a n g e l b y deliveri n g a divine m e s s a g e . H e also h a s o n e a s p e c t of t h e i m a g e r y assoc i a t e d w i t h a n angel. W h y h e is d e s c r i b e d as a is n o t
entirely clear. P e r h a p s b y this p e r i o d t h e r e w a s a g r o w i n g t r a d i t i o n
88
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, 131 n. 135. Also M. Mach, Entwicklungstadien,

p. 307 . 81.
in w h i c h a n g e l s a p p e a r e d as y o u t h f u l m a l e s , o r in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e
n a r r a t i v e M a r k t h o u g h t t h a t this w o u l d b e a less a l a r m i n g f o r m f o r
the messenger.
M a t t h e w ' s v e r s i o n of t h e e m p t y t o m b n a r r a t i v e is significantly
d i f f e r e n t f r o m M a r k ' s . M a t t 2 8 : 2 7 states:
[2] And behold, there was a great earthquake; for an angel of the
Lord [ ] descended from heaven and came and rolled
back the stone, and sat upon it. [3] His appearance was like lightning,
and his raiment white as snow. [4] A n d for fear of him the guards
trembled and became like dead men. [5] But the angel said to the
women, " D o not be afraid; for I know that you seek Jesus who was
crucified. [6] He is not here; for he has risen, as he said. C o m e , see
the place where he lay. [7] T h e n go quickly and tell his disciples that
he has risen from the dead, a n d behold, he is going before you to
Galilee; there you will see him. Lo, I have told you."
T h e M a t t h e a n version of t h e e m p t y t o m b story is q u i t e
dramatic.
A g a i n , w o m e n a p p r o a c h t h e t o m b , b u t as t h e y d o , t h e r e is a n e a r t h q u a k e , a n d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d c o m e s to m o v e t h e s t o n e t h a t
blocks t h e e n t r a n c e to t h e t o m b . T h e c o m m a n d s of t h e y o u n g m a n
in M a r k a n d of t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d in M a t t h e w a r e strikingly
similar. A s s u m i n g f o r t h e m o m e n t M a r k a n p r i o r i t y , w e c a n see h o w
M a t t h e w has redacted the M a r k a n
narrative.89 T h e
resemblance
b e t w e e n t h e c o m m a n d to see t h e p l a c e w h e r e J e s u s ' s b o d y h a d lain

a n d to g o o u t a n d tell t h e disciples t h a t J e s u s h a d risen suggests a
literary r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o versions. If such a suggestion
is justified, t h e n M a t t h e w h a s significantly c h a n g e d t h e s c e n e , m a k i n g t h e m e s s e n g e r clearly a n angel, w i t h t h e i m a g e r y typically associated with a n a n g e l o p h a n y . T h i s could m e a n that M a t t h e w u n d e r s t o o d
M a r k ' s " y o u t h " as a n a n g e l b u t saw it as insufficiently d e s c r i b e d a n d
so b o l s t e r e d its a p p e a r a n c e t o m a k e its status o b v i o u s .
T h e G o s p e l of L u k e 2 4 : 4 - 5 says, " W h i l e t h e y [the w o m e n ] w e r e
p e r p l e x e d a b o u t this, b e h o l d , t w o m e n [ ] s t o o d b y t h e m
in d a z z l i n g a p p a r e l [ ]; 9 0 a n d as t h e y w e r e frighte n e d a n d b o w e d t h e i r faces to t h e g r o u n d , d i e m e n said to t h e m ,
89
R. Brown, An Introduction, p. 114, says that Markan priority is "the most common thesis employed to explain the relationship of Matt and Luke to Mark" by
NT scholars. Still, it does not explain all the complexities of their relationship, nor
is it the only thesis; e.g., the Greisbach hypothesis argues for the priority of Matthew,
with Mark and Luke making changes and omissions to this source.
90
Cf. the appearance of Jesus in the Transfiguration narratives in Mark 9:2-10,
Matt 17:1-9, and Luke 9:28-36.
' W h y d o y o u seek t h e living a m o n g t h e d e a d ? ' " H e r e t h e r e a r e t w o

b e i n g s a t t h e t o m b . T h e y a r e r e f e r r e d to n o t as y o u n g m e n b u t simply as m e n . T h e y d o h a v e d a z z l i n g c l o t h i n g , a n d t h e y a n n o u n c e t o
t h e w o m e n t h a t J e s u s is n o t in t h e t o m b b u t h a s g o n e b e f o r e his
disciples t o G a l i l e e . Similarly in Acts 1 : 1 0 - 1 1 , L u k e n a r r a t e s ,
[10] A n d while they were gazing into heaven as he went, behold, two
men [ ] stood by them in white robes [ ],
[11] and said, " M e n of Galilee, why do you stand looking into heaven?
This Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven, will come in the
same way as you saw him go into heaven."
O n c e a g a i n t w o m e n in striking a p p a r e l tell t h e disciples of G o d ' s
p l a n . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s e e m s to b e t h a t t h e y a r e s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n
human.
J o h n 20:12 r e c o r d s t h a t M a r y M a g d a l e n e " s a w t w o angels in w h i t e
[ ] , sitting w h e r e t h e b o d y of J e s u s h a d lain,
o n e a t t h e h e a d a n d o n e a t t h e f e e t . " T h e s e a n g e l s ask M a r y " W h y
a r e y o u w e e p i n g ? " S h e replies, " B e c a u s e t h e y h a v e t a k e n a w a y m y
L o r d , a n d I d o n o t k n o w w h e r e t h e y h a v e laid h i m . " T h e
angels
h a v e n o m o r e p a r t in t h e story, since J e s u s t h e n a p p e a r s t o M a r y
in v. 14.
T h e G o s p e l of P e t e r (Gos. Pet.) is k n o w n in a f r a g m e n t d i s c o v e r e d
in 1886 1887 a t A k h m m . A r e f e r e n c e f r o m E u s e b i u s , HE
(6.12),
tells us t h a t " S e r a p i o n , b i s h o p of A n t i o c h [c. 190], f o u n d a c h u r c h

in R h o s s u s using a n u n o r t h o d o x b o o k k n o w n as t h e G o s p e l of P e t e r . "
Also in 3.3.2 of t h e HE. E u s e b i u s says, " t h e G o s p e l of P e t e r is n a m e d
a m o n g the writings n o t h a n d e d d o w n a m o n g the catholic scriptures."
T h e G o s p e l of P e t e r , t h e n , likely d a t e s t o s o m e t i m e in t h e m i d - l a t e
s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . 9 1 Gos. Pet. 3 5 3 7 also i n c l u d e s a n a r r a t i v e a b o u t
the empty tomb:
[35] N o w in the night in which the Lord's day dawned, when the soldiers were keeping guard, two by two in each watch, there was a loud
voice in heaven [36] a n d they saw the heavens open and two m e n [
] come down from there in a great brightness a n d draw near
the sepulchre. [37] T h a t stone which had been laid against the entrance
to the sepulchre started of itself to roll and move sideways, a n d the
sepulchre was opened and both young men [ ] entered. 9 2
91
J. Elliott, The Apociyphal New Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) 150.
Greek text from M. Mara, vangile de Pierre: introduction, text critique, traduction,
commentaire et index (Paris: Les Editions du Cerf, 1973) 56.
92
" M e n " f r o m h e a v e n a p p e a r i n g with a g r e a t brightness seems to suggest t h a t these beings a r e angels, b u t , as in o t h e r cases, these angels
are referred to as " y o u n g m e n . " It is very possible t h a t the a u t h o r
of Gos. Pet. k n e w of a n d d r e w u p o n the (canonical) gospel traditions
in c r e a t i n g this narrative.
It is i m p o r t a n t n o t to synthesize the individual gospel narratives
i n t o o n e c o h e r e n t picture. A brief s u m m a r y of the beings p r e s e n t at
the e m p t y t o m b follows:
M a r k : o n e y o u n g m a n () in a white r o b e ( )
M a t t h e w : a n Angel of the L o r d ( )
L u k e : t w o m e n ( ) i n d a z z l i n g a p p a r e l (
)
J o h n : two angels in white ( )
Gos. Pet.: two m e n f r o m h e a v e n , called y o u n g m e n ()
T h u s , the gospels p r e s e n t a n interesting picture. It seems t h a t the
a n n o u n c e m e n t to the w o m e n at the t o m b w a s p r o f o u n d e n o u g h to
h a v e b e e n given b y divine messengers. T h e description of the b e i n g
in e a c h of t h e f o u r gospels is different, however. M a t t h e w is the
m o s t explicit, saying it is the Angel of the L o r d w h o arrives with
typical i m a g e r y of angels. J o h n says t h e r e a r e t w o angels in white.
T h e a p p e a r a n c e of angels in white seems to h a v e r e c u r r e d m o r e in
the very late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e visions in
Ezekiel a n d Daniel. M a r k calls the being a " y o u n g m a n . " R e f e r r i n g
to angels as " y o u n g m e n " seems to h a v e b e c o m e c o m m o n p l a c e b y
the late S e c o n d T e m p l e period. Luke calls the beings two " m e n , "
b u t they also a p p e a r with " d a z z l i n g a p p a r e l , " suggesting they are
s o m e t h i n g special. T h e Gos. Pet. seems to h a v e synthesized the c a n o n ical gospels, calling t h e m " t w o m e n " f r o m h e a v e n , w h o are t h e n
revealed to b e "angels." N o n e of the texts offers a n y indication t h a t
these beings are n o t angels, w h a t e v e r their a p p e a r a n c e . T h e y h a v e
specific knowledge of J e s u s ' s w h e r e a b o u t s a n d s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r with
i m a g e r y c o m m o n l y associated with angels, even if their physical f o r m
is t h a t of h u m a n beings.
2.8
The Acts of the Apostles
O n e passage f r o m the Book of Acts deserves attention in this c h a p ter. T h e Acts of the Apostles is a history of t h e early C h r i s t i a n
c h u r c h . It w a s likely w r i t t e n by t h e evangelist L u k e a n d , if so, d a t e s

to a r o u n d t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y C E . Acts 12 r e c o r d s P e t e r ' s
a r r e s t b y H e r o d a n d his s u b s e q u e n t e s c a p e w i t h t h e h e l p of a n A n g e l
of t h e L o r d ( ). 9 3 O n c e f r e e d , P e t e r h e a d s to w h e r e t h e
o t h e r s h a v e g a t h e r e d (Acts 12:12). W h e n t h e h o u s e s e r v a n t a n s w e r s ,
she r u n s to tell t h e o t h e r s t h a t P e t e r h a s r e t u r n e d . T h e y
respond
i n c r e d u l o u s l y , " Y o u a r e m a d . " B u t she insists t h a t it is so. T h e y say,

" I t is his a n g e l [ ] ! " B u t P e t e r c o n t i n u e s k n o c k ing; a n d w h e n t h e y o p e n , t h e y see h i m a n d a r e a m a z e d . 9 4 A m a z e m e n t
is a c o m m o n r e a c t i o n to m i r a c u l o u s p h e n o m e n a (cf. M a r 5:42; L u k
8:56; 2 4 : 2 2 ; Acts 10:45). P e t e r h a s p r e v i o u s l y b e e n h e l p e d b y t h e
A n g e l of t h e L o r d in A c t s 5:19.
T h e g u a r d i a n a n g e l m o t i f h a s l o n g b e e n r e c o g n i z e d t o lie b e h i n d
Acts 12:15. 9 5 T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s p a s s a g e s d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e i d e a
in J u d a i s m . I n G e n 4 8 : 1 6 J a c o b says, as p a r t of his blessing o v e r
J o s e p h , " t h e a n g e l w h o h a s r e d e e m e d m e f r o m all evil." Ps 9 1 : 1 1
says, " H e will give his a n g e l s c h a r g e of y o u t o g u a r d y o u in all y o u r
w a y s . " Also r e l a t e d a r e E x o d 2 3 : 2 0 21, w h e n the A n g e l of t h e L o r d
p r o t e c t s the Israelites d u r i n g t h e i r d e s e r t w a n d e r i n g , a n d D e u t 3 2 : 8
(LXX): " W h e n the M o s t H i g h gave to the nations their inheritance,
w h e n h e s e p a r a t e d t h e s o n s of m e n , h e fixed t h e b o u n d s of t h e p e o pies a c c o r d i n g to t h e n u m b e r of t h e sons of G o d [ ]." 9 6
T h e s e p a s s a g e s c e r t a i n l y d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t angels f u n c t i o n e d as p r o t e c t o r s in t h e J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e p r i o r to t h e N T p e r i o d .
O t h e r l i t e r a t u r e also evinces t h e g u a r d i a n a n g e l motif. T o b 5 : 2 1
states, " F o r a g o o d angel will g o w i t h h i m ; his j o u r n e y will b e successful, a n d h e will c o m e back safe a n d s o u n d . " In T. Jac. 1:10, " T h e angels
w o u l d visit h i m a n d g u a r d h i m a n d s t r e n g t h e n h i m in all t h i n g s . "
Also in t h e LAB 59:4, " a n d b e c a u s e h e h a s d e l i v e r e d m e to his angels
a n d to his g u a r d i a n s t h a t t h e y s h o u l d g u a r d m e " (cf. 11:12; 15:5).
93
Note that the Greek here does not contain the article, but the LXX rendering
of the Angel of the Lord in Gen 16, 22, 24; Exod 3; Judg 6; 2 Kgs 1, 19; Ps 34,
35; Isa 37 do not either. The Balaam story in Num 22, Judg 13, and Zech do employ
the article. Thus it seems possible to render Acts 12:7 as "the Angel of the Lord."
94
The D texts add "perhaps" ().
95
See J . Moulton, "It Is His Angel" JTS 3 (1902) 514-527; K. Lake and
H. Cadbury, The Beginnings of Christianity: Part I The Acts of the Apostles, vol. 4: English
Translation and Commentais (London: MacMillan and Co., 1933) 138-139; E. Haenchen,
The Acts of the Apostles (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1971) 385.
96
The same idea is seen in Dan 10:13 (and 11:5) in the "princes" of the nations,
as well as Michael as the "prince" of Israel.
E l s e w h e r e in t h e N T , M a t t 18:10, " S e e t h a t y o u d o n o t despise

o n e of t h e s e little ones; f o r I tell y o u t h a t in h e a v e n t h e i r angels
always b e h o l d t h e f a c e of m y F a t h e r w h o is in h e a v e n , " is c i t e d in
s u p p o r t of this idea. 9 ' T h i s text, t h o u g h i n f o r m a t i v e a b o u t t h e o v e r all belief in angels as intercessors, is n o t of c e r t a i n v a l u e f o r t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Acts 12:15.
C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a in his Excerpta
cusses M a t t
ex Theodoto 10, 6 - 1 1 , dis-
18:10:
T h e y [the first-created] "always behold the face of the Father" and

the face of the Father is the Son, through w h o m the Father is known.
Yet that which sees and is seen cannot be formless or incorporeal. But
they see not with an eye of sense, but with the eye of the mind, such
as the Father provided. When, therefore, the Lord said, "Despise not
one of these little ones. Truly, I say to you, their angels always behold
the face of the Father," as is the pattern, so will be the elect, when
they have received the perfect advance. But "blessed are the pure in
heart, for they shall see G o d " (Matt 5:8). And how could their face
be a shapeless being?
C l e m e n t s e e m s t o suggest t h a t t h e elect will also find t h e i r p l a c e in
h e a v e n a t t h e t h r o n e w h e n t h e y a r e t a k e n u p . T h i s s e e m s to d e m o n strate a close c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e e a r t h l y elect a n d their h e a v e n l y
counterparts a n d p e r h a p s even a transformation f r o m one into the
other.
T h e w i d e s p r e a d n a t u r e of this belief m a k e s it v e r y likely t h a t L u k e
h a s p i c k e d u p o n t h e m o t i f h e r e in Acts 12. C e r t a i n l y , t h a t t h e a n g e l
c o m e s a n d frees P e t e r f r o m p r i s o n fits w i t h t h e i d e a of a p r o t e c t o r
a n g e l (Acts 12:79). W h a t is a little less c l e a r is w h y t h e o t h e r a p o s ties, in h i d i n g , m i g h t say t h a t P e t e r ' s a n g e l h a s c o m e (Acts 12:15).
L. J o h n s o n n o t e s t h a t J e s u s ' s p o s t - r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e in L u k e
24:37 is w o r t h y of c o m p a r i s o n h e r e . 9 8 T h i s p a s s a g e says, " B u t t h e y
w e r e startled a n d f r i g h t e n e d , a n d s u p p o s e d t h a t t h e y s a w a spirit
()," p e r h a p s suggesting t h a t w e a r e to s u p p o s e t h e o t h e r a p o s ties t h o u g h t P e t e r h a d b e e n killed. 9 9 Still, t h e p a s s a g e is p e c u l i a r in
97
C. Rowland, "Apocalyptic, the Poor, and the Gospel of Matthew" JTS 45

(1994) 511.
98
L. Johnson, The Acts of the Apostles (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1992) 213.
99
J. Munck, The Acts of the Apostles (Garden City: Doubleday, 1967) 114, says this
passage is "probably an instance of the not uncommon betief that the moment a
man dies his guardian angel appears." He does not cite any instances of this phenomenon, however.
t h e sense t h a t t h e apostles h a d e x p e c t e d a n a n g e l . T h e y a r e told

t h a t P e t e r is at t h e d o o r , a n d t h e y dismiss t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , s a y i n g
it is his angel.
S o , t r a d i t i o n a l l y A c t s 12:15 is t a k e n to r e p r e s e n t t h e
guardian
a n g e l m o t i f , a n d this s e e m s to lie b e h i n d t h e p a s s a g e . It s e e m s also,

h o w e v e r , t h a t f o r a t least o n e a u t h o r , L u k e , t h e A n g e l - o f - t h e - L o r d
t r a d i t i o n s w e r e still f u n c t i o n a l . P a r t i c u l a r l y striking a r e t h e parallels
b e t w e e n Acts 12 a n d t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d in E x o d u s as p r o t e c t o r , b o t h in f r e e i n g t h e Israelites a n d P e t e r a n d in killing t h o s e w h o
o p p r e s s e d t h e m , P h a r a o h ' s son a n d
Herod.
T h e m e a n i n g of "it is his a n g e l " in Acts 12:15 is n o t entirely clear.

M o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s suggest t h a t it r e f e r s to a g u a r d i a n a n g e l .
It
c o u l d p e r h a p s also r e f e r t o s o m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g (within t h e n a r r a tive) t h a t P e t e r h a s r e t u r n e d t o t h e o t h e r disciples in a n afterlife exist e n c e as a n angel (cf. Acts 23:89). T h e G r e e k ( )
h e r e suggests, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e r e is a distinction b e t w e e n P e t e r a n d
this angel; t h a t is, it is his a n g e l , n o t h e is a n a n g e l .
2.9
The Apocalypse of John
T h e r e a r e 6 4 o c c u r r e n c e s of t h e t e r m in t h e A p o c a l y p s e of
J o h n . T h e vast m a j o r i t y of t h e s e s e e m clearly to r e f e r to h e a v e n l y
b e i n g s w h o c a r r y o u t G o d ' s p l a n (e.g., 5:2; 7 : 1 2 , 8 1 0
or are part
of t h e h e a v e n l y r e t i n u e (e.g., 5:11; 7:11; 8:2; 15:6). 100 T h r e e p a s s a g e s

a r e of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t w i t h r e g a r d to t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between
h u m a n s a n d angels: 1:20 ( a n d also m o r e loosely t h e e i g h t r e f e r e n c e s

to t h e s a m e " a n g e l s " of t h e i n d i v i d u a l c h u r c h e s t h a t follow in c h a p ters 2 - 3 ) a n d 19:10, w h i c h is p a r a l l e l e d in 22:9.
R e v 1:20 c o n t a i n s the e n i g m a t i c s t a t e m e n t , " A s f o r t h e m y s t e r y
of t h e seven stars w h i c h y o u s a w in m y right h a n d , a n d t h e seven
g o l d e n l a m p s t a n d s , the seven stars are the angels of t h e seven c h u r c h e s
[01 ] a n d the seven l a m p s t a n d s a r e t h e seven c h u r c h e s . " T h i s p a s s a g e , p e r h a p s b e t t e r t h a n
a n y o t h e r , highlights t h e p o t e n t i a l difficulty in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e relat i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. S c h o l a r s d e b a t e w h a t is m e a n t
100
It is also important to note that only nine of those (and eight refer to the angels
of the churches, discussed below) appear in the visions of John (chapters 4-22).
by t h e " a n g e l s of t h e s e v e n c h u r c h e s . ' " 0 1 T h e " a n g e l s " c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as h u m a n (messengers) o r d i v i n e beings. D i f f e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n s

h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d t o e x p l a i n w h a t is m e a n t in e i t h e r case. If h u m a n
m e s s e n g e r s a r e t h e r e f e r e n t , it w o u l d b e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t J o h n
is told to w r i t e t o t h e " m e s s e n g e r s " of t h e c h u r c h e s , b u t t h e allegorical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e verse (i.e., t h e seven stars a r e angels
a n d t h e seven l a m p s t a n d s a r e t h e seven c h u r c h e s ) suggests t h a t t h e
angels a r e n o t simply h u m a n m e s s e n g e r s . It is possible t h a t
some
type of h y b r i d a n g e l - h u m a n ( p e r h a p s s o m e k i n d of a c k n o w l e d g e d
c h u r c h leader) is i n t e n d e d , b u t a g a i n t h e issue of t h e allegorical interp r e t a t i o n arises. As f o r a n a n g e l i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , it h a s b e e n
sug-
gested t h a t t h e a n g e l s a r e g u a r d i a n angels o r h e a v e n l y d o u b l e s . It
is also possible t h a t t h e t e r m is o n l y a literary device o r l i t e r a r y
fiction.
U l t i m a t e l y , t h e i n t e n d e d m e a n i n g of " a n g e l s of t h e seven
c h u r c h e s " will likely r e m a i n a m b i g u o u s , b u t it is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e

it h e r e since it is a t least possible t h a t t h e i n t e n t is s o m e k i n d of
a n g e l - h u m a n b e i n g w h o c a n m e d i a t e for the seven c h u r c h e s
in
h e a v e n . M o r e o v e r , this p h r a s e highlights t h e p o t e n t i a l difficulty t h a t

c a n arise in i n t e r p r e t i n g a p a s s a g e in w h i c h t h e a u t h o r m a y h a v e
b e e n a w a r e of a n d h a v e p l a y e d u p o n t h e r a n g e of m e a n i n g i n h e r e n t in t h e t e r m .
T h e o t h e r t w o r e l a t e d p a s s a g e s of interest in s t u d y i n g t h e relat i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s in t h e A p o c a l y p s e a r e
19:10
a n d 2 2 : 8 9 . I n R e v 19:9 a n a n g e l c o m m a n d s J o h n to w r i t e d o w n
t h e w o r d s h e h e a r s . I n v. 10, J o h n writes, " T h e n I fell d o w n a t his
feet to w o r s h i p h i m [the a n g e l ] , b u t h e said to m e , ' Y o u m u s t n o t
d o that! I a m a fellow s e r v a n t with y o u a n d y o u r b r e t h r e n w h o h o l d
t h e t e s t i m o n y of J e s u s . W o r s h i p G o d . ' F o r t h e t e s t i m o n y of J e s u s is
t h e spirit of p r o p h e c y . " Similarly, in 2 2 : 8 - 9 , the a u t h o r writes:
101
See discussions in: C. Hemer, The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their
Local Setting (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1986) 3234 ;L. Stuckenbruck, Angel
Veneration and Christology: A Study in Early Judaism and in the Christology of the Apocalypse
ofJohn (Tubingen: J . C. B. Mhr, 1995) 234-238; D. Aune, Revelation, 3 vols. (Dallas:
Word Books, 1997-1998) 1:106-112; G. Beale, The Book of Revelation: A Commentary
on the Greek Text (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999) 216-219; M. Barker, The
Revelation of Jesus Christ (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) 102-110. Due to the inherent ambiguity, most commentators list the options and avoid drawing any specific
conclusions.
[8] I J o h n a m he who heard and saw these things. And when I heard
and saw them, I fell down to worship at the feet of the angel who
showed them to me; [9] but he said to me, "You must not do that!
I am a fellow servant with you and your brethren the prophets, and
with those who keep the words of this book. Worship G o d . "
T h e s e t w o a c c o u n t s a r e q u i t e similar. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , in b o t h
cases
J o h n falls at t h e feet of t h e a n g e l ; t h e a n g e l tells h i m , " D o n o t d o

t h a t , " b e c a u s e h e himself is simply " a fellow s e r v a n t w i t h y o u " ; a n d
the a n g e l tells J o h n to " W o r s h i p G o d . " O n l y 19:10, h o w e v e r , says
t h a t J o h n fell t o w o r s h i p (). 1 0 2 A t a g e n e r a l level, t h e p r o h i b i t i o n s e e m s to s t a n d as a w a r n i n g t o C h r i s t i a n s a g a i n s t a n g e l w o r ship a n d p e r h a p s i d o l a t r y in a n y f o r m . 1 0 3 S o m e h a v e suggested t h a t
J o h n m a y b e c o n f u s i n g t h e b e i n g b e f o r e h i m in 19:9 a n d
w i t h t h e divine b e i n g h e h a s s e e n in 1:13 a n d
10:11.
22:89
104
U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e f u s a l of w o r s h i p suggests t h a t in t h e divine o r d e r
h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s a r e o n e q u a l footing. 1 0 5 T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this
a r e u n c l e a r . Prime facie it d o e s n o t s e e m t o suggest t h a t t h e distinct i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o t y p e s of b e i n g s is necessarily b l u r r e d b y this
s h a r e d status; h o w e v e r , t h e a n g e l d o e s say t h a t h e is a "fellow serv a n t , " so p e r h a p s , in t h e e s c h a t o n a n d n e w age t h a t J o h n sees in
visions, angels a n d h u m a n s a r e n o t as distinct b u t i n s t e a d a r e all
e q u a l followers of G o d (cf. Mart. Ascen. Isa. 8 - 9 ) .
2.10
Joseph
and Aseneth
(JA),
Joseph and Aseneth
w h i c h b e l o n g s to t h e g e n r e of G r e e k love
stories, e l a b o r a t e s u p o n t h e n a r r a t i v e in G e n 4 1 : 3 7 - 4 5 , 5 0 - 5 2 , a n d
4 6 : 2 0 , in w h i c h t h e p a t r i a r c h J o s e p h m a r r i e s t h e d a u g h t e r of a n
E g y p t i a n priest, A s e n e t h . It is likely to h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d in G r e e k ,
102
R. Bauckharn has collected texts from the period that show the motif of the
angelic denial of worship was extant. He sees the same motif in Tob 12:16-22,
Apoc. Zeph. 6:11-15, JA 15:11-12, Apoc. Paul, Apoc. Gosp. Matt 3:3, Lad. Jac. 3:3-5,
3 En. 16:1-5, and Cairo Genizah Hekhalot A/2 13-18. See R. Bauckharn, "The Worship ofJesus in Apocalyptic Christianity" NTS 37 (1980-1981) 322-341, reprinted in
R. Bauckharn, The Climax of Prophecy (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1993) 118-149.
105
G. Beale, The Book of Revelation, p. 946. D. Aune, Revelation, p. 1036. The question of whether or not there was a cult of angel worship in Judaism at this period
is debated. A good review of scholarship on this appears in L. Stuckenbruck, Angel
Veneration, pp. 111-119.
104
G. Beale, The Book of Revelation, pp. 946, 1128.
105
L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration, p. 252.
t h o u g h it m a y derive f r o m earlier o r a l t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t J o s e p h . T h e r e
are two m a i n recensions: the longer a n d the shorter form.106 M o s t
s c h o l a r s believe t h e l o n g e r f o r m to be closer t o t h e original, b u t this
is d e b a t e d . T h e r e r e m a i n s a n e e d for a critical e d i t i o n of t h e text
t h a t i n c l u d e s all t h e m a j o r m a n u s c r i p t s . 1 0 7
S c h o l a r s a r e d i v i d e d o n t h e d a t e a n d p r o v e n a n c e of JA. P. Battifol,
o n e of t h e first s c h o l a r s to t r a n s l a t e t h e G r e e k text, suggested t h a t
it w a s a C h r i s t i a n text a n d s h o u l d b e d a t e d q u i t e late, b e t w e e n t h e
f o u r t h a n d sixth c e n t u r y C E . 1 0 8 T h i s d a t i n g h a s b e e n r e j e c t e d b y virtually all scholars, h o w e v e r , o n t h e basis of t h e " J e w i s h " c h a r a c t e r
of t h e t e x t (e.g., its e l a b o r a t i o n u p o n a H e b r e w Bible story) a n d its
S e p t u a g i n t a l i s m s . F o r s o m e t i m e t h e r e w a s a g r o w i n g scholarly c o n sensus t h a t settled u p o n a n E g y p t i a n p r o v e n a n c e a n d a late
c e n t u r y B C E to a
first-century
R e c e n t l y , G . B o h a k h a s b e c o m e m o r e specific a n d l o c a t e d
a u t h o r of JA
first-
C E date. 1 0 9
the
in E g y p t a t t h e O n i a s T e m p l e . 1 1 0 H e sees t h e a u t h o r
as h a v i n g a g o o d k n o w l e d g e of G r e e k , s o m e familiarity w i t h E g y p t i a n
(Heliopolitan) theology, a n d a deeply eschatological outlook. T h e s e
f a c t o r s suggest a d a t e of 160
145 B C E to B o h a k .
A d i s s e n t i n g voice c o m e s f r o m R . K r a e m e r , w h o m a k e s a case
for seeing " A s e n e t h " as n o earlier t h a n a b o u t t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y CE. 1 1 1
H e r a r g u m e n t s f o r seeing t h e a n g e l o p h a n y as a d j u r a t i o n m a g i c akin
to m a g i c a l m a t e r i a l s of t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d c e n t u r i e s C E a r e i n t e r esting b u t n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r s u a s i v e as a basis for a late d a t i n g .
It s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t JA
was written during or a r o u n d the
first
c e n t u r y C E . E v e n if t h e a c t u a l d a t e is s o m e w h a t later, it is still p o s sible t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n s t h e r e i n m a y d e r i v e f r o m a n e a r l i e r p e r i o d .

T h e p r o v e n a n c e is likely to b e E g y p t i a n . Its g e n r e , t h e love story,
106
There are 16 Greek mss. and a number of versions in other languages; for
a list see C. Burchard, OTP 2:178-179.
107
HJPAJC mi:546-552.
108
P. Battifol, Le livre de la prire d'Aseneth in Studia Patristica (Paris, 1889-1890).
109
C. Burchard, Untersuchungen zu Joseph und Aseneth: berlieferung-Ortsbestimmung
(Tbingen: JCB Mohr, 1965) and OTP 2:177-201; M. Philonenko, Joseph et Asneth:
introduction, texte critique, traduction et notes (Leiden: E. J . Brill, 1968); R. Chesnutt,
'1Joseph and Aseneth" in ABD 3:969-971 and a good summary of the arguments
in Chesnutt's recent work, From Death to Life: Conversion in Joseph and Aseneth (Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1995) 80-85.
110
G. Bohak, Joseph and Aseneth and the Jewish Temple in Heliopolis (Atlanta, GA:
Scholars Press, 1996) 83-87.
111
R. Kraemer, When Aseneth Met Joseph (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998)
225-244.
is likely t o c o n t a i n t h e m e s of b e a u t y a n d v i r t u e a n d b e of a n epic
character.
I n c h a p t e r s 1 4 - 1 7 of JA " a m a n f r o m h e a v e n " a p p e a r s to A s e n e t h .
T h e " m a n " is said to b e v e r y similar to J o s e p h in his g a r b , b u t his
face a n d e x t r e m i t i e s a r e brilliant.
[4] And a m a n came to her from heaven and stood by Aseneth's head.
And he called her and said, "Aseneth, A s e n e t h . , 5 ]
] A n d she said,
" W h o is it that calls me, because the door of my chamber is closed,
and the tower is high, and how then did he come into my chamber?"
[6] And the man called her a second time and said, "Aseneth, Aseneth."
[7] A n d she said, "Behold, (here) I (am) Lord. W h o are you, tell me?"
[8] And the m a n said, "I am the chief of the house of the Lord and
c o m m a n d e r of the whole host of the Most High. Rise and stand 011
your feet and I will tell you what I have to say." [9] And Aseneth
raised her head and saw, and behold, (there was) a m a n in every
respect similar to Joseph, by the robe and the crown and the royal
staff, except that his face was like lightning, and Iiis eyes were like
sunshine, and the hairs of his head like a flame of fire of a burning
torch, a n d hands and feet like iron shining forth from a fire, a n d sparks
shot forth from his hands and feet. [10] And Aseneth saw (it) a n d fell
on her face at his feet on the ground (14:4-10). 112
M o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s u n d e r s t a n d this b e i n g as a n a n g e l , e v e n
though
the text d o e s n o t c o n t a i n the t e r m . " 3 T h e r e a r e g o o d r e a sons for this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e b e i n g c o m e s originally as a "star' 5

(14:1). W i t h i n t h e p a s s a g e h e is c a l l e d " a m a n f r o m h e a v e n " (v. 4),
w h o i d e n t i f i e s h i m s e l f as t h e " c o m m a n d e r
of t h e w h o l e h o s t of
h e a v e n " (v. 7). T h i s title w a s seen in J o s h 5 . 1 3 1 5 a n d l a t e r a t t r i b u t e d t o p r i m a r y a n g e l s such as M i c h a e l . T h e i m a g e r y of his brilliant face a n d fiery h a n d s a n d feet (v. 9) is c o m m o n to a n g e l o p h a n i e s .
M o r e o v e r , A s e n e d i r e s p o n d s b y falling on die g r o u n d . T h i s is u n d o u b t edly a case in w h i c h a n a n g e l is r e f e r r e d to as a m a n . W h a t is m o r e
i n t e r e s t i n g is t h a t t h e a n g e l a p p e a r s in t h e f o r m of a p a r t i c u l a r p e r son, t h e p a t r i a r c h J o s e p h . A d d i t i o n a l l y , w h e n in c h a p t e r 16 t h e b e i n g
r e a c h e s o u t his h a n d to A s e n e t h , she is a f r a i d to t a k e it b e c a u s e
" s p a r k s shot f o r t h f r o m his h a n d as f r o m b u b b l i n g m e l t e d i r o n . "
G . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s a r g u e d t h a t J o s e p h in this scene a n d also
A s e n e t h in c h a p t e r 18 a r e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 1 1 4 I n t h e sense t h a t c e r tain i m a g e r y a p p l i e d to e a c h of t h e m is o f t e n a p p l i e d t o angels, this
112
Translation G. Burchard, OTP 2:224-225.

See especially G. Bohak, Joseph and Aseneth, pp. 2-3; C. Fletcher-Louis, LukeActs, p. 165, et al.
114
113
s e e m s c o r r e c t . I n t h e c a s e of A s e n e t h , F l e t c h e r - L o u i s sees t h e b e a u t y
a s c r i b e d to h e r in c h a p t e r 18 a n d h e r f a t h e r ' s r e a c t i o n of f e a r a n d
falling to t h e g r o u n d (18:11) as signs of h e r a n g e l i c c h a r a c t e r ,
as
well as h e r b e i n g a b l e to p a r t a k e of h e a v e n l y f o o d (16:14). 1 1 3 T h e s e
d e s c r i p t i o n s s e e m to s h o w t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n A s e n e t h
under-
goes p r e p a r e s her for m a r r i a g e to h e r future h u s b a n d , w h o
has
a n g e l o m o r p h i c qualities. U l t i m a t e l y , h o w e v e r , A s e n e t h is said to c o n ceive a n d b e a r h u m a n
childrenManasseh
and Ephraim
(21:9),
which would seem to reinforce her h u m a n nature. T h e "parallelism"

( F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s t e r m ) b e t w e e n t h e p o r t r a y a l of t h e a n g e l in c h a p t e r 14 a n d J o s e p h g e n e r a l l y is said to s h o w J o s e p h ' s " a n g e l i c c h a r a c t e r . " 1 1 6 T h e parallels i n c l u d e b o t h t h e a n g e l a n d J o s e p h
coming
f r o m the East a n d being seen by Aseneth t h r o u g h h e r window. In

14:9, t h e a n g e l is said to b e " a m a n in e v e r y r e s p e c t similar to
J o s e p h . " F l e t c h e r - L o u i s sees the c o m m e n t in 6:6 t h a t J o s e p h h a s " a
g r e a t light in h i m " as giving f o u n d a t i o n for t h e parallel b e t w e e n h i m
a n d t h e fiery c r e a t u r e of c h a p t e r 14, b u t this s e e m s to press t h e evid e n c e q u i t e f a r . U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e m a y b e a parallel b e t w e e n J o s e p h
a n d his angelic c o u n t e r p a r t . B u t a r e t h e y t h e s a m e b e i n g ? It s e e m s
unlikely, given t h a t t h e t w o a r e m e n t i o n e d s e p a r a t e l y . A l t h o u g h t h e r e
is n o d o u b t t h a t t h e d e p i c t i o n s of b o t h J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t h in
JA
a r e a n g e l o m o r p h i c , it s e e m s t h e t w o a r e h u m a n b e i n g s .
2.11
The Shepherd of Hermas
T h e S h e p h e r d of H e r m a s w a s p r o b a b l y w r i t t e n in c e n t r a l Italy o r
R o m e itself. Its d a t i n g is u n c e r t a i n , b u t m o s t s c h o l a r s a c c e p t a d a t e
s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y G E a n d t h e
first
half of t h e s e c o n d century. 1 1 7 T h i s m e a n s it is likely to b e r o u g h l y

c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h b o t h t h e gospels a n d J o s e p h u s . H e r m a s is split
i n t o t h r e e sections: Visions, Mandates,
In the
and
Similitudes.
Visions a n " a n c i e n t w o m a n " is a c c o m p a n i e d
by
m e n . " I t is l a t e r d i s c l o s e d t h a t t h e s e " y o u n g m e n " a r e
"young
actually
"angels.""8 Originally, there are four young m e n , "So, w h e n
she
h a d finished r e a d i n g , a n d rose f r o m t h e c h a i r , t h e r e c a m e f o u r y o u n g
115

117
C. Osiek, Shepherd of Hermas (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999) 18-20.
118
Greek text from K. Lake, The Apostolic Fathers II (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
116
men
[], a n d took u p the chair a n d went away toward
the
E a s t " (Vis. 1.4.1), b u t in Vis. 3 t h e r e a r e six.

Vis. 3 . 1 . 6 says, " A n d she [the a n c i e n t lady] c a m e w i t h six y o u n g
m e n [ ] , w h o m I [ H e r m a s ] h a d seen o n t h e f o r m e r o c c a sion, a n d s t o o d b y m e , a n d listened t o m e p r a y i n g a n d c o n f e s s i n g
m y sins t o t h e L o r d . " T h e s e y o u n g m e n a p p e a r a g a i n in 3.1.7 a n d
8. I n 3 . 1 . 8 t h e y a r e told to " G o a n d b u i l d , " w h i c h t h e y d o in 3.2.5:
Now the tower was being built four-square by six young men []
who h a d come with her; but tens of thousands of other men []
were bringing stones, some from the deep sea, and some from the
land, a n d were giving them to the six young men [], and
these kept taking them and building.
Slightly later, H e r m a s e n q u i r e s as to t h e i d e n t i t y of these m a i n b u i l d ers (Vis. 3.4.1):
I answered and said to her: "Lady, great a n d wonderful is this thing.
But, Lady, who are the six young men [] who are building?"
"These are the holy angels of G o d [ ], who
were first created, to w h o m the Lord delivered all his creation to make
it increase, and to build it up, and to rule the whole creation."
T h e six y o u n g m e n a r e last m e n t i o n e d in
Vis. 3 . 1 0 . 1 , w h e n
they
c o m e to c a r r y a w a y t h e a n c i e n t lady.
I n h e r recent c o m m e n t a r y , C . Osiek suggests t h a t die six y o u n g m e n
(= angels) m a y r e p r e s e n t , a l o n g w i t h t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l ( w h o a p p e a r s
in t h e Sim. 8 . 3 . 3 a n d 9.6.1), t h e s e v e n p r i m a r y a r c h a n g e l s (cf. 1 En.
9 0 : 2 1 , T. Levi 8.1). 1 1 9 T h i s is c e r t a i n l y possible, since t h e a r c h a n g e l s
a r e s e e n in g r o u p s of seven ( T o b
12:15; 2 En.
19:1), b u t also in
g r o u p s of f o u r , in t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e period. 1 2 0
T h e r e is o n e o t h e r e x a m p l e of a n a n g e l b e i n g r e f e r r e d to as a
" y o u t h . " I n Sim. 6 . 1 . 5 , H e r m a s is s h o w n a vision of a s h e p h e r d :
And after he spoke these things with me, he said to me:
into the country, and I will show you the shepherds of
"Let us go, sir," said I. And we came into a plain, and
me a young shepherd [ ], clothed with a
ments of yellow color.
119
"Let us go
the sheep."
he showed
suit of gar-
C. Osiek, Shepherd, p. 69.

Groupings of four appear in 1QM 9.14-16; 1 En. 9:1, 40:9, 54:6, 71:8; Apoc.
Mos. 40:2.
120
T h e i d e n t i t y of t h e s h e p h e r d is t h e n r e v e a l e d in 6.2.1:
And he said to me: " D o you see this shepherd?" "Yes, sir," said I, "I
see him." "This," said he, "is the angel of luxury and deceit [
]. , H e wears out the souls of the servants of God,
and perverts them from the truth, deceiving them with evil desires in
which they perish.
It s e e m s t h a t this s h e p h e r d is t h e antithesis of H e r m a s himself. O s i e k
calls t h e s h e p h e r d " a d e m o n i c
figure."121
It m a y b e t h a t s o m e c o r -
r e s p o n d e n c e to t h e figure of S a t a n is i n t e n d e d . W h a t e v e r t h e case,
this is a n o t h e r text t h a t s e e m s t o r e f e r t o a n a n g e l a p p e a r i n g in a
h u m a n f o r m , in this case as a s h e p h e r d .
T h i s interesting material shows t h a t at least for the a u t h o r of H e r m a s ,
angels c o u l d be a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r , as w e saw in
J o s e p h u s a n d t h e E m p t y T o m b n a r r a t i v e s , " y o u n g m e n " ().
All of t h e e v i d e n c e f o r a n g e l s as y o u t h s s e e m s to h a v e a first- to
early second-century C E p r o v e n a n c e (Tobit, N T , Josephus, Hermas).
T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y p a r t i c u l a r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n this
c o n c e p t of a n g e l s a n d t h e o l d e r t r a d i t i o n s of angels b e i n g r e g a r d e d
as " m e n " f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible.
2.12
The Apocalypse of Abraham
T h e A p o c a l y p s e of A b r a h a m (Apoc. Abr.),
e x t a n t o n l y in
Slavonic
t r a n s l a t i o n , c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o m a i n p a r t s . T h e first, c h a p t e r s
1 S, r e c o u n t s A b r a h a m ' s c o n v e r s i o n f r o m i d o l a t r y t o m o n o t h e i s m .
T h e remaining chapters (931 )are an apocalypse based u p o n
Gen
15. T h e a p o c a l y p s e is n o t easily d a t e d f r o m i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e . T h e r e
is a n a p p a r e n t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e T e m p l e in c h a p t e r 27. It s e e m s to h a v e b e e n q u o t e d in t h e
Pseudo-Clementine
Recognitions 1.32 (c. s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E ) . M o s t s c h o l a r s a c c e p t a d a t e

s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e first c e n t u r y a n d t h e seco n d century CE.122
T h e a n g e l Iaoel (10:3), w h o helps A b r a h a m , is d e s c r i b e d as a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c . Apoc. Abr.
10.4 states, " T h e a n g e l h e sent to m e in t h e
likeness of a m a n c a m e , a n d h e took m e b y m y right h a n d
121
and
C. Osiek, Shepherd, p. 188.

R. Rubinkiewicz, "The Apocalypse of Abraham" in OTP 1:683; HJPAJC
III.i:290.
122
s t o o d m e o n m y f e e t . " H e h a s t h e "likeness of a m a n " a n d is a b l e

to t a k e t h e h a n d of A b r a h a m . H o w e v e r , w h e n A b r a h a m looks u p o n
his h e l p e r , h e sees s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t :
[11:1] And I stood up and saw him who h a d taken my right h a n d
and set m e on my feet. [2] T h e appearance of his body was like sapphire, and the aspect of his face was like chrysolite, and the hair of
his head like snow. [3] And a kidaris (was) on his head, its look like
that of a rainbow, and the clothing of his garments (was) purple; and
a golden staff was in his right hand.
T h e c o m p o n e n t s of this a n g e l o p h a n y a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e in
the
a n g e l o p h a n i e s c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e i n p a r t i c u l a r , his w h i t e h a i r
and
brilliant (jewel-like) b o d y . O n e d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t his g a r m e n t s a r e a

royal p u r p l e r a t h e r t h a n w h i t e .
As n o t e d a b o v e , C . R o w l a n d h a s a r g u e d o n t h e basis of t h e strikingly similar i m a g e r y f o u n d in JA,
Apoc. Abr.,
and Rev that
they
reflect d e p e n d e n c e o n a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of D a n 10:6 t h a t w a s linked

with D a n 7:13 as f o u n d in the L X X . 1 2 3 It s e e m s likely t h a t t h e i m a g e s
of t h e m a n l i k e
figure
in t h e p r o p h e t s E z e k i e l a n d D a n i e l
were
influential in s u b s e q u e n t v i s i o n a r y a n d a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e .
T h e a p p e a r a n c e of I a o e l as "in the likeness of a m a n " d o e s n o t
i n d i c a t e a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h h u m a n beings. F a r f r o m it; I a o e l is
in t h e h e a v e n s a n d c a r r i e s o u t t h e role of g u i d e a n d i n t e r p r e t e r o f t e n
associated w i t h angels.
Conclusions
I n this c h a p t e r e v i d e n c e f o r t h e p o r t r a y a l of a n g e l s ( a n d o t h e r divine
beings) a p p e a r i n g as h u m a n b e i n g s h a s b e e n investigated t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r it suggests a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . T h r e e p o i n t s w e r e n o t e d
at t h e outset. (1) T h e s e m a n t i c r a n g e of t h e t e r m s for a n g e l
can
c o v e r b o t h h u m a n a n d divine m e s s e n g e r s . S u c h a s e m a n t i c r a n g e ,
h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t necessarily i m p l y a n y b l u r r i n g of t h e distinction
b e t w e e n t h e t w o types, since c o n t e x t d i c t a t e s t h e m e a n i n g of t h e
t e r m . (2) T h e m a j o r i t y of texts t h a t speak a b o u t angels d o n o t i n c l u d e
a n y physical d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e m . (3) S o m e c o m m o n
123
characteristics
C. Rowland, "A Man Clothed in Linen," pp. 99-110; see also The Open
Heaven, p. 101.
of a n g e l o p h a n i e s (luminous a p p e a r a n c e , fear in the seer) c a n b e used

to help identify w h a t m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d angelic.
Angels d o s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r in the f o r m of h u m a n s ( G e n 1 8 - 1 9 ,
32, J o s h , P r o p h e t s T o b ) . I n the c o n t e x t of the n a r r a t i v e they are
often indistinguishable f r o m h u m a n beings, at least until they reveal
their true identity. F u r t h e r , in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , t h e r e
seemed to be a d e v e l o p m e n t t o w a r d representing angels as y o u t h f u l
h u m a n males (the Gospels, Herrn.).
T h e evidence indicates t h a t , even w h e n described a n t h r o p o m o r phically, angels r e m a i n e d distinct f r o m h u m a n s . W e t h e r e f o r e ask:
W h a t is the significance of the evidence w h e r e there are a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c descriptions of angels? T h e earliest evidence f r o m the H e b r e w
Bible suggests t h a t t h e r e m a y n o t h a v e b e e n a n y d e v e l o p m e n t in the
c o n c e p t of angels t h a t m a d e it p r o b l e m a t i c to refer to w h a t f r o m
the c o n t e x t was clearly a divine being as a " m a n . " As speculation
a b o u t angels a n d the heavenly r e a l m increased in the late S e c o n d
T e m p l e period, m o r e of a distinction was m a d e ; older texts such as
Genesis w e r e reinterpreted a n d angels inserted w h e r e there m a y h a v e
b e e n a n y a m b i g u i t y or w h e r e angels w e r e the m o r e logical choice
of t e r m s given the t r e n d s of t h a t time.
I n visionary literature it seems t h a t divine beings a n d angels could
c o n t i n u e to be referred to as m e n , b u t most often with a circumlocution such as " o n e like a son of m a n . " T h i s suggests a distinction
was being m a i n t a i n e d , even if the physical f o r m of the b e i n g was
h u m a n l i k e . It is n o t difficult to see w h y a h u m a n f o r m w o u l d be
c h o s e n for a divine being: the a u t h o r s themselves w e r e obviously
h u m a n , a n d G o d c r e a t e d m a n in his o w n i m a g e ( G e n 1:26).
It is interesting t h a t angels c a m e to b e r e f e r r e d to as " y o u t h f u l
m e n . " H o w this idea developed is n o t entirely clear, b u t by the first
c e n t u r y G E , it seems to have b e e n firmly in place, such t h a t it m i g h t
h a v e even served as a e u p h e m i s m for angels. Even in the cases w h e r e
angels are called " y o u n g m e n , " h o w e v e r , t h e r e does n o t seem to be
a n y reason to suppose t h a t this designation e x t e n d s b e y o n d their
physical f o r m to their essential n a t u r e .
T h u s , the evidence analyzed in this c h a p t e r indicates that, although
t h e r e is significant evidence for angels a p p e a r i n g in h u m a n f o r m , a
distinction was m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n h u m a n a n d angels. T h e next
step in this investigation is to look at cases in w h i c h h u m a n beings
seem to take o n the a p p e a r a n c e of angels, w h i c h is the p u r p o s e of
c h a p t e r 3.
CHAPTER THREE
"YOU L O O K POSITIVELY
ANGELIC":
H U M A N BEINGS AS A N G E L S
I n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r t h e e v i d e n c e for angels a p p e a r i n g as h u m a n
b e i n g s w a s e x a m i n e d . T h e e v i d e n c e f o r h u m a n b e i n g s a p p e a r i n g as
angels will b e c o n s i d e r e d in this c h a p t e r . T h e e v i d e n c e is m a i n l y
c o n c e n t r a t e d o n specific i n d i v i d u a l s f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible,
w e r e k n o w n f o r t h e i r r i g h t e o u s n e s s (e.g., N o a h , Moses) o r h a d
e n i g m a t i c b a c k g r o u n d (e.g., E n o c h , M e l c h i z e d e k ) .
Some
who
an
important
individuals f r o m early C h r i s t i a n i t y also m a y h a v e a t t a i n e d s u c h a

status (e.g., J e s u s , S t e p h e n , a n d Paul). T h e e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r
is o r g a n i z e d b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e texts r e l a t i n g t o e a c h i n d i v i d u a l . T h e
final
s u b s e c t i o n c o n s i d e r s texts t h a t speak a b o u t t h e possibility t h a t
h u m a n s w h o w e r e r i g h t e o u s in t h e i r lifetime m a y receive a n angelic

life in h e a v e n .
3.1
Adam
A c c o r d i n g to G e n e s i s , A d a m w a s t h e first h u m a n
being
created.
L a t e r s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t his d i v i n e n a t u r e s e e m s to s t e m f r o m G e n
1 : 2 6 - 2 7 , w h i c h states, " T h e n G o d said, ' L e t us m a k e m a n in o u r
i m a g e , a f t e r o u r l i k e n e s s . ' . . . S o G o d c r e a t e d m a n in his o w n i m a g e ,
in t h e i m a g e of G o d h e c r e a t e d h i m ; m a l e a n d f e m a l e h e c r e a t e d
t h e m . " 2 T h e c r e a t i o n story itself, a l o n g w i t h t h e story in t h e G a r d e n
( G e n 2 3 ) , i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e w a s a close r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e
1
As is seen in analyses by: J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as
Angels" in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980) 135-151;
L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998) 51-70;
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology and Soteriology (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck,
1997) 145-183; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence
(Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1997) 152-183.
2
Gen Rab 8:3-6 discusses the first-person plural "we" in the creation statement
and how God took counsel with the ministering angels in the creation (cf. also Gen
11:7). There is a good survey of the Jewish interpretations of Gen 1:26 i n j . Jervell,
Imago Dei: Gen l,26f. im Sptjudentum, in der Gnosis und in den paulischen Briefen (Gttingen:
Vanderhoeck and'Ruprecht, 1960) 15-51 and 71-121.
first h u m a n s a n d t h e divine. Interestingly, t h e c a u s e of A d a m ' s e x p u l sion f r o m t h e G a r d e n is t h a t h e h a s " b e c o m e like o n e of us, k n o w i n g

g o o d a n d evil" ( G e n 3:22a). M o r e o v e r , if A d a m w e r e to t a k e f r o m
t h e T r e e of Life, t h e n h e w o u l d "live f o r e v e r " ( G e n 3:22b). T h u s ,
it s e e m s t h a t A d a m h a d a kind of divine n a t u r e at t h e c r e a t i o n . N o
m o r e distinction is m a d e , o t h e r t h a n t h a t A d a m is "like u s . "
1 E n o c h (or E t h i o p i e E n o c h ) 6 9 c o m e s f r o m a section of 1 E n o c h
k n o w n as t h e S i m i l i t u d e s (or P a r a b l e s ) of E n o c h ( c h a p s .
37-71).
1 E n o c h is a c o m p o s i t e w o r k m a d e u p of several sections: T h e B o o k
of W a t c h e r s (chaps. 136 ;)t h e Similitudes; t h e A s t r o n o m i c a l
Book
(chaps. 8 3 - 9 0 ) ; t h e B o o k of A d m o n i t i o n s (chaps. 9 1 - 1 0 5 ) ; a n d t h e
B i r t h A c c o u n t of N o a h (chaps. 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 ) . T h e d a t e of t h e S i m i l i t u d e s
h a s b e e n t h e s u b j e c t of s o m e d e b a t e , since it is also t h e section w h e r e
the " s o n of m a n " s a y i n g is f o u n d (see a b o v e 2.5). A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s
f r o m Q u m r a n s h o w t h a t all sections of 1 E n o c h w e r e to b e f o u n d
t h e r e e x c e p t the Similitudes. 3 T h i s , a l o n g w i t h t h e affinity of s o m e
A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s of a Q u m r a n B o o k of G i a n t s to t h e M a n i c h e a n
B o o k of G i a n t s , led t h e p u b l i s h e r of t h e A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s , J . Milik,
to suggest t h a t t h e Similitudes d i d n o t exist in p r e - C h r i s t i a n
times
b u t w e r e in f a c t a late C h r i s t i a n a d d i t i o n t o 1 E n o c h (c. 2 7 0 C E ) . 4
T h e s c h o l a r l y c o n s e n s u s t o d a y , h o w e v e r , largely rejects M i l i k ' s assert i o n a n d m a i n t a i n s a d a t e in t h e first half of t h e first c e n t u r y C E . 5
T h e S i m i l i t u d e s a r e f o c u s e d u p o n e v e n t s in t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d .
T h e y c u l m i n a t e in t h e a s c e n s i o n of E n o c h to h e a v e n ( c h a p .
71).
1 En. 6 9 n a m e s t h e angels w h o s i n n e d b y disclosing secret k n o w l e d g e

to h u m a n s (v. 1). V e r s e
11 suggests t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s
originally
s h a r e d a similar n a t u r e w i t h angels:
[11] For m e n were created exacdy like angels, to the intent that they
should continue pure and righteous, and death, which destroys everything, could not have taken hold of them, but through this their knowledge they are perishing, and through this power it is consuming me. 6
5
J. Milik in collaboration with M. Black, The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of
Qumrn Cave 4 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976); G. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch (Philadelphia:
Fortress Press, 2001).
4
J. Milik, The Books of Enoch, pp. 89.96
5
See especially M. Knibb, "The Date of the Parables of Enoch" NTS 25 (1979)
358-359; C. Mearns, "Dating the Similitudes of Enoch" NTS 25 (1979) 369; HJPAJC
Hli:257-259.
6
Translation R. H. Charles, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913) 2:234.
A l t h o u g h A d a m is n o t explicitly m e n t i o n e d in this text, t h e c o n t e x t

is of t h e c r e a t i o n of h u m a n k i n d , w h i c h m u s t u l t i m a t e l y h a r k e n b a c k
to A d a m in G e n e s i s . A c c o r d i n g to t h e text, h u m a n s w e r e c r e a t e d to
be "like" angels. T h e simile c o m e s in h u m a n s p e r m a n e n t l y
"main-
t a i n i n g p u r e a n d r i g h t e o u s lives." T h i s suggests t h a t t h e
original
h u m a n state w a s to b e p u r e a n d r i g h t e o u s (cf. W i s 2:23).
Human
b e i n g s s e e m i n g l y fell f r o m this state t h r o u g h t h e sin of A d a m ( G e n

2:17, 3:17f.; cf. R o m 5:12), suggestsing t h a t A d a m ' s p r e l a p s a r i a n state
c o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d as angelic. 7
A n o t h e r text f r o m die E n o c h i c writings is m o r e explicit a b o u t A d a m ' s
angelic status. 2 E n o c h (Slavonic E n o c h ) e x p a n d s u p o n t h e life of
E n o c h ( G e n 5 : 2 1 - 3 2 ) . T w o r e c e n s i o n s exist: t h e s h o r t e r [A] a n d t h e
l o n g e r [ J ] , w h i c h a r e d a t e d differently. T h e m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e is
q u i t e late ( f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d d a t e s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d f r o m t h e
first c e n t u r y G E t h r o u g h to t h e M i d d l e Ages. F. A n d e r s e n , in his
translation for the OTP, favors a n early d a t e for t h e s h o r t e r r e c e n s i o n ,
while the l o n g e r is likely to c o m e f r o m a l a t e r d a t e . 8 T h i s e v i d e n c e
s h o u l d b e used with c a u t i o n in discussing late S e c o n d T e m p l e beliefs. 9
It s e e m s likely t h a t 2 E n o c h is d e p e n d e n t o n E t h i o p i e E n o c h . T h e
g e n r e is a p o c a l y p t i c . C h a p t e r 3 0 c o n t a i n s a d e t a i l e d e x p o s i t i o n of
t h e c r e a t i o n n a r r a t i v e . V e r s e 11 [J] m a k e s fairly explicit t h a t A d a m
w a s c r e a t e d angelic:
[11] And on the earth I assigned him to be a second angel, honored
and great and glorious. And I assigned him to be a king, to reign [on]
the earth, [and] to have my wisdom. And there was nothing compatable to him on the earth, even among my creatures that exist.
T h e r e is n o c l e a r r e f e r e n t f o r a "first" a n g e l . S e v e r a l texts h a v e b e e n
o f f e r e d in s u p p o r t of s e e i n g A d a m as t h e p r i m a r y b e i n g of c r e a t i o n
a n d e v e n h a v i n g a n e x a l t e d status: Sir 4 9 : 1 6 , W i s 10:1, a n d Philo,
Ques Gen 2:56.' N o n e of t h e s e s u p p o r t s a n a n g e l i c r e a d i n g , h o w e v e r .
7
This is clear in the rabbinic texts; see J . Jervell, Imago Dei, pp. 15-51. See also
C. Rowland, "The Influence of the First Chapter of Ezekiel on Jewish and Early
Christian Literature" (Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 1974).
8
F. Andersen, "2 (Slavonic Apocalypse of) Enoch" in OTP 1:91-213; J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels," p. 137, simply assumes a firstcentury CE date.
9
HJPAJC Illii: 748-749.
10
J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord: Samaritan and Jewish Concepts
of Intermediation and the Origin of Gnosticism (Tubingen: JCB Mhr, 1985) 273; C. FletcherLouis, Luke-Acts, p. 142; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 154.
So t h e m e a n i n g of t h e title " s e c o n d a n g e l " is n o t self-evident. A d a m ' s

status o n e a r t h is clearly e x a l t e d a b o v e all t h e e a r t h l y beings. H e is
to b e a k i n g a n d to h a v e w i s d o m (cf. 2 S a m 14:17). G . G i e s c h e n
suggests t h a t t h e p a s s a g e m a y b e a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Ps 8, p r e s u m a b l y verse 5, w h i c h states, " Y e t t h o u h a s t m a d e h i m a little less
t h a n G o d , a n d dost c r o w n h i m with glory a n d h o n o r . " T h u s , G i e s c h e n
sees t h e " s e c o n d a n g e l " as m e a n i n g o n e of G o d ' s p r i n c i p a l angels. 1 1
I n c h a p t e r 31, A d a m is p l a c e d in t h e G a r d e n a n d a l l o w e d to look
u p o n t h e a n g e l s in h e a v e n , " A n d I [ G o d ] c r e a t e d for h i m
[Adam]
a n o p e n h e a v e n , so t h a t h e m i g h t look u p o n t h e a n g e l s " (v. 2). T h a t

A d a m c a n look u p o n angels in t h e o p e n h e a v e n suggests h e h a s b e e n
g i v e n a s u p e r i o r - s e e r status. S i n c e h e h a s b e e n called a n " a n g e l , " his
ability to see angels m a y b e r e l a t e d to this status. I n c h a p t e r 3 2 : 1 - 2 ,
A d a m t r a n s g r e s s e s a n d is expelled t o t h e e a r t h t o live a m o r t a l life.
T h e Testament of Abraham
(T. Abr.) exists in t w o f o r m s , t h e l o n g e r
R e c e n s i o n A ( G r e e k m s . s u p p o r t e d by a R o m a n i a n version) a n d t h e
shorter Recension (Greek ms. supported by Slavonic a n d
versions).
12
other
D a t e s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d f r o m as early as t h i r d c e n t u r y
B C E t o t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y C E . . P. S a n d e r s suggests a r a n g e f o r
t h e d a t i n g b e t w e e n t h e first a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E , b u t t h e d a t i n g
is n o t clear. 1 3
I n T. Abr.
11:4, t h e p a t r i a r c h is t a k e n i n t o h e a v e n a f t e r his d e a t h
a n d sees a " m a n o n a g o l d e n t h r o n e " w h o is d e s c r i b e d as " t e r r i f y i n g . " W h e n A b r a h a m asks his angelic g u i d e a b o u t t h e i d e n d t y of

this f i g u r e , h e is told, " T h i s is t h e
first-formed
A d a m w h o is in s u c h
g l o r y " (11:9). A g a i n , in c h a p t e r 12, a " w o n d r o u s m a n " sits u p o n a

t h r o n e . W h e n A b r a h a m asks t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e m a n , t h e a n g e l tells
h i m , " S o y o u see, all-pious A b r a h a m , t h e f r i g h t f u l m a n w h o is s e a t e d
o n t h e t h r o n e ? T h i s is t h e son of A d a m , the
first-formed,
w h o is
called A b e l , w h o m C a i n t h e w i c k e d killed" (13:2). 14

T h e L a t i n Life of Adam
and Eve (Vita) e x p a n d s u p o n t h e story of
A d a m a n d Eve a f t e r t h e i r e x p u l s i o n f r o m t h e G a r d e n . It c o m e s in
11
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, 153; cf. J . Fossum, The Name of God,

p. 273. Such an interpretation is not impossible in light of the description of Jacob
as Israel and archangel in Pr. Jos. 7.
12
E. P. Sanders, "Testament of Abraham" in OTP 1:871-902.
15
E. P. Sanders, "Testament of Abraham" in OTP 1:874-875 and HJPAJC
IIIii:764, both note the difficulty of dating the text but see a mid-second-century
date as probable.
14
On the Testament of Abraham, see P. Munoa, Four Powers in Heaven: The Interpretaticm of Daniel 7 in the Testament ofAbraham (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999).
G r e e k a n d L a t i n versions. M . J o h n s o n suggests t h a t t h e text derives

f r o m t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n 100 B C E a n d 2 0 0 C E , w i t h t h e p r o b a b i l ity of a late
first-century
C E date. 1 5 I n c h a p t e r 13, t h e devil e x p l a i n s
w h y h e a n d his c o m p a n i o n s w e r e expelled f r o m h e a v e n .
[1] T h e devil replied, " W h a t are you telling me? It is because of you
that I have been thrown out of there. [2] W h e n you were created, I
was cast out from the presence of G o d a n d was sent out from the fellowship of the angels. [3] W h e n G o d blew into you the breath of life
and your countenance and likeness were m a d e in the image of God,
Michael brought you and m a d e (us) worship you in the sight of God,
and the Lord G o d said, 'Behold Adam! I have m a d e you in our image
and likeness.' "
Fletcher-Louis a n d Gieschen have both strongly asserted that
the
v e n e r a t i o n of A d a m in this text d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e v e n e r a t i o n of a n
a n g e l o m o r p h i c being. 1 6 It is n o t c l e a r f r o m t h e text, h o w e v e r , t h a t
A d a m h a s a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c status. As F l e t c h e r - L o u i s himself p o i n t s
o u t , " T h i s is a m o s t r e m a r k a b l e s t a t e m e n t of t h e p r o p r i e t y of w o r s h i p p i n g A d a m as t h e i m a g e a n d visible likeness of G o d . " 1 7
issue, t h e n , is A d a m ' s i s o m o r p h i c image.
18
The
A d a m is t o b e w o r s h i p p e d
b e c a u s e h e is c r e a t e d in t h e i m a g e of G o d , n o t s i m p l y b e c a u s e h e
is angelic. It is significant t h a t in 13:3 G o d says, " B e h o l d , A d a m ! I
h a v e m a d e y o u in o u r i m a g e a n d likeness." P r e s u m a b l y , t h e
first-
p e r s o n p l u r a l refers t o G o d a n d t h e a n g e l i c host. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e
inclusive a d j e c t i v e m a y simply b e m a i n t a i n i n g t h e p h r a s e o l o g y
of
G e n 1 : 2 6 - 2 7 . A d a m ' s c o u n t e n a n c e a n d likeness a r e in t h e i m a g e of
G o d (13: 3); m o r e o v e r , t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e call to w o r s h i p is A d a m ' s
divine i m a g e . I n 14:2, M i c h a e l calls o u t to t h e devil a n d his c o m p a n i o n s , " W o r s h i p t h e i m a g e of G o d , Y a h w e h . " I n 16:1 the devil
a n d his lot a r e cast o u t f r o m a m o n g t h e o t h e r angels for t h e i r refusal
to w o r s h i p A d a m , b u t t h e i r refusal is n o t b a s e d o n A d a m ' s b e i n g
c r e a t e d in t h e i m a g e of G o d b u t r a t h e r o n his b e i n g c r e a t e d a f t e r
t h e m in t h e c r e a t i o n (14:3). T h e p o t e n t i a l l a t e d a t e a n d lack of
specific a n g e l l a n g u a g e in t h e Vita suggest c a u t i o n in u s i n g it as evid e n c e f o r A d a m ' s a n g e l i c status.
15
M. Johnson, "Life of Adam and Eve" in OTP 2:252.

C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 142; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, 154.
17
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 14-2.
18
The Testament of Adam 3:2 and 4 (largely dismissed by Fletcher-Louis and
Gieschen due to its late date (c. second to fifth century CE), says that Adam will
have his wish fulfilled and be made a "god" after his death.
16
O v e r a l l , t h e r e is e v i d e n c e for t h e angelic n a t u r e of A d a m in lite r a t u r e f r o m this p e r i o d . Interestingly, h o w e v e r , J . L e v i s o n c o n c l u d e d

his s u r v e y of several texts (Wis, Sir, J u b , J o s e p h u s , P h i l o , 4 E z r a ,
a n d 2 Bar.) o n A d a m in early J u d a i s m b y stating, " T h e r e is r e m a r k a b l y little s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e o r i g i n a l n a t u r e of A d a m in
a u t h o r s of early J u d a i s m w h i c h w e e x a m i n e d . ' "
the
This seems correct
for the evidence that he e x a m i n e d , b u t o t h e r evidence, such
as
1 E n o c h , suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a line of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t u n d e r s t o o d t h e first h u m a n s to h a v e h a d a n a n g e l i c n a t u r e , w h i c h w a s

s u b s e q u e n t l y lost in t h e Fall. I n 2 E n o c h A d a m is explicitly called
" a s e c o n d a n g e l , " e v e n if this title is s o m e w h a t difficult to u n d e r s t a n d . It m a y i d e n t i f y A d a m as a p r i n c i p a l a n g e l . It c e r t a i n l y locates
h i m o n e a r t h w i t h t h e p o w e r to look i n t o t h e h e a v e n s a n d see t h e
angels, b u t this status is s u b s e q u e n t l y lost. T h e e v i d e n c e of t h e Vita
h i n t s a t divine status f o r A d a m t h a t is n o t clearly d e f i n e d , b u t t h e
r a t i o n a l e for w o r s h i p of A d a m s e e m s b a s e d o n his b e i n g in t h e i m a g e
of G o d , w h i c h d o e s n o t necessarily relate to his h a v i n g a n a n g e l o morphic nature.
3.2
Seth(el)
T h e f r a g m e n t a r y text n a m e d t h e Apocalypse
of Sethel is p r e s e r v e d in
the C o l o g n e M a n i C o d e x . 2 0 T h e m a n u s c r i p t a p p e a r s to b e f r o m t h e
fifth c e n t u r y C E , c o p i e d f r o m a S y r i a c original. 2 1 C h a r l e s w o r t h d e a l t
w i t h this p a s s a g e in his 1980 article, n o t i n g t h a t "this p a r t i c u l a r a p o c alypse a p p a r e n t l y p r e d a t e s M a n i ( 2 1 5 2 7 5 C E ) a n d in n o w a y s e e m s
to reflect p e c u l i a r M a n i c h e a n ideas; it s e e m s v e r y J e w i s h a n d c o n tains n o d i s c e r n i b l e C h r i s t i a n e l e m e n t s . " 2 2 T h i s a s s e s s m e n t is by n o
m e a n s definitive, b u t it suggests t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n to believe t h a t
the i d e a s c o n t a i n e d t h e r e i n a r e r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h
those
b e i n g e x a m i n e d in this study. A n g e l s a p p e a r in a n u m b e r of places

t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o d e x . 2 3 M o s t of t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s m e n t i o n
angels
19
J. Levinson, Portraits of Adam in Early Judaism (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 1988) 152. See also J. Fossum, The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord, pp.
266-291.
20
R. Cameron and A. Dewey, The Cologne Mani Codex (Missoula, MT: Scholars
Press, 1979) esp. 38-41.
21
R. Cameron and A. Dewey, The Cologne Mani Codex, p. 2.
22
J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels," p. 139.
25
2.10; 3.3; 12.12; 48:19; 49.4, 16; 50.4; 51:5-6; 52.4; 54.3; 56:12; 58.3, 22;
59.4; 60.10.
in a typical m i n i s t e r i n g role. I n c h a p t e r s 5 0 a n d 5 1 , h o w e v e r , w e
find
t h e i n t e r e s t i n g m e n t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a n g e l s a n d
h u m a n s r e g a r d i n g Seth(el), t h e s o n of A d a m (cf. G e n 4:25).

T h e g e n r e of t h e c o d e x is a p o c a l y p t i c , w i t h v a r i o u s visionary m a t e rial a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s r e c o u n t e d . 2 4 C h a p t e r 5 0 . 1 states, " A n d h e
b e c a m e m i g h t i e r t h a n all t h e p o w e r s a n d the a n g e l s of c r e a t i o n . "
T h e r e f e r e n t , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , is n o t c l e a r , b u t it s e e m s to b e A d a m ,
w h o h a s b e e n t h e s u b j e c t of t h e p r e c e d i n g discussion. I n 5 1 . 1 S e t h e l ,
t h e son of A d a m , is said to h a v e " b e c o m e like o n e of t h e g r e a t e s t
a n g e l s " ( ). W i t h this t r a n s f o r m a tion c o m e s a m o v e m e n t f r o m a w o r l d l y e x i s t e n c e t o a n o t h e r w o r l d l y
one: " W h e n
t h a t a n g e l p l a c e d his h a n d
on m y right hand,
he
w r e n c h e d m e f r o m the world f r o m which I was b o r n a n d carried

m e off to a n o t h e r p l a c e e x c e e d i n g l y g r e a t " ( 5 1 . 6 - 1 5 ) . T h e f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e of the text p r e c l u d e s us f r o m d r a w i n g a n y firm c o n c l u sions a b o u t it, b u t if t h e text itself- - o r a t t h e m i n i m u m t h e t r a d i t i o n s
t h e r e i n d a t e s to o u r p e r i o d , t h e n w e h a v e a p i e c e of e v i d e n c e
r e g a r d i n g a h u m a n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n angel a l o n g s i d e a t r a n s portation to a new world. T h i s transformation might profitably be
seen in a t r a j e c t o r y w i t h H e b r e w Bible t r a d i t i o n s like t h e t a k i n g of
E n o c h o r Elijah i n t o h e a v e n w i t h o u t a n a p p a r e n t physical d e a t h .
3.3
Enoch
I n t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , a s i g n i f i c a n t a m o u n t of l i t e r a t u r e
d e v e l o p e d a r o u n d t h e figure of E n o c h , w h o is briefly m e n t i o n e d in
G e n e s i s ( 5 : 1 8 2 5 . ( 2 4 M u c h of t h e l i t e r a t u r e a b o u t E n o c h s t e m s f r o m
the enigmatic phrase, " E n o c h walked with G o d ; a n d he was not,
for G o d t o o k h i m " ( G e n 5:24; cf. Sir 4 4 : 1 6 , 1 Q 2 0 Col. 2, w . 2 0 - 2 1 ) .
T h i s c o u l d h a v e b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d as E n o c h n o t h a v i n g a physical
d e a t h b u t b e i n g t a k e n i n t o h e a v e n m u c h like E l i j a h (2 K g s 2:11). 2 6
24
M. Himmelfarb, "Revelation and Rapture: The Transformation of the Visionary
in the Ascent Apocalypses" in Mysteries and Revelations: Apocalyptic Studies since the
Uppsala Colloquim, ed. J. Coffins and J. Charlesworth, JSPS 9 (Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1991) 79-90.
25
There are no extant fragments of Gen 5:24 from Qumran.
26
Interestingly, however, Gen. Rab. 25.1, and the Tg. Onq. and Tg. Neo. on Gen
5:24 stress that Enoch died. This may be in reaction to those who sought to elevate the status of Enoch. T. Ps.-J says that Enoch was called Metatron (cf. Jub.
10:17; 1 En. 12:3-5, 3 En). See C. Rowland, "Enoch" in DDD, pp. 576-581.
J o s e p h u s , Ant.
1.86 says t h a t t h e y did n o t r e c o r d his d e a t h (cf. Philo,
Mut.
17, Pram.
34, Ahr.
16, QG
1:85-86).
T h e r e s e e m s to b e a line of t r a d i t i o n t h a t u n d e r s t o o d E n o c h as
a n a n g e l o r a n g e l i c b e i n g . T h e e q u a t i o n b e c o m e s m o r e explicit in
later documents. T o begin with the clearest example, 3 E n o c h a
H e k h a l o t t e x t t h a t d a t e s to a m u c h l a t e r p e r i o d ( f i f t h - s i x t h c e n t u r y
C E ) R a b b i I s h m a e l , w h i l e j o u r n e y i n g to t h e h e a v e n s , is told t h a t
the angel M e t a t r o n with w h o m h e speaks is E n o c h (4:3). 27 C . FletcherL o u i s lists a n u m b e r of a n g e l i c qualities a t t r i b u t e d to E n o c h in 3
E n o c h (e.g., g i g a n t i c size, brilliance, etc.) in a n a t t e m p t to s t r e n g t h e n
t h e c o n n e c t i o n . 2 8 O v e r a l l , this p i e c e of e v i d e n c e c a n n o t a d d
to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of late S e c o n d T e m p l e h u m a n - a n g e l
much
relation-
ships d u e t o its late d a t e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is w o r t h w h i l e to m e n t i o n

since it s e e m s t o s h o w t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n of E n o c h ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
i n t o a n a n g e l c o n t i n u e d to d e v e l o p f r o m t r a d i t i o n s t h a t d o d e r i v e
f r o m this p e r i o d .
E n o c h ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n a n g e l is also d e s c r i b e d in 2
En.
22:6-10:
[6b] T h e Lord said, "Let Enoch come up and stand in front of my
face forever!" [7] And the glorious ones did obeisance and said, "Let
him come up!" [8] T h e Lord said to Michael, " T a k e Enoch, and
extract (him) from the earthly clothing. And anoint him with delightful oil, and put (him) into the clothes of glory." . . . [10] And I gazed
at all of myself, and I had become like one of the glorious ones, and
there was no observable difference. 29
T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n u n d e r g o n e b y E n o c h is striking. I n
particular,
his " e a r t h l y c l o t h i n g " a n d b e i n g p l a c e d in " c l o t h e s of g l o r y " suggest

a permanent transformation.
E n o c h ' s a s c e n t to h e a v e n is first m e n t i o n e d in 1 En
12:1:2
the children of the people knew by what he was hidden and where
he was. [2] And his dwelling place as well as his activities were with
the Watchers and holy ones; and (so were) his days. 30
27
On the dating of 3 En., see P. Alexander, "The Historical Setting of the

Hebrew Book of Enoch" JJS 28 (1977) 156-167.
28
29
Translation F. Andenen, OTP 1:138-139.
30
Translation E. Isaac, OTP 1:19.
T h i s description of E n o c h as living with the angels seems to h a v e

its basis in G e n 5:24. It m a k e s clear t h a t he dwells a m o n g divine
beings. In Jub. 4 : 2 1 2 3 , w h i c h m a y have used 1 E n o c h , we r e a d t h a t
after E n o c h sired M e t h u s a l e h , " h e was t h e r e f o r e with angels of G o d
six jubilees of y e a r s " (294 years). T h e n h e b o r e witness against the
W a t c h e r s a n d was ultimately "taken f r o m a m o n g the children of m e n . "
I n a s e p a r a t e section of 1 En. 3 6 - 7 1 (the Similitudes), we r e a d ,
"I [Enoch] fell o n m y face, m y w h o l e b o d y mollified a n d m y spirit
t r a n s f o r m e d " (71:11). I n the s u b s e q u e n t verses, E n o c h is seemingly
identified with the " o n e like a son of m a n " ( 7 1 : 1 4 - 1 7 ) , w h o is a
divine being. It is n o t explicitly clear t h a t h e is a n angel, b u t such
a n identification c a n b e justified.
P e r h a p s m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r individual, t h e r e seems to h a v e b e e n
a n o n g o i n g line of t h o u g h t t h a t identified E n o c h with a n angel. T h i s
identification b e c o m e s m u c h m o r e explicit in later texts; for instance,
in 3 E n o c h , E n o c h is the angel M e t a t r o n , w h e r e a s in 1 E n o c h the
identification with an angel is m o r e of a c i r c u m l o c u t i o n : E n o c h =
" o n e like a son of m a n " = a n angel, so E n o c h = angel.
3.4
Noah
T h e p a t r i a r c h N o a h (Gen 5 : 2 9 9 : 2 8 ) w a s k n o w n for his

righteousness a n d was said to h a v e "walked with G o d " ( G e n 6:9). N o a h a n d
his family w e r e the only h u m a n beings to escape the destruction of
the flood t h a t was b r o u g h t a b o u t by h u m a n k i n d ' s wickedness ( G e n
6:5-8). T h e e n d i n g to 1 E n o c h c o n t a i n s a n interesting tradition c o n c e r n i n g the birth of the p a t r i a r c h , N o a h . As m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , all
sections of 1 E n o c h , save the Similitudes, are attested in f r a g m e n tan f o r m in the Q u m r a n A r a m a i c fragments; thus we can be confident
in d a t i n g this m a t e r i a l within the b o u n d s of this study. 1 En. 1 0 6 : 1 6
says of the n e w b o r n N o a h :
[1] And after some days my son, Methuselah, took a wife for his son
Lamech, and she became pregnant by him and bore him a son. [2]
And his body was white as snow and red as a rose; the hair of his
head as white as wool and his demdema beautiful; and as for his eyes,
when he opened them the whole house glowed like the sun - -(rather)
the whole house glowed even more exceedingly. [3] And when he
arose from the hands of the midwife, he opened his mouth and spoke
to the Lord with righteousness. [4] And his father, Lamech, was afraid
of him and fled and went to Methuselah his father, [5] and said to
him, "I have begotten a strange son: H e is not like an (ordinary)

h u m a n being, but he looks like the children of the angels of heaven
to me; his form is different, and he is not like us. His eyes are like
the rays of the sun, and his face glorious. [6] It does not seem to me
that he is of me, but of angels; and I fear that a wondrous phenomenon may take place upon the earth in his days." 31
N o a h is twice d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g a n a p p e a r a n c e like a n
"angel"
( w . 5 a n d 6). A n u m b e r of o t h e r f a c t o r s suggest t h a t h e is s u p e r human.
His eyes " g l o w like t h e s u n , " a n d his f a c e is " g l o r i o u s . "
S o m e s c h o l a r s h a v e b e e n q u i c k to dismiss this p a s s a g e as p r o v i d i n g
n o e v i d e n c e f o r N o a h ' s a n g e l o m o r p h i c n a t u r e , since it o n l y c o n t a i n s
i m a g e r y a n d n o c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t N o a h w a s angelic. 3 2 M o r e o v e r ,
despite N o a h ' s a p p e a r a n c e , h e is n o t t h e p r o d u c t of h u m a n - a n g e l
i n t e r c o u r s e (v. I). 33 H o w e v e r , it is significant t h a t t h e i m a g e r y h e r e
is t w i c e i n t e r p r e t e d as b e i n g a n g e l i c in t h e text of t h e p a s s a g e itself
( w . 5 a n d 6). T h u s , it c a n b e said t h a t in this case, at his birth N o a h
w a s angelamorphic in t h a t h e a p p e a r s as a n a n g e l . H o w e v e r , it is n o t
c l e a r to w h a t e x t e n t this i m a g e r y is m e a n t t o b e t a k e n literally o r
to w h a t e x t e n t N o a h w a s a n g e l o m o r p h i c t h r o u g h o u t his e n t i r e life.
Interestingly, the tradition a b o u t N o a h ' s w o n d r o u s n a t u r e at birth
also s e e m s t o b e r e f l e c t e d in t h e Gen. Apoc.
( 1 Q 2 0 ) col. 2 f r o m
Q u m r a n , w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r twist.
[1] Behold, I thought then within my heart that conception was (due)
to the Watchers [ ]a n d the Holy O n e s . . . and to the Giants
[]
[2] a n d my heart was troubled within m e because of this child.
[3] T h e n I, Lamech, approached Bathenosh [my] wife in haste and
said to her,
[4] [. . . ] by the Most High, the Great Lord, the King of all the universe and Ruler of
[5] [ . . .]the Sons of Heaven [], until you tell me all things
truthfully . . .
[6] You will and without lies let me know whether this
51
Translation E. Issac, OTP 1:86. See also the fragment in J. Milik, The Books
of Enoch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976) 206-207.
32
D. Hannah, Review of C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology in JTS 51(2000)
235-236.
83
G. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 2001) 543, writes, "For
the characters in the story, Noah's appearance is prima facie evidence of supernatural conception. His father was apparently an angel, at a time when angels were
fathering children from human mothers. But, as the reader knows from the beginning, and Lamech and Methusaleh will discover, the appearance is deceiving."
[7] by the King of the all the universe that you are speaking to me
frankly a n d without lies
[8] T h e n Batenosh, my bride, spoke to me very harshly, she wept
[9] saying. " O h my brother, my Lord, remember my pleasure!
[10] [. ..] the time of love, the gasping of my breath in my breast. I
[. . . ] will tell you everything accurately
[11] [ . . . ] a n d then within m e my heart was very upset
[12] W h e n Batenosh, my wife, realized that my countenance h a d
altered
[13] t h e n she supressed her anger, speaking to m e a n d saying to me,
" O my lord
[14] my pleasure. I swear to you by the Holy Great One, the K i n g
of [the heavens] . . .
[15] that this seed is yours and that [this] conception is from you.
This fruit was planted by you . . .
[16] a n d by n o s t r a n g e r or W a t c h e r [ ]or S o n of H e a v e n
[ ] . . .
[17] [Why] is your countenance thus changed a n d dismayed, a n d why
is your spirit thus distressed . . .
[18] I speak to you truthfully."
In this text, L a m e c h , t h e f a t h e r of N o a h , r e c o g n i z e s t h a t s o m e t h i n g
is d i f f e r e n t a b o u t his son. H e is t r o u b l e d b e c a u s e h e believes t h a t
his wife h a s b e c o m e i m p r e g n a t e d b y t h e W a t c h e r s . 3 4 T h o u g h
Noah
is n o t explicitly called a n a n g e l in this text, L a m e c h is c o n c e r n e d

t h a t h e w a s sired by a W a t c h e r o r S o n of H e a v e n . 3 5 T h i s p a s s a g e
m a y l e n d s o m e s u p p o r t to t h e belief t h a t a t r a d i t i o n existed c o n c e r n i n g N o a h h a v i n g a n a n g e l i c n a t u r e a t his b i r t h . C i t i n g n o t o n l y
1 Q a p G e n a n d 1 En 106, b u t also a p p e a l i n g to e v i d e n c e f r o m P s e u d o E u p o l e m u s a n d r e l a t i n g it all to e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e Gilgamesh n a r r a tive, J . R e e v e s h a s asserted t h a t "it is c l e a r f r o m several e x t r a b i b l i c a l
s o u r c e s t h a t t h e r e existed a t r a d i t i o n w h i c h alleged t h e F l o o d - h e r o
w a s a ' G i a n t ' . " 3 6 R . H u g g i n s h a s r e s p o n d e d to Reeves. 3 7
Huggins
c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e c a s e f o r N o a h ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as a n a n g e l a t b i r t h
h a s m o r e t o d o w i t h his special role in t h e F l o o d n a r r a t i v e a n d his
r i g h t e o u s n e s s t h a n his b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d a g i a n t . T h u s , t h e Gen. Apoc.
34
Texts concerning the Watchers are examined in chapter 6.

4Q534 also makes reference to the Watchers, and it seems from some details
of a physical description (e.g., red hair) that it may be the same type of discussion
about Noah's bloodne as in the Gen. Apoc., but the text is too fragmentary to draw
any information.
36
J. Reeves, "Utnapishtirn in the Book of Giants?" JBL 112 (1993) 110.
37
R. Huggins, "Critical Notes: Noah and the Giants: A Response to John C.
Reeves" JBL 114 (1995) 103-110.
35
a n d 1 E n o c h c a n n o t b e s h o w n to d e m o n s t r a t e a n y belief in N o a h ' s
b e i n g of a n g e l i c origin. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n g o e s a g a i n s t t h e exegesis of
Fletcher-Louis, h o w e v e r . 3 8 By c o n n e c t i n g N o a h ' s a n g e l o m o r p h i c / t h e o m o r p h i c characteristics with a priestly motif, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s sees N o a h
as a s t r o n g e x a m p l e of a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n . 3 9 W i t h o u t s u c h a
c o n n e c t i o n , h o w e v e r , t h e e v i d e n c e f o r N o a h ' s status is m o r e a m b i g u ous. A t r a d i t i o n seems to h a v e existed t h a t N o a h was n o t a b l y different
a t b i r t h . T h e i m a g e r y in t h e stories suggests t h a t N o a h ' s a p p e a r a n c e
w a s a n g e l o m o r p h i c , b u t it is n o t c l e a r h o w this c a r r i e d t h r o u g h his
life o r w h e t h e r it w a s simply m e a n t to d e n o t e his b e i n g a p a r t i c u larly
righteous
human.
3.5
Melchizedek
Melchizedek, another enigmatic figure f r o m the H e b r e w Scriptures,

a p p e a r s in G e n 14:18 as a priest-king to w h o m A b r a h a m pays h o m a g e
a n d gives tithe. I n Ps 110:4 his n a m e o c c u r s as t h e a r c h e t y p e f o r
a n e t e r n a l p r i e s t h o o d ( ) . T h e Epistle to t h e
H e b r e w s clearly s h o w s i n t e r e s t in his (eternal) priestly n a t u r e
Ps 1 1 0 : 4 ( H e b 5 7 ) . So, a g a i n , w e h a v e a n e n i g m a t i c
via
individual
f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible a b o u t w h o s e status it s e e m s t h e r e w a s s o m e
speculation.
T h e m a i n text t h a t p e r h a p s d e m o n s t r a t e s M e l c h i z e d e k ' s
angelic
nature comes f r o m Q u m r a n (11Q14).40 T h e thirteen fragments date

to a r o u n d t h e first c e n t u r y B C E . 4 1 M e l c h i z e d e k fills t h e role of t h e
final j u d g e a k i n to t h e c o u r t s c e n e of Ps 8 2 , w h i c h is q u o t e d
in
11Q14. T h e genre has been debated, but most scholars seem
to
t h i n k it is a t y p e of p e s h e r o n Lev.
38
42
It states:
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical Anthropology in the Dead Sea
Scrolls (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002) 33-55.
39
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, p. 53.
40
See Y. Yadin, "A Note on Melchizedek and Qumran" LEJ 15 (1965) 152-154;
j . Fitzmyer, "Further Light on Melchizedek from Qumran Cave 11 " JBL 86 (1967)
25-41; M. Delcor, "Melchizedek from Genesis to the Qumran Texts and the Epistle
to the Hebrews" JSJ 2 (1971) 115-135; M. De Jonge and A. S. Van der Woude.
" 11 QMelchizedek and the New Testament" NTS 12 (1972) 301-326. F. L. Horton,
The Melchizedek Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); P. Kobelski,
Melchizedek and Melchirea (Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association, 1981);
J. Davila, "Michael, Melchizedek, and Holy War" SBLSP (1998) 259-272. See also
DDD 1047-1053.
41
HJPAJC 1111:449.
42
HJPAJC IIIi:449; A. Aschim, "The Genre of llQMelch" in Qumran between the
Old Testament and the New Testaments (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998) 17-31.
[7] A n d the day of atonement is the end of the tenth jubilee [8] in
which atonement will be m a d e for all the sons of G o d and for the
men of the lot of Melchizedek. And on the heights he will declare in
their favor according to their lots; [9] for it is the time of the "year
of grace" for Melchizedek, to exalt in the trial of the holy ones of
G o d through the rule of judgment, as it is written [10] about him in
the songs of David, who said, "Elohim will stand up in the assembly
of G o d [], in the midst of the elohim he judges" [cf. Ps 82:1]. A n d
about him he said: "Above it return [11] to the heights, G o d (el) will
judge the p e o p l e s . . . . [13] And Melchizedek will carry out the vengeance
of God's [ ]judgments [on this day, and they shall be freed from
the hands] of Belial and from the hands of all the sp[irits of his lot]
[14] T o his aid (shall come) all the gods of [justice]
A l t h o u g h this p a s s a g e is o f t e n c i t e d as d e m o n s t r a t i n g M e l c h i z e d e k ' s
angelic n a t u r e , t h e t e r m f o r a n g e l ( ) d o e s n o t a p p e a r .
Elohim
( ) is s o m e t i m e s u s e d f o r G o d (sg.) a n d o t h e r t i m e s f o r divine
b e i n g s (pl.). M e l c h i z e d e k s e e m s to s h a r e t h e status of e l o h i m .
He
acts b o t h as j u d g e a n d as e x e c u t o r of p u n i s h m e n t (cf. JVHC I X , 1).

A n angelic identification for M e l c h i z e d e k h a s also b e e n suggested by
t h e likelihood t h a t w i t h i n t h e Q r i m r a n l i t e r a t u r e , M e l c h i z e d e k = t h e
P r i n c e of Lights ( 1 Q S 3:20; C D 5:18; 1 Q M 13:10) = the angel M i c h a e l
( 1 Q M 1 7 : 6 7 ) b y v i r t u e of t h e i r c a r r y i n g o u t t h e s a m e f u n c t i o n . 4 3
N e i t h e r of t h e s e p o i n t s explicitly calls M e l c h i z e d e k a n a n g e l , h o w ever. N o r , e x c e p t b y i n f e r e n c e f r o m t h e role of M e l c h i z e d e k as eschatological j u d g e , is h e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . H e c e r t a i n l y , h o w e v e r , s e e m s
to h a v e a n e x a l t e d status.
O n t h e strength of s o m e i m a g e r y in 2 En. 6 9 7 3 , C . G i e s c h e n n o t e s
t h a t M e l c h i z e d e k c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 4 4 Interestingly,
in 2 E n o c h M e l c h i z e d e k ' s m o t h e r , S o p a n i m , is said to h a v e c o n c e i v e d
w i t h o u t h a v i n g r e l a t i o n s w i t h h e r h u s b a n d , N i r (71:2). H i s m o t h e r
is e x t r e m e l y old a n d dies in c h i l d b i r t h , so M e l c h i z e d e k delivers h i m self (71:17) as a d e v e l o p e d child, a g e d t h r e e (71:18). As h e is b o r n ,
" t h e b a d g e of p r i e s t h o o d w a s o n his chest, a n d it w a s g l o r i o u s in
a p p e a r a n c e " (71:19). T h i s s e e m s a n a l o g o u s to t h e n e w b o r n a n g e l o m o r p h i c i m a g e of N o a h (see a b o v e 3.4). N o e q u a t i o n is m a d e in 2
E n o c h b e t w e e n his l u m i n o u s a p p e a r a n c e a n d a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c status.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e w e i g h t of this e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t s e e m to suggest
t h a t M e l c h i z e d e k w a s u n d e r s t o o d specifically as a n angel. T h e a u t h o r
43
HJPAJC 1111:450; J. Davila, "Melchizedek, Michael, and War in Heaven" in
SBLSP (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1996) 259-272.
44
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christologr, pp. 172-173.
of t h e Epistle to t h e H e b r e w s w a s c e r t a i n l y i n t e r e s t e d in his b e i n g
p a r t of a n e t e r n a l o r d e r of priests (Ps 110). T h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s
suggest a n e l e v a t e d status f o r h i m . H e m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a n g e l i c if
w e e q u a t e t h e roles of M i c h a e l a n d M e l c h i z e d e k , b u t this m e a n s
s y n t h e s i z i n g t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e . T h e i m a g e r y f r o m 2 E n o c h suggests t h a t there w a s wider speculation a b o u t the origins of Melchizedek.
A g a i n , this interest m a y s t e m f r o m his b e i n g p a r t of a n e t e r n a l o r d e r
of priests. U l t i m a t e l y , t h e e v i d e n c e a b o u t M e l c h i z e d e k is u n c l e a r . It
d o e s n o t explicitly r e f e r to h i m as a n a n g e l , b u t h e d o e s s e e m t o
e n j o y a special status t h a t suggests h e m i g h t h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d
in s o m e w a y angelic.
3.6
Jacob/Israel
T h r o u g h o u t t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e , J a c o b e n j o y s a special r e l a t i o n ship w i t h t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d . G o d s p e a k s to h i m directly t h r o u g h o u t his life (especially in c h a p s . 28, 31, a n d 35). I n G e n 28, J a c o b
h a s a d r e a m vision of a p l a c e w h e r e h e a v e n a n d e a r t h m e e t
and
the m e a n s b y w h i c h a n g e l s a s c e n d t o h e a v e n a n d d e s c e n d t o e a r t h .
J a c o b a g a i n sees a n g e l s in G e n 3 2 : 1 2 . T h e r e is s t r o n g e v i d e n c e t h a t
J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t w a s widely u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l ( G e n 32) in t h e
late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . 4 5 W h a t is e x a m i n e d h e r e is t h e e v i d e n c e
t h a t J a c o b himself w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a n g e l .
I n his Confusion of Tongues 146, P h i l o writes:
But if there be any as yet unworthy to be called a Son of God, let
him press to take his place under God's First-born, his W o r d the eldest
of the angels, an archangel. H e possesses m a n y names; for he is called,
the Beginning, and the N a m e of God, and Logos, and the M a n after
his image, a n d "he that sees," that is Israel.
I n this brief passage, Philo discusses t h e a t t r i b u t e s of t h e divine Logos.
T h e L o g o s is said to b e G o d ' s w o r d a n d t h e l e a d e r of t h e angels. A
n u m b e r of n a m e s a r e also given to t h e L o g o s : t h e N a m e (cf. E x o d u s
23:20f.), the L o g o s (cf. J o h n l:lf.), the " m a n " after his i m a g e (cf. Ezekiel
1:26), a n d i m p o r t a n t l y for o u r discussion, " h e t h a t sees" = " I s r a e l . "
T h e e x a c t m e a n i n g of t h e n a m e Israel is u n c e r t a i n , t h o u g h " h e t h a t
45
See section 2.1(b) above.
sees" s e e m s to resolve t h e H e b r e w i n t o t h r e e p a r t s , as 46.

P h i l o says e l s e w h e r e t h a t Israel m e a n s " h e t h a t sees (God)." 4 7
I n t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t of a discussion r e g a r d i n g m a t u r i t y a n d t h e
significance of t h e n u m b e r seventy in Aligration 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 , P h i l o m a k e s
a p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e t o J a c o b a n d his n a m e . 4 8 H e says t h a t J a c o b is
t h e n a m e of o n e wrestling (). T h e G r e e k w o r d h e r e is t h e
s a m e r o o t as t h e L X X w o r d f o r J a c o b wrestling w i t h t h e m a n in
G e n 3 2 : 2 5 (). P h i l o also m e n t i o n s t h a t J a c o b ' s n a m e refers to
o n e " c o v e r e d w i t h d u s t " (). 4 9 A t h i r d u n d e r s t a n d i n g is of
o n e " g r a b b i n g at t h e h e e l " (). 5 0 T h e s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of
J a c o b ' s n a m e a r e d e e p l y r o o t e d in t h e G e n 32 struggle. P h i l o t h e n
says t h a t w h e n J a c o b w a s " d e e m e d c a p a b l e of seeing G o d , " his n a m e
w a s c h a n g e d to Israel ( G e n 32:29). 5 1 It is c l e a r t h a t for P h i l o , J a c o b ' s
n a m e w a s c h a n g e d b e c a u s e h e w a s d e e m e d c a p a b l e of s e e i n g G o d
t h r o u g h his struggle a t t h e J a b b o k f o r d . T h e L o g o s possesses t h e
n a m e Israel, w h i c h P h i l o says m e a n s " h e t h a t sees." A d m i t t e d l y t h e
c o n n e c t i o n of these t w o p a s s a g e s is s o m e w h a t artificial, b u t if t h e r e
is a c o n n e c t i o n via t h e n a m e Israel, t h e n P h i l o m a y h a v e
under-
s t o o d t h e r e to b e a n e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e L o g o s , a n a r c h a n g e l also
n a m e d Israel, a n d t h e p o s t - P e n i e l J a c o b , w h o s e n a m e w a s c h a n g e d
to Israel. If this is a c o r r e c t r e a d i n g , t h e n w e c o u l d
understand
J a c o b ' s n a m e c h a n g e as a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e event, w h i c h actually b r o u g h t

a b o u t a n o n t o l o g i c a l c h a n g e . H o w e v e r , P h i l o himself d o e s n o t m a k e
this m o v e , so it m u s t r e m a i n a t best s p e c u l a t i o n .
J . Z . S m i t h h a s n o t e d t h a t P h i l o a n d t h e Prayer of Joseph (.Pr. Jos.)
46
From G. Vermes, "The Archangel Sariel" in Christianity, Judaism, and Other
Graeco-Roman Cults, ed. J. Neusner (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1975) 3:164-165 n. 25.
47
J. Smith notes that Philo uses this phrase 49 times. See OTP 2:701 n. 20 for
the list.
48
Greek text taken from F. Colson, Philo IV (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1958); translation is mine.
49
This suggests Philo may be aware that the Hebrew root for wrestle ( )is
related to "dust"; BDB, 7b. Note that Colson translates as "preparing
for the arena," which is correct but does not capture the nuance from the Hebrew.
50
Colson translates this as "tripping up his adversary," which is also appropriate for Jacob as a trickster but may again miss a nuance of which Philo may have
been well aware, i.e., Jacob's grabbing Esau's heel at their birth in Gen 25:26. For
Philo's other applications of to Jacob, see Leg. i. 161, ii.89, iii.15, 93;
Sacrif. 42.135; SOmn. i. 171; Mutat. 81; Her. 252.
51
Jacob's name change is recorded a second time in Gen 35, but it is unlikely
that Philo is referring to this passage, since no rationale for the change is provided
there. Only in Gen 32 is it stated that Jacob "strove with God and prevailed."
a r e a m o n g t h e only a n c i e n t sources to r e f e r to Israel as " o n e seeing

G o d . " 5 2 S m i t h h a s m a d e a s t r o n g case for first- o r s e c o n d - c e n t u r y
G E J e w i s h p r o v e n a n c e of t h e d o c u m e n t b a s e d o n discussion of t h e
titles a t t r i b u t e d to J a c o b . C e r t a i n l y Pr. Jos. is n o t l a t e r t h a n O r i g e n ' s
c o m m e n t a r y c. 2 3 0 C E , in w h i c h it a p p e a r s . If t h e d a t i n g is c o r rect, this is p e r h a p s o n e of t h e clearest pieces of e v i d e n c e t h a t a
h u m a n h a d a t t a i n e d a n g e l i c status. T h e " p r a y e r " states:
[ 1] I, J a c o b , who am speaking to you, a m also Israel, an angel of G o d
and a ruling spirit. [2] A b r a h a m and Isaac were created before any
work. [3] But, I, J a c o b , who men call J a c o b but whose n a m e is Israel
am he who G o d called Israel which means, a m a n seeing God, because
I am the firstborn of eveiy living thing to w h o m G o d gives life. [4]
A n d when I was coming up from Syrian Mesopotamia, Uriel, the angel
of God, came forth a n d said that "I | Jacob-Israel] h a d descended to
earth and I had tabernacled a m o n g m e n and that I had been called
by the n a m e of J a c o b . " [5] H e envied m e and fought m e a n d wrestied with m e saying that his name a n d the name that is before every
angel was to be above mine. [6] I told him his n a m e and what rank
he held a m o n g the sons of God. [7] "Are you not Uriel, eighth after
me? and I, Israel, the archangel of the power of the Lord a n d the
chief captain a m o n g the sons of God?" [8] .Am I not Israel, the first
minister before the face of God? [9] And I called upon my G o d by
the inextinguishable Name. 5 3
Jacob/Israel
states t h a t w h e n h e was c o m i n g u p f r o m
M e s o p o t a m i a , the angel Uriel met him.
54
Syrian-
Notably, the geographical
r e f e r e n c e s e e m s to suggest t h e J a b b o k event. 5 5 Uriel, 5 6 t h e s p e a k e r

claims, e n v i e d J a c o b a n d wrestled w i t h h i m . J a c o b sets t h e r e c o r d
s t r a i g h t a n d tells U r i e l (an a r c h a n g e l ) his r a n k in t h e celestial h i e r archy: eighth after J a c o b
= Israel, himself an angel. T h e
short
" p r a y e r " of J a c o b m a k e s g r a n d claims. N o t only is t h e s p e a k e r a l r e a d y

t h e p a t r i a r c h J a c o b , b u t h e is Israel, a n a n g e l of G o d (cf. P h i l o , Conf.
146). T h e s p e a k e r c l a i m s t h a t his o w n f o r e f a t h e r s , A b r a h a m
Isaac, w e r e c r e a t e d b e f o r e all w o r k s b u t t h a t h e himself is the
and
firstborn
52
J . Z. Smith, "The Prayer of Joseph" in Religions in Antiquity: Essays in Memory
of Erwin Randall Goodenough, ed. Jacob Neusner (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1968) 253-294;
reprint in J . Z. Smith, Map Is Not Territory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1978), 24-66; and 07"? 2:699-714.
53
Translation J. Z. Smith in OTP 2:713.
54
Cf. Tg. Neo., on Gen 32, where the opponent is the angel Sariel.
55
Syrian Mesopotamia is the common LXX rendering of Paddan-Aram; J. Smith,
OTP 2:713 n. h.
56
Uriel, an archangel, appears in Grk 1 En. 20:2; 4 Ezra 4:1, 10:28; Bar. 4:7,
et al.
of all living t h i n g s (Philo, Conf. 146; C o l 1:15; J u s t i n M a r t y r ,

125.5; Nag Hammadi
Codex NHC
Dial.
II, 105). S m i t h h a s exhaustively n o t e d
t h e n u m e r o u s parallels b e t w e e n t h e titles of J a c o b in Pr. Jos.
and
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e L o g o s in P h i l o ' s Conf.57
O n e title in p a r t i c u l a r , " a m a n s e e i n g G o d , " is interesting, since
it offers p e r h a p s t h e c l e a r e s t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n G e n 32 a n d
Pr. Jos. O n e result of t h e wrestling m a t c h in G e n 32 is t h e n a m i n g
of t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e e v e n t o c c u r r e d . J a c o b calls t h e p l a c e P e n i e l
( literally " t h e f a c e of G o d " ) , b e c a u s e " I [ J a c o b ] h a v e s e e n G o d
face t o face, a n d yet m y life is p r e s e r v e d " (v. 30). T h e r e is d a n g e r
i n v o l v e d in s e e i n g G o d (e.g., J u d g 6 : 2 2 1 3 : 2 2;23).It is possible, as
in P h i l o , t h a t " t h e m a n seeing G o d " u n d e r s t a n d i n g of Israel is b a s e d
o n a p a r t i c u l a r r e a d i n g of t h e H e b r e w , b u t it is c e r t a i n l y m u c h m o r e
plausible t o see it as a d e v e l o p m e n t o u t of t h e G e n 32 story. J a c o b ,
o n c e h e possesses t h e n a m e Israel, a p p e a r s to b e u n d e r s t o o d as o n e
w h o saw G o d . W i t h i n Pr. Jos.,
h o w e v e r , J a c o b / I s r a e l clearly w r e s -
ties w i t h U r i e l , so it s e e m s c o u n t e r i n t u i t i v e to suggest t h a t this s t r u g gle w a s t h e origin of his n a m e c h a n g e t o o n e h a v i n g " s e e n
God."
In this case, J a c o b / I s r a e l is m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n a h u m a n w h o wrestled

w i t h a n a n g e l a n d received a n e w n a m e h e is a n a n g e l , w h o f o r
a t i m e w a s i n c a r n a t e in t h e p a t r i a r c h J a c o b . As n o t e d a b o v e , J a c o b
h a s a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d a n d angels ( G e n 28, 32, 35). 5 8
J a c o b lasdy c l a i m s to b e " t h e first m i n i s t e r b e f o r e t h e f a c e of
G o d . " T h i s is similar to w h a t w e
find
in Tg. Onq. a n d
Tg.
Neo.,
w h e r e t h e angels a r e said to b e " b e f o r e t h e f a c e of G o d . " T h i s o n c e

a g a i n suggests t h a t J a c o b / I s r a e l h a s s e e n G o d , since h e
ministers
b e f o r e his c o u n t e n a n c e .
Pr. Jos. takes i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e J a b b o k e v e n t t o a n o t h e r level.
N o t o n l y is t h e o p p o n e n t of J a c o b a n a m e d a n g e l , U r i e l , b u t J a c o b
himself is a n a n g e l , Israel, w h o r a n k s a b o v e all o t h e r angels. I n its
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of J a c o b ' s o p p o n e n t as a n a n g e l , Pr. Jos.
s e e m s to
accord with the trends that were circulating during the same period
(cf. J o s e p h u s , Ant.
1:33If.; Lad. Jac. 4 : 1 - 4 ; T a r g u m i m ) . I n its explicit
c l a i m s f o r J a c o b ' s o w n a n g e l i c status, it s t a n d s as n e a r l y
unique
a m o n g the extant evidence.
57
J. Smith, Prayer, pp. 260-272.

The tradition of Jacob as the one seeing God is illuminated by considering
the midrash on Genesis, which says that Jacob's face is engraved upon the throne
of God (Gen. Rab. 68:12, 78:3, and 82:2). So, like Ezekiel, Jacob was/is present in
the divine throne rooma special relationship with the Godhead.
58
Lastly, t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t o c o n s i d e r f r o m Joseph
and Aseneth.59
JA
2 2 : 7 - 8 states:
[7] And Aseneth saw him [Jacob] and was amazed at his beauty,
because J a c o b was exceedingly beautiful to look at, and his old age
(was) like the youth of a handsome (young) man, and his head was
all white as snow, a n d the hairs of his head were all exceedingly close
and thick like (those) of an Ethiopian, and his b e a r d (was) white reaching down to his breast, a n d his eyes (were) flashing and darting (flashes
of) lightning, a n d his sinews and his shoulders and his arms were like
(those) of an angel, and his thighs and his calves and his feet like
(those) of a giant. And J a c o b was like a m a n who h a d wrestled with
God. [8] And Aseneth saw him and was amazed, a n d prostrated herself before him face down to the ground. 6 0
T h r e e f e a t u r e s of this passage a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e w o r t h y w i t h r e g a r d
to a n g e l i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . T h e first is t h e m e n t i o n of J a c o b ' s p h y s ical f e a t u r e s : b e a u t y (cf. JA
15:9), y o u t h ( M a r k 16:5; 4 Ezra
2:43f.;
2 Mac. 3:26f.), w h i t e h a i r a n d flashing eyes (cf. D a n 10:6, M a t t 28:3,

L k 9:29), a n g e l i c u p p e r b o d y , a n d g i g a n t i c l o w e r b o d y (cf. G e n 6).
All of t h e s e f e a t u r e s a r e e l s e w h e r e a t t r i b u t e d to d i v i n e beings. 6 1 T h i s
suggests t h a t J a c o b possesses a s u p e r h u m a n n a t u r e akin to t h a t of
a n angel.
T h e s e c o n d f e a t u r e is t h e m e n t i o n t h a t J a c o b w a s "like a
man
w h o h a d w r e s t l e d w i t h G o d . " T h e origins of s u c h a s t a t e m e n t a r e
G e n 32 a n d H o s 12, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e author(s) of
understood
t h e J a b b o k assailant t o b e G o d . T h e d e s c r i p t i o n of J a c o b , "like a
m a n w h o w r e s t l e d w i t h G o d , " follows directly a f t e r t h e m e n t i o n of
his n u m e r o u s p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s . O n e c a n i n f e r t h a t p e r h a p s
such
physical a t t r i b u t e s a r e a c o n s e q u e n c e of J a c o b ' s w r e s t l i n g w i t h G o d .
O n e a d d i t i o n a l n o t e is t h e r e a c t i o n of A s e n e t h u p o n s e e i n g J a c o b .
S h e w a s a m a z e d a n d fell to t h e g r o u n d b e f o r e h i m . As n o t e d a b o v e ,
a m a z e m e n t / f e a r a n d p r o s t r a t i o n a r e c o m m o n r e a c t i o n s to angelic o r
d i v i n e visitations, r e i n f o r c i n g t h e i d e a of a n angelic n a t u r e f o r J a c o b
in
JA.
All of this e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t s a c o h e r e n t p i c t u r e : J a c o b , w h o w r e s -
tied w i t h G o d , h a s a u n i q u e c o m b i n a t i o n of h u m a n ,
59
superhuman,
There is good reason to date this text in the late Second Temple period,
although there are scholars who see it as much later (e.g., Kraemer). See the fuller
discussion above in 2.10.
60
Translation C. Burchard, OTP 2:238.
61
Cf. also Dan 7, Ezek 1.
and angelic features. W h e n Aseneth saw him, she understood
him
to b e s o m e sort of divine b e i n g . I n this c a s e w e h a v e a text t h a t

i n t e r p r e t s t h e G e n e s i s e v e n t as J a c o b w r e s t l i n g w i t h G o d ; t h e o u t c o m e is a t r a n s m o g r i f i e d J a c o b w h o possesses h u m a n a n d
angelic
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h i s is n o t f a r f r o m t h e type of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w e see
in Pr. Jos.
3.7
Moses
A r g u a b l y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t individual in the H e b r e w Bible is Moses.

F r o m b i r t h h e is p r o t e c t e d b y G o d ( E x o d 1). H e is c h o s e n b y G o d to
lead the people of Israel out of b o n d a g e in Egypt (Exod 3). T h r o u g h o u t
his life, M o s e s e n j o y s a close r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d , p a r t i c u l a r l y at
Sinai a n d t h e giving of t h e L a w ( E x o d 1 8 2 0 ) . T h e r e w a s a g r e a t
d e a l of discussion a b o u t M o s e s as p r o p h e t a n d his close association
w i t h t h e L a w in s u b s e q u e n t a n c i e n t literature. W . M e e k s says, " M o s e s
w a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t figure in all Hellenistic J e w i s h a p o l o g e t i c . " 6 2
S o m e a n c i e n t w r i t i n g s b o r d e r o n t h e d i v i n i z a d o n of M o s e s . T h e i r
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s g e n e r a l l y d e r i v e f r o m E x o d 3 4 : 2 9 - 3 0 , w h i c h says,
[29] W h e n Moses came down from M o u n t Sinai, with the two tables
of the testimony in his h a n d as he came down from the mountain,
Moses did not know that the skin of his face shone because he h a d
been talking with God. [30] A n d when Aaron and all the people of
Israel saw Moses, behold, the skin of his face shone, and they were
afraid to come near him.
M o s e s is actually t r a n s f o r m e d b y s e e i n g G o d . B e c a u s e of t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n the Israelites w e r e a f r a i d t o b e n e a r h i m , so t h a t M o s e s
h a d to p u t a veil o n his f a c e to s p e a k w i t h t h e m (34:33, 35). A brilliant a p p e a r a n c e is o n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o m e t i m e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n
angel. T h e f e a r of the Israelites m a y also s t e m f r o m t h e f e a r associated
w i t h s e e i n g a divine b e i n g (e.g., J u d g 6 a n d 13). It is n o t c l e a r in t h e
c o n t e x t t h a t M o s e s is m e a n t to b e u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel in a n y w a y .
I n t h e B o o k of S i r a c h 4 4 - 4 5 , t h e r e is a list of v e n e r a b l e
figures
f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible (e.g., E n o c h , N o a h , A b r a h a m , etc.) w h o a r e

p r a i s e d . Sir 4 5 : 2 says G o d m a d e M o s e s " e q u a l in glory to t h e h o l y
62
W. Meeks, "The Divine Agent and His Counterfeit in Philo and the Fourth
Gospel" in Aspects of Religious Propaganda in Judaism and Early Christianity, ed. E. SchsslerFiorenza (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1976) 45, 43-67.
o n e s [], a n d m a d e h i m g r e a t in d i e f e a r s of his e n e m i e s . " S o m e

h a v e n o t e d t h a t t h e t e r m " h o l y o n e s " h e r e c a n b e t a k e n to m e a n
angels. 6 3 M o s e s clearly e n j o y s a n e x a l t e d status, a n d this m a y b e a k i n
to t h a t of t h e angels, b u t a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is n o t explicitly m a d e .
T h e text k n o w n as Ezekiel the Exagogue o r Ezekiel the Tragedian r e c o u n t s
t h e story of t h e E x o d u s f r o m E g y p t in t h e f o r m of a G r e e k d r a m a .
G i v e n t h a t it is cited in A l e x a n d e r P o l y h i s t o r (first c e n t u r y C E ) , it
likely d a t e s f r o m s o m e t i m e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E . 6 4 O n e section d e s c r i b e s a vision of M o s e s e n t h r o n e d in h e a v e n . I n
verses
6 8 8 2 , M o s e s says t h a t h e h a d a t h e o p h a n y a n d w a s t h e n invited
to sit u p o n t h e t h r o n e in h e a v e n :
[68] O n Sinai's peak I saw what seemed a throne [69] so great in
size it touched the clouds of heaven. [70] U p o n it sat a m a n of noble
mien, [71] becrowned, and with a scepter in one hand [72] while with
the other he did beckon me. [73] I made approach and stood before
the throne. [74] H e h a n d e d o'er the scepter a n d he bade [75] me
mount the throne, and gave to me the crown; [76] then he himself
withdrew from off the throne. [77] I gazed u p o n the whole earth
round about; [78] things under it, and high above the skies. [79] T h e n
at my feet a multitude of stars fell down, and I their n u m b e r reckoned up. [81] T h e y passed by me like armed ranks of men. [82] T h e n
I in terror wakened from the dream. 6 5
C e r t a i n l y , t h e e n t h r o n e m e n t of M o s e s is significant a n d speaks to his
e x a l t e d status in this text. O n c e o n t h e t h r o n e , h e is p a s s e d by t h e
stars ( p e r h a p s angels). U l t i m a t e l y , t h e m a t e r i a l is visionary, a n d M o s e s
awakens.
P h i l o discusses M o s e s as h a v i n g a divine n a t u r e o n several o c c a sions (Sacrifices 8 1 0
Flight 5; Dreams
1:142; QE.
2.29, 40;
7 2 - 7 9 ) , as well as d e v o t i n g a n e n t i r e treatise t o h i m (Moses).
66
Virtues
Only
the texts r e l e v a n t to a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of M o s e s w i t h a n a n g e l a r e
examined here.
I n QG 4:8 M o s e s is a c t u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as " t h e chief p r o p h e t a n d
chief m e s s e n g e r
[ ] , w h o d e s i r e d
to
see t h e O n e . " G i v e n t h e p a r a l l e l i s m w i t h t h e chief p r o p h e t , it d o e s

6s
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 175, notes that the Geniza text contains ,

strengthening such a reading; see also C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, 163;
L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998) 56-57.
64
OTP 2:803-804; HJPAJC IIIi:563.566
65
Translation R. G. Robertson, OTP 2:803-804.
66
Josephus is much more reserved in his descriptions of Moses. Perhaps the most
"angelic" description would be caffing Moses a in Ant. 3:180.
n o t s e e m t h a t P h i l o i n t e n d s to e q u a t e M o s e s w i t h t h e
archangels
M i c h a e l a n d R a p h a e l et al, b u t such a n identification c a n n o t b e entirely

m i e d o u t given P h i l o ' s proclivity t o elevate t h e status of M o s e s .
I n Virtues 7 2 7 9 , P h i l o r e c o u n t s t h a t b e f o r e his d e a t h M o s e s w e n t
to h e a v e n t o w o r s h i p G o d , n o t unlike the angels. P h i l o says t h a t
M o s e s b e g a n a h y m n ( D e u t 32:1 43 )of final t h a n k s g i v i n g f o r his
life. F o r t h a t h y m n , M o s e s g a t h e r e d a divine a s s e m b l y (
). T h e a n g e l s of t h e d i v i n e service ( )
w a t c h o v e r it (74). M o s e s is said to b e a m o n g t h e etiiereal c h o r i s t e r s ( ) i n 75. O n c e t h e s o n g is c o m p l e t e (76), M o s e s
is said to b e g i n p a s s i n g o v e r f r o m his m o r t a l e x i s t e n c e to i m m o r tality ( ). H e is n o t called a n
angel
specifically in this text, b u t h e is c e r t a i n l y m u c h like t h e m in his

p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a liturgy o v e r w h i c h angels p r e s i d e . H i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r w a r d suggests t h a t h e w a s a t t h e
border
b e t w e e n t w o f o r m s of life d u r i n g t h e s o n g itself.
Lastly, in Moses 158 a n d Sacrifices 9, Philo calls M o s e s a g o d (). 67
T h e r e is significant s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e o n P h i l o ' s a t t i t u d e
toward
t h e d e i f y i n g of Moses. 6 8 T h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n will n o t
engage
w i t h t h e s e in a n y specific detail, since P h i l o o f t e n allegorizes angels

as i m m a n e n t p o w e r s . H i s discussion of M o s e s is m o r e c o n c r e t e , a c t u ally u s i n g t h e t e r m . S e e m i n g l y , if P h i l o u n d e r s t o o d M o s e s as a
kind of a n g e l , (a) h e c o u l d h a v e s p o k e n of h i m as s u c h explicitly,
a n d (b) it w o u l d a p p e a r to u n d e r m i n e his m o r e e x a l t e d status as o n e
like a g o d , e n j o y i n g a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i m .
T h e Testament of Moses (also called t h e Assumption
of Moses) exists in
a L a t i n m a n u s c r i p t b u t w a s likely originally w r i t t e n in G r e e k . D a t e s
f o r t h e Testament
of Moses v a r y g r e a t l y f r o m t h e M a c c a b e a n
period
67
Some have also noted that Philo's catong Moses one who "stands" by God
indicates his angelic status (see especially QE 2:29, 40), since the posture of standing comes to be related to angels in rabbinic literature. On this see J. Fossum, The
Name of God, pp. 56-58, 120-129; G. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 166-167;
and C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 174-175. While intriguing, the arguments are
not outlined here, since Philo makes no such equation, and, as the evidence suggests, did not make much of a case for the angelization of Moses but instead for
his deification.
68
For fuller treatments of Moses in Philo, see E. Goodenough, By Light, Light:
The Mystic Gospel of Hellenistic Judaism (Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1969) 199-234;
W. Meeks, The Prophet-King (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1967) 100-130; and C. Holladay, Thaos
Aner in Hellenistic Judaism (Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1977) 103-198; J. Fossum,
The Name of God, pp. 112-143.
t h r o u g h to t h e first h a l f of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . 6 9 A t 11:17, t h e r e
is a r e f e r e n c e t o M o s e s as a " g r e a t m e s s e n g e r 5 ' :
If the enemies have, up till now, but a single time, acted impiously
against their Lord, there is (now) no advocate for them who will bear
messages to the Lord on their behalf in the way that Moses was the
great messenger [magnus nu?1tius].
E a r l i e r in t h e w o r k , M o s e s is called t h e " m e d i a t o r of t h e c o v e n a n t "
(Latin: arbiter). M o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s e q u a t e this w i t h t h e r e f e r e n c e in
11:17 t o a g r e a t m e s s e n g e r ( L a t i n : mmtius).70
T r o m p argues that the
t e r m nuntius is a r e n d e r i n g of t h e G r e e k . 7 1 W h i l e this m a y
b e t r u e , it is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e t e r m angehis w a s n o t c h o s e n r a t h e r
t h a n mmtius.72
It s e e m s c l e a r t h a t M o s e s is a m e d i a t o r b r i n g i n g t h e
L a w of G o d to h u m a n s . I n t h a t c a p a c i t y h e fulfills t h e role o f t e n
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h angels. It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e i n t e n t i o n is t o
e q u a t e h i m w i t h angels, h o w e v e r .
Lastly, C . Fletcher-Louis h a s recently m a d e a case for seeing 4 Q 3 7 4
in t h e light of a n g e l o m o r p h i c traditions. 7 3 T h e i m p o r t a n t lines f r o m
f r a g . 2ii a r e 68. w h i c h state:
[6] [And] he made him as god [ ]over the mighty ones []
and a cause of reeling to Pharaoh [. . .]
[7] . . . they melted a n d their hearts trembled and their inward parts
dissolved. H e had compassion u p o n [. . .]
[8] A n d when he caused his face to shine upon them for healing, they
strengthened [their] hearts again, and knowledge [. . .]74
T h i s p a s s a g e s e e m s to r e c o u n t t h e e v e n t s a t S i n a i ( E x o d 34). T h e
text is t o o f r a g m e n t a r y to b e c e r t a i n of t h e c o n t e x t . T h e t e r m
in line six c a n b e u s e d to r e f e r to angels. It s e e m s t h a t v. 6 refers
to G o d m a k i n g M o s e s like a g o d o v e r t h e " m i g h t y o n e s . " I n v. 8
the r e f e r e n c e s e e m s to b e t o t h e face of M o s e s a f t e r c o m i n g d o w n
69
J. Priest, "The Testament of Moses" in 0 7 7 1:919-934; HJPAJC IIIi:278.287

J. Tromp, Assumption of Moses (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993) 230-231; C. FletcherLouis, Luke-Acts, p. 181; L. Hurtado, One God, p. 57.
71
J. Tromp, Assumption of Moses, p. 257.
72
Yet the choice of mmtius is more comprehensible if it was translated by Christians.
73
C. Fletcher-Louis, "4Q374: A Discourse on the Sinai Tradition: The Deification
of Moses and Early Christology" DSD 3 (1996) 236-252. He reiterates many of the
same points in C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 136-149. See also the preliminary publication by C. Newsom, "4Q374: A Discourse on the Exodus/Conquest
Tradition" in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Forty Years of Research, ed. D. Dimant and
U. Rappaport (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1992)"40-52.
74
Text from DJD XIX, p. 102.
70
f r o m t h e m o u n t a i n . It is possible t h a t the r e f e r e n t s in w . 6 a n d 8
are not the same
figure.
Fletcher-Louis says that, " t h e t h e o p h a n i c effect w h i c h M o s e s ' deified

identity h a s o n his fellow Israelites . . . m a k e s g o o d sense in t h e c o n text of k n o w n D S S t r a d i t i o n s in w h i c h a h u m a n b e i n g e x p e r i e n c e s
a n g e l o m o r p h i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ( / d e i f i c a t i o n ) . ' " 5 T h i s m a y b e possible, b u t it is n o t at all c l e a r t h a t M o s e s ' s status is a n g e l o m o r p h i c ,
o t h e r t h a n in his l u m i n o u s a p p e a r a n c e , w h i c h m o r e t h a n likely c o m e s
f r o m E x o d u s a n d n o t necessarily a n y i n d e p e n d e n t t r a d i t i o n
about
Moses's angelic nature.

I n s u m , t w o facts s e e m to h o l d w i t h r e g a r d to M o s e s : M o s e s m e d i a t e d b e t w e e n t h e p e o p l e of Israel a n d G o d , a n d M o s e s h a d a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d b y v i r t u e of his role as m e d i a t o r .
Does
his h a v i n g t h e s e t w o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m e a n t h a t M o s e s w a s c o n c e i v e d
of as a n a n g e l ? T h e S e c o n d T e m p l e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a r
o u t this i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . If a n y t h i n g , t h e e v i d e n c e a p p e a r s to stress
M o s e s ' s t h e o m o r p h i c (divine) c h a r a c t e r a f t e r t h e e v e n t s at Sinai. T h e
q u e s t i o n t h e n b e c o m e s : D o e s t h e d i v i n i z a t i o n of M o s e s in w o r k s such
as P h i l o o r his e n t h r o n e m e n t in Ezek.
Trag, m e a n t h a t M o s e s w a s
u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel? O n l y t h e As. Moses s e e m s to b e explicit in

u s i n g t h e t e r m nuntius f o r M o s e s , b u t e v e n t h e r e angelus c o u l d h a v e
b e e n u s e d r a t h e r t h a n nuntius. T h e p r o b l e m in m o d e m
interpreta-
tion s e e m s to b e t h a t e i t h e r all types of h e a v e n l y b e i n g s a r e seen as

a n g e l s o r e a c h t y p e is c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e . T h u s , M o s e s g o e s t o
h e a v e n , m e d i a t e s b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n s , a n d is t h e r e f o r e like
a n angel. O r , a l t h o u g h M o s e s g o e s to h e a v e n , h e is n o t explicitly
called a n a n g e l , n o r d o e s h e s e e m to b e a n a n g e l ; if a n y t h i n g , h e
is a b o v e t h a t status. T h i s m a y b e a p r o b l e m of c a t e g o r i z a t i o n .
3.8
David
D a v i d , a m a j o r figure in the H e b r e w Scriptures, is a s h e p h e r d called to

b e a w a r r i o r a n d s e c o n d k i n g of Israel. M a n y of t h e P s a l m s a r e also
a t t r i b u t e d to h i m . I n l a t e r J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n literature, the r e s t o r a t i o n of a D a v i d i c m o n a r c h y b e c o m e s p a r t of m e s s i a n i c e x p e c t a t i o n s . 7 6
75
C. Fletcher-Louis, "4Q374," p. 252.

It has also been suggested by some that Isa 9:6 (MT = 9:5 LXX), "For to
us a child is born, to us a son is given; and the government will be upon his shoulder, and his name will be called 'Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting
76
O n t h r e e o c c a s i o n s in t h e H e b r e w Bible, D a v i d is c o m p a r e d t o
a n angel. 7 7 1 S a m 2 9 : 9 states, " A n d A c h i s h m a d e a n s w e r to D a v i d ,
'1 k n o w t h a t y o u a r e as b l a m e l e s s in m y sight as a n a n g e l of G o d
( ; ) n e v e r t h e l e s s the c o m m a n d e r s of t h e Philistines h a v e
said, H e shall n o t g o u p w i t h us to t h e b a t t l e . ' " T h i s p a s s a g e s e e m s
o n l y to b e m a k i n g a c o m p a r i s o n , u s i n g the . D a v i d is like a n a n g e l
in his blamelessness, b u t it is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e L X X t r a n s l a t e s only
"I k n o w t h a t y o u a r e g o o d / b l a m e l e s s in m y eyes (
)." I n 2 S a m 14:17, it is said of D a v i d :
[17] And your handmaid thought, " T h e word of my lord the king will
set me at rest; for my lord the king is like the angel of God ()
to discern good and evil. T h e Lord your G o d be with you!". . . [20]
"In order to change the course of affairs your servant J o a b did this.
But m y lord has wisdom like the wisdom of the angel of G o d to know
all things that are on the earth."
A g a i n in this c a s e , a c o m p a r i s o n is m a d e . D a v i d is like a n a n g e l in
t h a t h e h a s t h e c a p a c i t y to d i s c e r n g o o d a n d evil. T h e L X X
main-
tains this c o m p a r i s o n : . T h i r d l y , in 2 S a m 19:27, " H e h a s s l a n d e r e d y o u r s e r v a n t t o

m y l o r d t h e king. B u t m y lord t h e king is like t h e a n g e l of G o d
[ ; ] do therefore w h a t seems good to you." T h i s
c o m p a r i s o n is similar to t h e p r e v i o u s in t h a t D a v i d ' s likeness to a n
a n g e l s e e m s to lie in his ability to d i s c e r n t h e right c o u r s e of a c t i o n .
O n c e a g a i n t h e L X X h a s a literal t r a n s l a t i o n : 6 6
. E a c h of these p a s s a g e s is a c o m p a r i s o n , d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t early in t h e t r a d i t i o n s u c h c o m p a r i s o n s w e r e m e a n i n g ful a n d c o u l d p o t e n t i a l l y o p e n t h e d o o r f o r l a t e r i n t e r p r e t e r s to see
a m o r e i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n D a v i d a n d t h e divine r e a l m .
T h e Biblical
Antiquities
of P s e u d o - P h i l o (also r e f e r r e d to as t h e
L. A. B. f r o m its L a t i n title: Liber Antiquitatum
Biblicarum) gives a n i m a g -
!native retelling of Biblical history f r o m G e n e s i s t h r o u g h to t h e t i m e

Father, Prince of Peace,' " where the LXX translates as
, should be seen as an instance where a Davidic messiah is considered
angelic. See, e.g., C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 176. It is not clear, however, that in the LXX version it is meant to imply anything more than "messenger."
For a more detailed analysis of this passage relating to the concept of messiah, see
W. Horbury, Jewish Messianism and the Cult of Christ (London: SCM Press, 1998) 89.92
77
With these three, cf. Add Esth 15:13-15, " saw you, my lord, tike an angel
of God, and my heart was shaken with fear at your glory. For you are wonderful,
my lord, and your countenance is full of grace.' But as she was speaking, she fell
fainting."
of D a v i d a n d S o l o m o n . T h e L a t i n m a n u s c r i p t s s e e m to c o m e f r o m
G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e o r i g i n a l H e b r e w , 7 8 likely f r o m t h e first c e n t u r y C E . ' 9 It gives p e r h a p s t h e c l e a r e s t i n d i c a t i o n t h a t D a v i d a p p e a r s
like a n a n g e l . A f t e r m o r t a l l y w o u n d i n g G o l i a t h , D a v i d s t a n d s o v e r
h i m a n d tells h i m t o look u p o n h i m ( 6 1 : 8 - 9 ) :
[8] And David said to him, "Before you die, open your eyes and see
your slayer, the one that killed you." And the Philistine looked a n d
saw an angel and said, "Not you alone have killed me, but also the one
who is present with you, he whose appearance is not like the appearance of a m a n . " [9] And then David cut off his head. Now the angel
of the Lord had changed David's appearance, a n d no one recognised
him. And Saul saw David and asked him who he was, and there was
no one who recognised him.
I n this t e x t D a v i d ' s a p p e a r a n c e is c h a n g e d , so it is possible to s p e a k
of h i m as 2a1g0m0rphic.
It is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r h e h a s u n d e r g o n e a n y
p e r m a n e n t c h a n g e . T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d c h a n g e d D a v i d ' s a p p e a r a n c e a n d w a s p r e s e n t to h e l p h i m in t h e d e f e a t of G o l i a t h , b u t it
does n o t seem that D a v i d was an angel.
T h u s , t h e e v i d e n c e s h o w s t h a t D a v i d w a s c o m p a r e d to angels d u e
to c e r t a i n a t t r i b u t e s (blamelessness, d i s c e r n m e n t ) . H e a p p e a r s in a n
a n g e l o m o r p h i c f o r m in t h e L. A. B. D a v i d w a s largely c o n n e c t e d
w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n f o r a m e s s i a h in l a t e r l i t e r a t u r e . H i s roles as
king a n d m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s e e m to b e i m p o r t a n t , b u t it is n o t c l e a r
t h a t w e c a n s p e a k of t h e office of k i n g as o n e t h a t w a s readily u n d e r s t o o d as a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 8 0
3.9
The Prophets
T h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of angels w h e n o n eartii is to a c t as m e s s e n g e r s
for G o d . T h e p r o p h e t s c a n be u n d e r s t o o d to fulfill m u c h the s a m e
f u n c t i o n . Prime fade,
78
t h e n , it s e e m s t h a t t h e p r o p h e t s m i g h t r e p r e s e n t
D. Harrington, "Pseudo-Philo" in OTP 2:298-299.

D. Harrington, "Pseudo-Philo" in OTP 2:299; F. Murphy, Pseudo-Philo: Rewriting
the Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) 6; HJPAJC 1111:329.
80
There may be some echo of this in Zech 12:7-9, "And the Lord will give vietory to the tents of Judah first, that the glory of the house of David and the glory
of the inhabitants of Jerusalem may not be exalted over that of Judah. On that
day the Lord will put a shield about the inhabitants of Jerusalem so that the feeblest among them on that day shall be tike David, and the house of David shall
be like God, like the angel of the Lord, at their head. And on that day I will seek
to destroy all the nations that come against Jerusalem."
79
the h u m a n g r o u p m o s t likely to a p p e a r similar in f u n c t i o n to angels. 8 1

A p a s s a g e in 2 C h r 3 6 is illustrative:
[15] T h e Lord, the G o d of their fathers, sent persistently to them by
his messengers, because he had compassion on his people and on his
dwelling place; [16] but they kept mocking the messengers of G o d
[ ] , despising his words, and scoffing at his prophets
[], till the wrath of the Lord rose against his people, till there
was no remedy.
T h i s p a s s a g e a p p e a r s n e a r t h e e n d of t h e B o o k of C h r o n i c l e s . T h e
c h r o n i c l e r o f t e n speaks of t h e p r o p h e t s as g o i n g u n h e e d e d (2 C h r
1 2 : 5 - 8 ; 1 5 : 1 - 8 ; 1 9 : 1 - 3 ; 2 1 : 1 2 - 1 5 , et al). T h e s e verses e x p l a i n w h y
J u d a h fell to t h e B a b y l o n i a n s , s e e m i n g to set m e s s e n g e r s (angels) of
G o d a n d p r o p h e t s in a p p o s i t i o n . T h e L X X
maintains the
terms
a n g e l s / m e s s e n g e r s ( ) a n d p r o p h e t s (
). T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e p r o p h e t s
a r e u n d e r s t o o d as a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h u m a n s , a l t h o u g h t h e y f u n c tion like angels in t h a t t h e y a r e m e s s e n g e r s of G o d . 8 2
A n e v e n m o r e explicit c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r p r o p h e t m a y
be i n t e n d e d in H a g
1:12-13:
[12] T h e n Zerubbabel the son of Shealtiel, and Joshua the son of

Jehozadak, the high priest, with all the remnant of the people, obeyed
the voice of the Lord their God, and the words of Haggai the prophet I], as the Lord their G o d h a d sent him; and the people
feared before the Lord. [13] T h e n Haggai, the messenger of the Lord
[ ] , spoke to the people with the Lord's message,
"I am with you," says the Lord.
I n t h e p e r s o n of H a g g a i , the offices of p r o p h e t a n d
angel/messen-
g e r of G o d a r e u n i t e d . H a g g a i clearly delivers a divine m e s s a g e . H e

is n o t said to a p p e a r in a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h u m a n f o r m . H e s e e m s
to b e a n effective p r o p h e t / m e s s e n g e r , b u t t h e r e is n o t m u c h r e a s o n
to s u p p o s e , a p a r t f r o m t h e use of t h e t e c h n i c a l t e r m f o r a n g e l , t h a t
H a g g a i should be u n d e r s t o o d as a n y t h i n g o t h e r tiian a h u m a n p r o p h e t .
P e r h a p s t h e clearest e x p r e s s i o n of t h e i d e a t h a t a p r o p h e t c o u l d
a c t as G o d ' s m e s s e n g e r c o m e s in M a l a c h i . First, t h e n a m e M a l a c h i
81
This is the argument of J. Biihner, Der Gersandte und sn Weg im 4 Evangelium
(Tbingen: J . C. B. Mohr, 1977) 341-373. For criticism of his approach, see
82
Cf. Isa 44:26 "who confirms the word of his servant, and performs the counsel of his messengers [ ;]; who says ofJerusalem, 'She shall be inhabited,'
and of the cities of Judah, 'They shall be built, and I will raise up their ruins.' "
itself in H e b r e w m e a n s " m y m e s s e n g e r . " M a i 1:1 states, " T h e o r a cle of t h e w o r d of t h e L o r d to Israel b y M a l a c h i . " T h e L X X
ren-
d e r s this as,
. T h e n a m e M a l a c h i is n o t r e n d e r e d in
G r e e k b u t is i n s t e a d called .
A t least o n e i n t e r p r e t e r discusses the a p p a r e n t c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n
M a l a c h i a n d a n g e l i c n a t u r e b e c a u s e of his n a m e ( m e a n i n g angel),
his a p p e a r a n c e (beauty), a n d his b e h a v i o r (delivering divine messages). 8 3
The lives of the Prophets (c. first c e n t u r y C E ) 16:1~3 says a b o u t M a l a c h i :
[1] This m a n was born in Sopha after the return, and while still a
very young m a n he led a virtuous life. [2] And since the whole peopie honored him as holy and gentle, it called him Malachi, which
means, "angel"; for he was indeed beautiful to behold. [3] Moreover,
whatever he himself said in prophecy, on the same day an angel of
G o d appeared a n d repeated (it).
H o w e v e r , t h e final s e n t e n c e d o e s suggest t h a t t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n
to s u p p o s e t h a t M a l a c h i w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d in a n y w a y a n a n g e l .
H i s n a m e m e a n s a n g e l , a n d h e h a d a b e a u t i f u l c o u n t e n a n c e a trait
s o m e t i m e s associated w i t h a n g e l s b u t , a c c o r d i n g to this s o u r c e , w h a t
M a l a c h i said w a s t h e n c o n f i r m e d b y a n a n g e l . T h e a m b i g u i t y in t h e
" m e s s e n g e r " role of the p r o p h e t M a l a c h i w a s t a k e n u p in t h e
NT
in t h e p e r s o n of J o h n t h e Baptist.
3.10
John the Baptist
E a c h of t h e s y n o p t i c gospels r e c o r d s a t r a d i t i o n of J o h n t h e B a p t i s t
in w h i c h J e s u s is said to q u o t e t h e p r o p h e t M a i 3:1 w i t h r e g a r d to
J o h n . M a t t h e w a n d L u k e likely took t h e t r a d i t i o n f r o m M a r k , b u t
t h e y e x p a n d u p o n it. 84 M a t t h e w actually says t h a t J o h n is t h e p r o p h e t
Elijah r e t u r n e d .
M a i 3:1 states, " B e h o l d , I s e n d m y m e s s e n g e r to p r e p a r e t h e w a y
b e f o r e m e , a n d t h e L o r d w h o m y o u seek will s u d d e n l y c o m e to his
t e m p l e ; t h e m e s s e n g e r of t h e c o v e n a n t in w h o m y o u delight, b e h o l d ,
h e is c o m i n g , says t h e L o r d of h o s t s . " T h e n M a i 4:5 states, " B e h o l d ,
I will s e n d y o u E l i j a h t h e p r o p h e t b e f o r e t h e g r e a t a n d t e r r i b l e d a y
83
Cf. also 2 Esd 1:40, "and Malachi, who is called the messenger of the Lord"
(qui et angelus Domini vocatus est).
84
This study accepts with the majority of scholars Markan priority; see note 89
in section 2.7 above.
of t h e L o r d c o m e s . " G i e s c h e n h a s suggested t h a t r e a d i n g t h e s e t w o
passages t o g e t h e r w i t h 4:5, w h i c h specifies Elijah as t h e m e s s e n g e r
( ; ) f o r e t o l d in 3:1, allows us to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e early
Christians and other interpreters would have understood
Elijah's
r e t u r n to b e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 8 5
Interestingly, M a r k c o n n e c t s M a i 3:1 a n d Isa 40:3, a t t r i b u t i n g b o t h
to t h e p r o p h e t I s a i a h in a p r o n o u n c e m e n t a b o u t t h e role of J o h n
the Baptist:
[2a] As it is written [] in Isaiah the prophet [' ],
[2b] "Behold, I send my messenger [ ] before thy face,
who shall prepare thy way; [Mai 3:1]
[3] the voice of one ctying in the wilderness: Prepare the way of the
Lord, make his paths straight" [Isa 40:3]
[4] J o h n the Baptist appeared in the wilderness, preaching a baptism
of repentance for the forgiveness of sins.
I n s u b s e q u e n t verses, w e a r e told t h a t J o h n b a p t i z e d all t h o s e w h o
w e n t o u t to h i m in t h e R i v e r J o r d a n (v. 5). A physical d e s c r i p t i o n
of J o h n is given (v. 6). H e is clotiied in c a m e l ' s h a i r w i t h a l e a t h e r
girdle, a n d h e eats locusts a n d h o n e y . J o h n a n n o u n c e s t h a t h e is
u n f i t to s t o o p a n d u n t i e t h e s a n d a l s of t h e o n e w h o is to
come
(v. 7). J o h n t h e n b a p t i z e s J e s u s (v. 9). T h e h e a v e n s o p e n , a n d a voice

a n n o u n c e s t h a t J e s u s is a " b e l o v e d s o n " w h o pleases the F a t h e r (v. 11).
J e s u s is t h e n d r i v e n i n t o t h e d e s e r t (v. 13), a n d J o h n is a r r e s t e d
(v. 14). N o m o r e is m a d e of J o h n ' s role in M a r k until c h a p t e r 6,
w h e n , a f t e r J o h n is b e h e a d e d , s o m e p e o p l e t h i n k t h a t J e s u s is J o h n
the B a p t i s t r e t u r n e d f r o m t h e d e a d (6:14). T h e s e p a s s a g e s s u p p l y littie e v i d e n c e t h a t J o h n w a s in a n y w a y u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l . I n
fact his physical description seems to g o against a n y such identification,
since t h e r e is n o t h i n g m i r a c u l o u s a b o u t his a p p e a r a n c e a n d h e eats
h u m a n f o o d . M a t t h e w c o n n e c t s J o h n t h e B a p t i s t w i t h E l i j a h via M a i
3:1, so it is i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r this e v i d e n c e .
M a t t 11:7
14 e x p a n d s t h e story r e g a r d i n g J o h n t h e Baptist. 8 6
[7] As they went away, Jesus began to speak to the crowds concerning J o h n : " W h a t did you go out into the wilderness to behold? A reed
85
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, pp. 167-168. See also C.Joynes, "The Return
of Elijah: An Exploration of the Character and Context of the Relationship between
Elijah, John the Baptist and Jesus in the Gospels" (Oxford: D.Phil, thesis, 1998).
86
The parallel passage in Luke 7:24-35 is very similar to Matthew but does not
equate John the Baptist with Elijah.
shaken by the wind? [8] Why then did you go out? To see a man
clothed in soft raiment? Behold, those who wear soft raiment are in
kings' houses. [9] Why then did you go out? T o see a prophet? Yes,
I tell you, and more than a prophet. [10] This is he of whom it is
written, 'Behold, I send my messenger ( ) before thy face,
who shall prepare thy way before thee.' [11] Truly, I say to you,
among those born of women there has risen no one greater than J o h n
the Baptist; yet he who is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater
than he. [12] From the days of J o h n the Baptist until now the kingdom of heaven has suffered violence, and men of violence take it by
force. [13] For all the prophets and the law prophesied until J o h n ;
[14] and if you are willing to accept it, he is Elijah who is to come."
M a t t h e w seems to c o n n e c t M a i 3:1 a n d M a i 4:5 in the person of
J o h n . M a i 4:5 states, " B e h o l d , I will send you Elijah the p r o p h e t
before the g r e a t a n d terrible d a y of the L o r d c o m e s . " T h e p r o p h e t
Elijah was taken u p into h e a v e n by a mystical c h a r i o t a n d did n o t
die (2 K g s 2:11). M a l a c h i seems to reflect a n e x p e c t a t i o n of his
r e t u r n . M a t t h e w sees the fulfillment of this p r o p h e c y in the p e r s o n
of J o h n , w h o is k n o w n as G o d ' s m e s s e n g e r (cf. M a t t 1 7 : 1 0 - 1 3 ; M a r k
6 : 1 4 - 1 6 ; cf. Sir 4 8 : 9 1 0 ) . H e r e again t h e r e is n o i n d e p e n d e n t evid e n c e t h a t J o h n was u n d e r s t o o d as a n angel, unless we accept t h a t
t h e r e was some implicit u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the figure in M a i 3:1 or
the r e t u r n i n g Elijah as angelic. T o the extent t h a t M a t t h e w identifies
J o h n with Elijah, we c a n p e r h a p s u n d e r s t a n d J o h n to be a messenger of G o d , but the stress o n his b e i n g " b o m of a w o m a n " (v. 11)
a n d his s u b s e q u e n t d e a t h (14:10) seem to suggest his h u m a n i t y .
O n e later i n t e r p r e t e r does speak a b o u t J o h n the Baptist as an
angel, h o w e v e r . O r i g e n in his Commentary on the Gospel of John q u o t e s
f r o m the so-called Prayer of Joseph (2.32) to show h o w J o h n the Baptist
m a y b e t h o u g h t of as a n angel. H e q u o t e s M a r k 1:2 (
) a n d t h e n says of J o h n
the Baptist, " W e call a t t e n t i o n to h i m b e i n g o n e of the holy angels
in service sent d o w n as a f o r e r u n n e r of o u r s a v i o u r " (

). T h i s is a s t r o n g identification of J o h n the
Baptist as a n a n g e l n o t only b e c a u s e h e is called a n angel b u t also
b e c a u s e h e is said to be in service ( ), w h i c h m a y indicate o n e of the angels actually in the presence of G o d or particip a t i n g in the heavenly liturgy.
It is certainly possible, given the a m b i g u i t y in the text of M a i 3:1,
t h a t s o m e early C h r i s t i a n s w e r e t h i n k i n g a b o u t J o h n the Baptist as
a n a n g e l i n s o m u c h as h e c a r r i e d o u t a f u n c t i o n c o m m o n l y a t t r i b u t e d
to a n g e l s t h a t is, delivery of a divine m e s s a g e . M o r e o v e r , t h e t e r m
is a c t u a l l y a p p l i e d to h i m . A t least o n e l a t e r
interpreter
u n d e r s t o o d J o h n to b e a n angel. T h i s r e p r e s e n t s a s o m e w h a t u n i q u e
p i e c e of e v i d e n c e ; it is u n c e r t a i n , a n d a r g u a b l y unlikely,
whether
s u c h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of J o h n w a s w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g early Christians.
3.11
Jesus
A s n o t e d in c h a p t e r 1, t h e r e h a s b e e n a g r e a t d e a l of r e c e n t schola r s h i p o n J e s u s a n d a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y . W h a t is c l e a r , h o w e v e r , f r o m t h e s e studies is t h a t n o w h e r e in t h e N T is J e s u s s p o k e n
of as a n a n g e l , t h o u g h t h e r e a r e s o m e p a s s a g e s t h a t suggest this w a s
a n issue for early C h r i s t i a n s (Col 2:18, H e b 1 - 2 ) . J . D u n n
summed
u p this p o i n t in 1980:
So far as we can tell then no NT imiter thought of Christ as an angel, whether
as a pre-existent divine being who h a d appeared in Israel's history as
the angel of the Lord, 01 as an angel or spirit become m a n or as a
m a n who by exaltation after death h a d become an angel. 87
C l e a r l y , t h e r e c e n t s p a t e of w o r k o n a n g e l o m o r p h i c C h r i s t o l o g y suggests t h a t n o t all s c h o l a r s a r e c o n v i n c e d . 8 8 T h e y h a v e , h o w e v e r , h a d
to look at a n t e c e d e n t s , l a t e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , a n d especially a n g e l o m o r p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n s of C h r i s t to d e v e l o p t h e i r a r g u m e n t s . B e c a u s e
the p r e s e n t s t u d y focuses o n d i e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s
and
angels, m y a i m h e r e is q u i t e m o d e s t relative to t h e vast l i t e r a t u r e

o n a n g e l C h r i s t o l o g y . T h i s section c o n s i d e r s o n l y e v i d e n c e in w h i c h
J e s u s s e e m s to b e likened t o a n a n g e l in his e a r t h l y ( h u m a n ) lifetime.
O n e c a s e in w h i c h J e s u s m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a n g e l o m o r p h i c is in
t h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n n a r r a t i v e s , 8 9 w h i c h a r e f o u n d in t h e
synoptic
gospels ( M a t t 1 7 : 1 - 9 ; M a r k 9 : 2 - 1 0 ; L u k e 9 : 2 8 3 6 ) b u t a b s e n t f r o m
t h e f o u r t h gospel. 9 0 T h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n h a s o f t e n b e e n u n d e r s t o o d
87
J . Dunn, Christology in the Making: An Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the
Incarnation (London: SCM, 1980) 158; italics are his.
88
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 3, uses this quote as the starting point
of his investigation.
89
On the Transfiguration, see B. Chilton, "Transfiguration" in ABD 6:640-642;
Str-B. 1:752-758. A useful and relatively up-to-date survey of scholarship on the
Transfiguration can be found in A. D. A. Moses, Matthew's Transfiguration Stoiy and
Jewish Christian Controversy (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996) 20-49.
90
There is a reference to the Transfiguration scene in 2 Pet 1:16-18. The ref-
to fit w i t h t h e a s c e n t of t h e M o s e s m o t i f f r o m E x o d 24:16. 9 1 A d d i tionally, it h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a m i s p l a c e d r e s u r r e c t i o n
account,92
while o t h e r s h a v e r e l a t e d it t o h e a v e n l y a s c e n t a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
motifs. 9 3 C . R o w l a n d h a s suggested, " I t w o u l d . . . b e a m i s t a k e t o
e x c l u d e the possibility t h a t w e h a v e in this story [the T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n ]
a r e f l e c t i o n of a n e x p e r i e n c e w h e n c e r t a i n disciples, a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y
P e t e r , m a y h a v e believed t h a t t h e y h a d seen J e s u s in t h e f o r m of
a n angelic e n v o y . " 9 4
T h e r e a r e i n d e e d s o m e a s p e c t s of t h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n t h a t s u p p o r t
a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I n M a r k , J e s u s is t r a n s f i g u r e d (). 9 5 I n M a t t h e w J e s u s is t r a n s f i g u r e d (), a n d his
face shines "like die sun." In Luke his face w a s " c h a n g e d ()." T h i s
l a n g u a g e is fairly explicit t h a t J e s u s h a s u n d e r g o n e a c h a n g e . H i s p h y s ical a p p e a r a n c e is a l t e r e d , a n d e i t h e r his f a c e o r his g a r m e n t s ,
or
b o t h , b e c o m e brilliant. T h i s is c e r t a i n l y a n a s p e c t of a n g e l o p h a n i e s . 9 6
erence seems to be used to legitimate the letter itself by claiming to be Peter, who
was present during the event. It states, "For when he received honor and glory
from God the Father and the voice was borne to him by the Majestic Glory, 'This
is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased,' we heard this voice borne from
heaven, for we were with him on the holy mountain." There is also a version of
the Transfiguration in the Apocalypse of Peter 15-17.
91
On this see for, example, W. D. Davies and D. Allison, A Critical and Exegetical
Commentary on the Gospel according to Saint Matthew, 3 vols. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark,
1988-1997) 2:684-709; A. D. A. Moses, Matthew's Transfiguration Story and Jewish
Christian Controversy, pp. 50-84. Interestingly, in Exodus 34:29-35 the result of Moses's
seeing God is a glowing face that caused fear in those who saw him.
92
On this position, held by scholars like J . Wellhausen and R. Bultmann, see
R. Stein, "Is the Transfiguration (Mark 9:2-8) a Misplaced Resurrection Account?"
JBL 95 (1976) 79-96.
93
J. Fossum, "Ascensio, Metamorphosis: The 'Transfiguration' of Jesus in the
Synoptic Gospels" in The Image of the Invisible God (Gttingen: Vandenhoeck and
Ruprecht, 1995) 71-94. M. Smith, Clement of Alexandria and a Secret Gospel of Mark
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975) 237-244.
94
C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, p. 368. Bracketed material my own for clarification.
See also M. Sabbe, "La rdaction du rcit de la transfiguration" in La venue du
Messie: Messianisme a eschatologie (Bruges: Descle de Brouwer, 1962) 65-100; C. FletcherLouis, Luke-Acts, pp. 3951. This is also the line of argument taken by P. Nogueira,
"Heavenly Journey Elements in the Transfiguration Narrative: Apocalypticism and
the Beginning of Christology," paper delivered to the Oxford Millenium Conference
(April 2000).
95
For a definition of the term, see J. Behm, "" in TDNT 4:755-759.
The same verb appears on two occasions in Paul's letters (Rom 12:2,
2 Cor 3:18). In 2 Cor 3:18 (cf. also 1 Cor 15:51), Paul writes, "And we all, with
unveiled face, beholding the glory of the Lord, are being changed []
into his fikeness from one degree of glory to another; for this comes from the Lord
who is the Spirit." This seems to suggest an ongoing change of the believer into
some type of divine being.
96
As noted in the introduction to part one above.
T w o f u r t h e r p o i n t s s u p p o r t a divine i d e n t i f i c a t i o n f o r J e s u s . M o s e s
a n d E j i j a h a p p e a r t o J e s u s a n d talk w i t h h i m . T h e s e t w o v e n e r a b l e
figures
of t h e p a s t a r e k n o w n n o t to h a v e d i e d b u t to h a v e
been
t a k e n to h e a v e n (Moses: D e u t 34:5; E l i j a h : 2 K g s 2:11). T h a t J e s u s

is seen h e r e w i t h t h e m suggests his e x a l t e d status. Lastly, a voice
f r o m t h e c l o u d s p r o c l a i m s t h a t J e s u s "is m y S o n , listen to h i m . " 9 7
It is n o t entirely c l e a r t h a t J e s u s b e c a m e a n a n g e l , since t h e t e r m
itself d o e s n o t a p p e a r , n o r is it c l e a r t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t h e
u n d e r w e n t was p e r m a n e n t . Nevertheless, the evidence here indicates
t h a t at least f o r t h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n , J e s u s w a s a n g e l o m o r p h i c .
M o r e i n t e r e s t i n g is t h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s , L o g i o n
13.
Greek
f r a g m e n t s of T h o m a s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d m o r e t h a n a h u n d r e d y e a r s
a g o in O x y r h y n c h u s , Egypt. 9 8 I n 1945 a c o m p l e t e C o p t i c m a n u s c r i p t
of t h e g o s p e l w a s d i s c o v e r e d a m o n g t h e finds a t N a g
T h o m a s ' s impact on N T
Hammadi.99
studies h a s b e e n a m o n g t h e m o s t
pro-
n o u n c e d of all t h e C o p t i c w r i t i n g s u n c o v e r e d t h e r e , since s c h o l a r s
i m m e d i a t e l y b e g a n to d r a w c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n it a n d t h e h y p o thetical sayings s o u r c e n a m e d Q . M o r e r e c e n t w o r k h a s b e g u n t o
look at T h o m a s as its o w n gospel, w i t h a distinct c o m m u n i t y b e h i n d
it just like t h e c a n o n i c a l gospels. 1 0 0 T h e d a t e of T h o m a s h a s b e e n
d e b a t e d ; t h e suggestions r a n g e f r o m s o m e t i m e b e t w e e n t h e m i d - f i r s t
to m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . 1 0 1 T h e r a n g e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e i d e a s in
T h o m a s a r e r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h t h o s e of this study.
L o g i o n 13 is r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e confession of P e t e r in t h e gospels. 1 0 2
Significantly, in t h e synoptics, this c o n f e s s i o n i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e s
the T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n a c c o u n t . 1 0 3 J e s u s asks t h e disciples for o p i n i o n s
a b o u t his identity. I n t h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s , it is T h o m a s
whose
a n s w e r is c o r r e c t , h o w e v e r , n o t P e t e r ' s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , P e t e r ' s r e s p o n s e
is telling for o u r p u r p o s e s :
97
This seems to create a link with Jesus's baptism (Mark 1:11, Matt 3:17, Luke
3:22). In particular Matthew's phrasing in 3:17 and 17:5 is identical.
98
P. Oxy. 1:654, 655.
99
NHC II, 2.
100
See A. DeConick, Seek to See Him (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1997).
101
R. Valantasis, The Gospel of Thomas (London and New York: Routledge, 1997)
12-21.
102
Cf. Matt 16:13-20, Mark 8:27-30, Luke 9:18-21, John 6:67-71.
103
Thomas contains no Transfiguration account, but Fletcher-Louis (Luke-Acts,
p. 47) suggests Thomas may have been aware of their relative location in the
Synoptics.
[Logion 13] Jesus said to his disciples: Make a comparison to me a n d

tell me who I a m like. Simon Peter said to him: You are like a righteous angel [ ]. Matthew said to him: You are like a wise
m a n of understanding, T h o m a s said to him: Master, my mouth will
not at all be capable of saying w h o m you are like. Jesus said, "I am
not your master, because you have drunk, you have become intoxicated from the bubbling spring that I have measured out." A n d he
took him, he withdrew, he spoke three words to him. W h e n T h o m a s
came back to his companions, they asked him, " W h a t did Jesus say
to you?" T h o m a s said to them, "If I tell you one of the sayings that
he spoke to me, you will pick up stones and throw them at me; a fire
will come from the rocks and b u r n you up."
T h e c o n t e x t of t h e p a s s a g e suggests t h a t similes o f f e r e d b y S i m o n
Peter and Matthew are meaningful and reverent but not altogether
satisfactory. T h o m a s ' s r e s p o n s e s e e m s t o elicit s o m e t h i n g of a r e b u k e
t e m p e r e d b y a r e c o g n i t i o n of d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g f r o m J e s u s , since
h e t h e n takes T h o m a s aside a n d gives h i m t h r e e w o r d s t h a t a p p a r ently p e r m i t m o r e insight i n t o J e s u s ' s t r u e identity. W h e n
Thomas
r e t u r n s t o t h e o t h e r disciples, t h e y ask h i m w h a t J e s u s h a s told h i m .

T h o m a s says t h a t if h e w e r e to tell t h e m , t h e y w o u l d w a n t t o s t o n e
h i m b u t t h a t t h e stones w o u l d c o n s u m e t h e m .
A n u m b e r of s c h o l a r s h a v e suggested t h a t t h e t h r e e w o r d s
are
likely to h a v e b e e n ( E x o d 3:14). 1 0 4 T h u s , J e s u s h a s
compared
h i m s e l f w i t h t h e divine. If T h o m a s w e r e to s h a r e this
i n f o r m a t i o n , s p e a k i n g t h e i n e f f a b l e n a m e , t h e o t h e r disciples w o u l d
b e c o m p e l l e d to s t o n e him. 1 0 5 R . V a l a n t a s i s says t h a t t h e c o m p a r isons of J e s u s w i t h a n a n g e l a n d w i t h a p h i l o s o p h e r " l o c a t e J e s u s
w i t h i n t h e s p e c t r u m of u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of divine figures as angelic o r
t r a n s c e n d e n t l y philosophical. T h e s e t w o u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of J e s u s o p e r ate w i t h i n t h e s p e c t r u m of c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d religious figures." 1 0 6
U l t i m a t e l y , t h e l i k e n i n g of J e s u s to a n a n g e l i n this logion is j u s t
t h a t , a c o m p a r i s o n . J e s u s asks, " M a k e a c o m p a r i s o n a n d tell
me
w h a t I a m like." T h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a n y e q u a t i o n is b e i n g
m a d e . I n fact, e v e n if o n e w e r e i m p l i e d , t h e c o n t e x t suggests it w o u l d
n o t b e a satisfactory u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e r e f o r e , it d o e s n o t s e e m t h a t
h e r e w e c a n c o n f i d e n t l y s p e a k of J e s u s as a n angel.
10+
See A. DeConick, Seek to See Him, p. 113 n. 40; J . Fossum, The Name of God,
p. 98 n. 59.
105
Stoning was the punishment for blasphemy (Lev 24:16, John 10:30f., m. Sahn
7:4-5).
106
R. Valantasis, Gospel of Thomas, p. 75.
Lastly, t h e r e is a n interesting a c c o u n t of J e s u s b e i n g literally c l o t h e d

as L i t h a r g o e l in t h e a p o c r y p h a l w o r k The Acts of Peter and the Twelve
Apostles 9 ( s e c o n d - t h i r d c e n t u r y GE): 1 0 7
He said to Peter, "Peter!" And Peter was frightened, for how did he
know that his n a m e was Peter? Peter responded to the Savior, " H o w
do you know me, for you called my name?" Lithargoel answered, "I
want to ask you who gave the name Peter to you?" H e said to him,
"It was Jesus Christ, the son of the living God. H e gave this n a m e to
m e . " H e answered and said, "It is I! Recognize me, Peter." H e loosened the garment, which clothed himthe one into which he had
changed himself because of usrevealing to us in truth that it was
he. \Ve prostrated ourselves on the ground and worshipped him. W e
comprised eleven disciples. He stretched forth his h a n d and caused us
to stand. W e spoke with him humbly. O u r heads were bowed down
in unworthiness as we said, " W h a t you wish we will do. But give us
power to do what you wish at all times." 108
T h e r e a c t i o n of P e t e r a n d t h e apostles t o t h e r e v e l a t i o n of J e s u s is
o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e p i p h a n i e s . L i t h a r g o e l is a n e n i g m a t i c c h a r a c t e r w h o c h a n g e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e story b u t a p p e a r s to b e s o m e sort
of divine b e i n g , q u i t e possibly angelic. It is difficult to k n o w w h a t
to m a k e of this t r a d i t i o n . It is s o m e w h a t late b u t suggests t h a t , e v e n
if a n g e l christologies w e r e quickly d i s c o u n t e d b y t h e e a r l y c h u r c h ,
t h e y w e r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y g o n e f r o m c o n s i d e r a t i o n , especially p e r h a p s in G n o s t i c circles. T h i s s o u r c e clearly w o u l d fit i n t o a n " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " p o r t r a y a l of J e s u s in t h a t h e a p p e a r s as a n a n g e l . T h a t h e
is c l o t h e d as a n a n g e l a n d t h e n r e m o v e s t h a t guise suggests n o t a
p e r m a n e n t b u t a t e m p o r a r y c h a n g e of physical a p p e a r a n c e .
3.12
Stephen
Acts 6 r e c o r d s t h a t S t e p h e n , c h o s e n t o b e o n e of t h e seven ministers to t h e c o m m u n i t y in J e r u s a l e m , p e r f o r m e d g r e a t signs (Acts 6:8).

S o m e in t h e c o m m u n i t y b e c a m e j e a l o u s of h i m a n d b e g a n t o c o n spire a g a i n s t h i m (Acts 6:11). H e is seized a n d b r o u g h t b e f o r e t h e
107
A. Molinari, The Acts of Peter and the Twelve: Allegory, Ascent, and Ministry in the
Wake of the Decirn Persecution (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 2000) 201-204, suggests that
the final redaction of the text dates to the Decian persecution (249-251 CE) and
that the genre is largely allegorical, with a mix of realism and surrealism (pp. 53-92).
108 Translation from J. Robinson, ed., The JVag Hammadi Libraiy in English (New
York: Harper Collins, 1988) 292-293.
c o u n c i l ( 6 : 1 2 - 1 3 ) . J u s t p r i o r t o S t e p h e n ' s d e f e n s e s p e e c h (Acts 7)
c o m e s t h e s o m e w h a t e n i g m a t i c s t a t e m e n t , " A n d g a z i n g at h i m , all
w h o sat in t h e c o u n c i l saw t h a t his face w a s like t h e f a c e of a n a n g e l
[ ] " (Acts 6:15). 1 0 9 I t s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t L u k e
does n o t simply m e a n a h u m a n
" m e s s e n g e r " f o r in this
i n s t a n c e , since t h e t e r m w o u l d t h e n c o n v e y n o special significance.

Nevertheless, h e uses t h e qualifier () in speaking a b o u t the a p p e a r a n c e of S t e p h e n ' s face; t h a t is, his face w a s like a n a n g e l ' s face.
T o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t s u c h a s t a t e m e n t m e a n t to L u k e a n d his a u d i e n c e , it is n e c e s s a r y to c o n s i d e r w h a t a n t e c e d e n t s a n d s o u r c e s L u k e
m a y h a v e b e e n calling u p o n in this r e f e r e n c e . M u n c k suggests, " I n
t h e m i d s t of all these falsehoods, S t e p h e n ' s face s h o n e like a n angel." 1 1 0
T h i s is n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t L u k e m i g h t
h a v e m e a n t b y this c o m m e n t .
I n the H e b r e w Bible, M o s e s h a s a n e p i p h a n y , a n d his c o u n t e n a n c e is a l t e r e d ( E x o d 3 4 : 2 9 - 3 5 ) . T h i s scene m a y also h a v e i n f o r m e d
L u k e ' s writing:
[29] W h e n Moses came down from M o u n t Sinai, with the two tables
of the testimony in his h a n d as he came down from the mountain,
Moses did not know that the skin of his face shone because he had
been talking with God. [30] A n d when A a r o n and all the people of
Israel saw Moses, behold, the skin of his face shone, and they were
afraid to come near him. [31] But Moses called to them; and Aaron
and all the leaders of the congregation returned to him, and Moses
talked with them. [32] And afterward all the people of Israel came
near, and he gave them in c o m m a n d m e n t all that the Lord had spoken
with him in M o u n t Sinai. [33] And w h e n Moses had finished speaking
with them, he put a veil 011 his face; [34] but whenever Moses went
in before the Lord to speak with him, he took the veil off, until he
came out; a n d when he came out, and told the people of Israel what
he was commanded, [35] the people of Israel saw the face of Moses,
that the skin of Moses' face shone; and Moses would put the veil upon
his face again, until he went in to speak with him.
109
The D text adds "standing in their midst ( )." This suggests that an angel was present with Stephen at that moment or that Stephen himself was transformed into an angel, since this phrase locates the angelomoiphic
being in the onlookers' physical space rather than simply leaving it as an appearance or apparition.
110
J. Munck, 77le Acts of the Apostles (Garden City: Doubleday, 1967) 59. Similarly,
E. Haenchen, The Acts of the Apostles (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1971) 272,
says, "This transfiguration signifies for Luke that Stephen is filled with the Holy
Spirit, and thereby enabled to make the speech which now follows."
T h e i d e a of M o s e s ' s f a c e b e i n g c h a n g e d a t S i n a i s e e m s to
have
i n f l u e n c e d L u k e ' s i m a g e of S t e p h e n in s o m e w a y . O . G l o m b i t z a h a s
suggested t h a t t h e giving of t h e L a w b y a n g e l s in Acts 7:53 (cf. D e u t
33:2, G a l 3:19, A c t s 7:38. H e b 2:2) is parallel to t h e t e a c h i n g (givi n g of t h e law) b y t h e angel-like S t e p h e n in 6:15. 1 1 1 R e l a t e d t o this
p a s s a g e is a n i n t e r e s t i n g parallel f r o m Q u m r a n , 4 Q 3 7 4 . 1 1 2 T h i s f r a g m e n t s e e m s to talk a b o u t M o s e s a t Sinai, s a y i n g t h a t h e [ M o s e s ] w a s
m a d e " a s G o d [ " ] a n d t h a t G o d " c a u s e d his face t o shine." 1 1 3
S o m e scholars have suggested that Stephen's angelic a p p e a r a n c e
is c o n n e c t e d w i t h his s u b s e q u e n t m a r t y r d o m . 1 1 4 I n t h e early C h r i s t i a n
Martyrdom
of Polycarp, w e d o find t h e belief t h a t t h e m a r t y r s a r e t r a n s -
f o r m e d i n t o a n g e l o m o r p h i c b e i n g s i m m e d i a t e l y p r i o r to t h e i r d e a t h .
T h e Martyrdom,
of Polycarp 2:3 states, " b u t it [the r e w a r d of
right-
eousness] w a s s h o w n by t h e L o r d to t h e m w h o w e r e n o l o n g e r m e n ,
b u t a l r e a d y a n g e l s " (cf. Hennas
Vis 2:2:7 a n d Sim 9:25:2).
A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g his d e f e n s e s p e e c h in A c t s 7:55, S t e p h e n is filled

with t h e h o l y spirit a n d h a s a vision: " [ H e ] g a z e d i n t o h e a v e n a n d
saw t h e glory of G o d , a n d J e s u s s t a n d i n g at t h e right h a n d of G o d ;
a n d h e said, ' B e h o l d , I see t h e h e a v e n s o p e n e d , a n d t h e S o n of m a n
s t a n d i n g a t t h e r i g h t h a n d of G o d . " ' S o t o o , in t h e Martyrdom
12:1,
P o l y c a r p is "filled w i t h c o u r a g e a n d j o y , a n d his c o u n t e n a n c e w i t h
g r a c e [ / ] so t h a t it n o t only d i d
n o t fall w i t h t r o u b l e at t h e t h i n g s said to h i m , b u t t h a t t h e
Pro-
C o n s u l w a s a s t o u n d e d . " T h e c h a n g e in S t e p h e n ' s c o u n t e n a n c e s e e m s
to b e e c h o e d in P o l y c a r p .
C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s n o t e d s o m e of the difficulties w i t h t h e m a r t y r d o m i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 1 1 5 H e rightly p o i n t s o u t t h a t this t y p e of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s b e e n u s e d to d o w n p l a y t h e significance of t h e passage.
Besides t h e fact t h a t b e t w e e n S t e p h e n ' s c h a n g e in c o u n t e n a n c e a n d
his m a r t y r d o m a r e s o m e 5 3 i n t e r v e n i n g verses, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s also
n o t e s t h a t t h e r e a r e n o J e w i s h , p r e - C h r i s t i a n e x a m p l e s of r i g h t e o u s
martyrs b e c o m i n g angelic before their death.
111
O. Glombitza, "Zur Charakterisierung des Stephanus in Act 6 und 7"
53 (1962) 238-244.
112
C. Newsom, "4Q374: A Discourse on the Exodus/Conquest Tradition." Also
in DJD XIX; C. Fletcher-Louis, "4Q374: A Discourse on the Sinai Tradition," pp.
236-252.
113
Cf. also Dan 12:3 and Rev 1:16.
114
See H. Conzlemann, Acts of the Apostles (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987) 48;
115
U l t i m a t e l y , A c t s 6 : 1 5 s e e m s t o b u i l d u p o n a relatively w i d e s p r e a d
J e w i s h (and early C h r i s t i a n ) u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e physical a p p e a r a n c e
of angels. T h a t S t e p h e n h a d " a f a c e like a n a n g e l " suggests t h a t his
c o u n t e n a n c e w a s in some way illuminated a n d temporarily t r a n s f o r m e d .
T h i s m a y b e r e l a t e d t o t h e i d e a in t h e Martyrdom
of Polycarp
m a r t y r s received a n g e l i c s t a t u s j u s t p r i o r to t h e i r d e a t h ;
that
however,
S t e p h e n ' s angelic status m a y also h a v e b e e n linked to t h e giving of

T o r a h / r e v e l a t i o n . T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y s t r o n g i n d i c a t i o n
t h a t h e u n d e r w e n t a n y k i n d of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n a n g e l .
3.13
Paul
P a u l uses t h e t e r m t e n t i m e s in his epistles. 1 1 6 I n G a l 4, h e

m a k e s a n i n t e r e s t i n g r e f e r e n c e to angels. I n t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t of t h e
discussion P a u l is s t a t i n g his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p u r p o s e of t h e
L a w ( c h a p t e r 3) a n d e x h o r t i n g t h e G a l a t i a n s as heirs to t h e p r o m i s e
to A b r a h a m to follow C h r i s t (4:111). A t verse 12, h e switches t o
r e m i n d t h e G a l a t i a n s of t h e i r t r e a t m e n t of h i m d u r i n g his visit to
t h e m . I n G a l 4:14, P a u l says, " a n d t h o u g h m y c o n d i t i o n w a s a trial
to y o u , y o u did n o t s c o r n o r despise m e , b u t [ ] r e c e i v e d m e
as a n a n g e l of G o d [ ], as C h r i s t J e s u s . " 1 1 ' W h i l e t h e
m e a n i n g of 4 : 1 4 is u n c l e a r , t h e t r a n s l a t i o n is n o t o f t e n d i s p u t e d . T h e
s e e m s to h a v e a s t r o n g a d v e r s a t i v e affect. T h e G a l a t i a n s d i d
n o t reject P a u l b u t i n s t e a d received h i m as a n a n g e l of G o d ,
as
C h r i s t J e s u s . T h e clauses s e e m t o s t a n d in a p p o s i t i o n , so a n g e l
of G o d a n d C h r i s t J e s u s a r e b o t h t h e c o m p a r a t i v e w a y s in w h i c h
P a u l w a s received.
M a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s see t h e r e f e r e n c e t o " a n g e l " h e r e as m e a n i n g
" m e s s e n g e r / e n v o y " in t h e sense of c o m m i s s i o n i n g . 1 1 8 T h e
116
parallel
Taking with the majority of scholars seven letters to be authentically Pauline

(Rom, 1 and 2 Cor, Gal, Phil. 1 Thess and Phmn). On this see R. Brown, An IntroAuction to the Mew Testament (New York: Doubleday, 1997) 406, 585-589. The ten
occurrences of the term are: Rom 8:38; 1 Cor 4:9, 6:3, 11:10, 13:1; 2 Cor
11:14, 12:7; Gal 1:8, 3:19, 4:14 and also in 1 Thess 4:16 .
117
A noteworthy parallel from a fourth-century CE text is Acts of Paul and Thecla
3, "At times he [Paul] looked like a man [], and at times he had the face
of an angel [ ]." This is likely based on Acts 6:15 and may
be more loosely based on Gal 4:14, since the Acts themselves use 2 Cor 12:3 as
a starting point. On the appearance of Paul, see A. Malherbe, "A Physical Description
of Paul" HTR 79 (1986) 170-175.
118
E.g. J. Dunn, Galatians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (New
York: Doubleday, 1997) 235.
clause " a s C h r i s t J e s u s " is t h e n u n d e r s t o o d as o n e of c o m m i s s i o n i n g

t h a t is, t h e m e s s e n g e r c a n a c t w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e o n e
who
sent h i m . I n s o m e sense P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t parallels t h e w o r d s of J e s u s

in M a t t 10:40, " H e w h o receives [] y o u receives []
m e , a n d h e w h o receives [] m e receives []
him
w h o sent m e " (cf. J o h n 13:20; M a r k 9:37; n e g a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n L u k e

10:16). T h e G a l a t i a n s received P a u l a n d , in so d o i n g , received C h r i s t
a n d P a u l ' s g o s p e l m e s s a g e ( a n d implicitly G o d ) . T h i s w o u l d
then
reflect P a u l ' s o w n belief t h a t h e w a s s e n t / c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e
risen
J e s u s h i m s e l f (Gal
1:12). 119 C e r t a i n l y , s o m e a s p e c t of this i d e a
of
c o m m i s s i o n i n g is m e a n t b y P a u l ' s use of h e r e , since t h e t e r m

itself c o n v e y s this idea. 1 2 0 H o w e v e r , P a u l o f t e n uses t h e t e r m " a p o s tie" to m e a n " m e s s e n g e r " (e.g., Phil 2:25), so w e m a y b e r i g h t in
t h i n k i n g t h a t , w h e n h e uses " a n g e l , " h e m a y m e a n s o m e t h i n g m o r e .
A. G o d d a r d
a n d S. C u m m i n s offer a n i n t r i g u i n g insight.
They
briefly survey s o m e l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s t i n g t h a t in J e w i s h w r i t i n g s of
the t i m e , t h e r e w a s a n " i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n afflicted saints a n d t h e i r
angelic c o u n t e r p a r t s . ' " 2 1 M o r e o v e r , they note t h a t in the early Christian
l i t e r a t u r e m a r t y r s a r e s o m e t i m e s identified w i t h angels at t h e m o m e n t
of t h e i r d e a t h (Acts 6:15, Mart.
Pol. 2:3). T h i s r e a d i n g , w h i c h t h e y
a d m i t c a n o n l y be t e n t a t i v e l y p l a c e d a l o n g a t r a j e c t o r y of d i s p a r a t e
e v i d e n c e , fits well e n o u g h w i t h t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; b u t it w o u l d b e
difficult to s u b s t a n t i a t e a n y significant c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n G a l 4 : 1 4
a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h e y cite, since P a u l d o e s n o t s e e m t o suggest (even
in t h e c o n t e x t of suffering) t h a t h e is n e a r to his o w n d e a t h ( m a r t y r d o m ) a t least in G a l a t i a n s . 1 2 2 N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e i n t r i g u i n g a s p e c t
of t h e i r suggestion m a y b e t h a t , if P a u l p r e a c h e d a C h r i s t - p a t t e r n e d
119
Paul may be hinting at this idea also in Gal 1:16 when he says that he has
Christ "in him [ ]." He might be suggesting that he has some sort of divine
being/power within him (cf. Gal 2:20).
150
A. Goddard and S. Cummins, "111 or Ill-treated? Conflict and Persecution as
the Context of Pad's Original Ministry in Galatia (Galatians 4:12-20)" JSNT 52 (1993)
93-136. They note that the LXX use of is relevant here, such that
the Galatians "gladly recognized Paul's divine commission and authority" (p. 108).
121
A. Goddard and S. Cummins, "111 or Ill-treated?" p. 108.
122
A number of recent works have argued that suffering was an integral part of
Paul's mission. See S. Hafemann, "The Role of Suffering in the Mission of Paul"
in The Mission of the Early Church to Jews and Gentiles, ed. Jostein Adna and Hans
Kvalbein (Tbingen: J. C. B. Mhr, 2000); T. Savage, Power through Weakness: Paul's
Understanding of the Christian Ministry in 2 Corinthians (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1996); E. Baasland, "Persecution: A Neglected Feature in the Letter to the
Galatians" ST 38 (1984) 135-150.
g o s p e l (i.e., o n e of self-giving), w h i c h h e e m b o d i e d
in
weakness
t h r o u g h p e r s e c u t i o n (4:14 a n d especially 2 C o r 1 1 : 2 3 - 3 3 ) , t h e n w e
c a n p e r h a p s see P a u l ' s t e a c h i n g as t h e n a s c e n t seed of t h e ideal of
m a r t y r d o m as the u l t i m a t e self-giving in a Christlike p a t t e r n . 1 2 3
R e c e n t l y , C . G i e s c h e n h a s strongly asserted t h a t P a u l is p r e s e n t ing a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c self-understanding. 1 2 4 G i e s c h e n begins his analysis b y n o t i n g t h a t m o s t m o d e r n i n t e r p r e t e r s take t h e p h r a s e " a s a n
angel of G o d , as C h r i s t J e s u s " to b e h y p o t h e t i c a l ; t h a t is to say, t h e
G a l a t i a n s r e c e i v e d P a u l as if h e w e r e a n a n g e l o r e v e n J e s u s C h r i s t .
G i e s c h e n b r e a k s d o w n his exegesis b y a s k i n g t w o f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s tions: (1) w h a t d o e s P a u l m e a n b y t h e p h r a s e , a n d
(2) w h a t is m e a n t b y t h e p a r a l l e l clauses? T o t h e first, G i e s c h e n
a r g u e s t h a t P a u l m e a n t " a n g e l " in t h e t e c h n i c a l sense, " a s a spirit
w h o m e d i a t e s b e t w e e n die heavenly a n d die earthly realms." R e g a r d i n g
t h e clauses, G i e s c h e n d r a w s o n e x a m p l e s f r o m P a u l (1 C o r 3:1
a n d 2 C o r 2:17) as well as f r o m P h m
17 a n d D i d a c h e
1 1 : 3 - 4 to
d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e clauses s t a n d in a p p o s i t i o n to e a c h o t h e r : G o d ' s
a n g e l is C h r i s t J e s u s . G i e s c h e n t h u s c o n c l u d e s t h a t P a u l in s o m e sense
m e a n s t h a t h e is a n angelic b e i n g b e c a u s e h e h a s b e e n u n i t e d t h r o u g h
his a p o c a l y p s e w i t h a specific a n g e l of G o d , n a m e l y J e s u s C h r i s t .
O n e m a y w a n t to q u e s t i o n G i e s c h e n ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t P a u l ' s revelation (apocalypse) of t h e
risen
C h r i s t m e a n t t h a t h e h a d in s o m e
w a y b e c o m e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . T h e c o m m o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of P a u l ' s
a c c o u n t of a mystical a s c e n t in 2 C o r 1 2 : 2 - 5 is t h a t Paul is n o t v e r y
a f f i r m i n g of its value. 1 2 5 N e v e r t h e l e s s , s o m e of t h e s t r o n g e s t s u p p o r t
f o r this c o m e s f r o m P a u l h i m s e l f . I n t h e s a m e p e r i c o p e , 2
Cor
12:110, a f t e r t h e m e n t i o n of t h e m a n w h o f o u r t e e n y e a r s e a r l i e r
h a d a mystical a s c e n t , P a u l says, " O n b e h a l f of this m a n I will b o a s t ,
b u t o n m y o w n b e h a l f I will n o t b o a s t , except of my weaknesses [
] . " H e t h e n discusses t h e " t h o r n in t h e flesh [
] , " t h e " a n g e l of S a t a n " w h o k e p t h i m f r o m b e i n g t o o e l a t e d
p r e s u m a b l y in his r e v e l a t i o n . I n verse 9 h e r e p e a t s , " I will all t h e
128
Paul may have thought of himself as actually embodying Christ. On this see
C. Joynes, The Return of Elijah, pp. 202-216.
124
C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, 315-325. M. Barker also says that Paul
equated Jesus with an angel, citing Gal 4:14; The Great Angel (London: SPCK. 1992)
223.
125
R. Price, "Punished in Paradise" JSNT 7 (1980) 33-40, suggests that Paul's
thorn in the flesh is an angel of Satan who has come with him from his mystical
ascent to keep him from being too prideful. See also P. Gooder, "Only the Third
Heaven? 2 Corinthians 12:1-10 and Heavenly Ascent" (Oxford: D.Phil, thesis, 1998).
m o r e gladly b o a s t of m y w e a k n e s s e s , t h a t t h e p o w e r of C h r i s t m a y
rest u p o n m e . "
I n s u p p o r t of this view, G i e s c h e n n o t e s t h e w o r k of C . M o r r a y J o n e s , w h o h a s t r a c e d the i d e a t h a t t h e mystic is actually t r a n s f o r m e d
d u r i n g his vision. 1 2 6 H e also cites 2 En 22:8, in w h i c h E n o c h a s c e n d s
to h e a v e n a n d is said to be c h a n g e d to t h e f o r m of t h e g l o r i o u s
o n e s of h e a v e n . If i n d e e d P a u l identified w i t h this t r a d i t i o n , t h e n his
s t a t e m e n t m a k e s a g r e a t deal m o r e sense. T h e G a l a t i a n s
received
h i m as a n a n g e l of G o d , as C h r i s t J e s u s , b e c a u s e P a u l himself, via
his p e r s o n a l a p o c a l y p s e of t h e risen J e s u s , h a d b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d .
G i e s c h e n h a s b e e n c h a l l e n g e d o n this exegesis, a n d it d o e s p e r h a p s press t h e e v i d e n c e t o o far. 1 2 7 T h e r e f o r e , a n a l t e r n a t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of P a u l ' s m e a n i n g is r e q u i r e d . M a n y i n t e r p r e t e r s
believe
t h a t P a u l is u s i n g h y p e r b o l e to m a k e his p o i n t a b o u t t h e G a l a t i a n s '
original r e c e p t i o n of h i m a n d his m e s s a g e ; h o w e v e r , if seen in light
of t r a d i t i o n s s u c h as G e n 18, P a u l ' s m e a n i n g m a y be susceptible of
a better interpretation.
It is relatively c e r t a i n t h a t P a u l h a s in m i n d t h e A b r a h a m cycle
( G e n 16~21) in his a r g u m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h o s e w h o a r e h e i r s to t h e
p r o m i s e , since A b r a h a m
a p p e a r s b y n a m e seven t i m e s in G a l
3.
H o w e v e r , t h e i d e a t h a t P a u l m i g h t h a v e h a d in m i n d t h e G e n
18
visitation of a n g e l s ( a n d G o d ) to A b r a h a m h a s n o t b e e n
explored.
If P a u l d i d h a v e s u c h i d e a s in t h e b a c k of his m i n d , it m i g h t m e a n
that h e intends to c o m p l i m e n t the Galatians on having received h i m
in a w a y b e f i t t i n g t h e r e c e p t i o n of a divine g u e s t . T h i s is m o r e t h a n
p u r e l y a m e t a p h o r , since P a u l w o u l d h a v e in m i n d t h e possibility
t h a t divine b e i n g s really d o visit h u m a n
It is i m p o r t a n t to recall t h a t G e n
beings.
18 is t h e o c c a s i o n w h e n
God
a n d t h e angels b r o u g h t t h e n e w s t h a t S a r a h w a s t o b e a r A b r a h a m
a t r u e h e i r (unlike I s h m a e l in G e n
17, b o r n of t h e slave
Hagar).
A b r a h a m r e c e i v e d his guests w i t h p r o p e r hospitality. It w a s
then
r e v e a l e d to h i m t h a t h e w o u l d
him.
finally
h a v e t h e son p r o m i s e d
T h e p r o m i s e w a s c o n t i n u i n g life t h r o u g h his p r o g e n y . I n R o m 4:17,

P a u l n o t e s t h a t this p r o m i s e gave life f r o m d e a t h . P a u l h i n t s a t this
v e r y s a m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g in G a l 4 : 2 9 w h e n h e says, " B u t as a t t h a t
126
C. MorrayJones, "Transformational Mysticism in the Apocalyptic-Merkabah
Tradition" JJS 43 (1992) 1-31.
127
For some strong reactions to his exegesis of this passage, see reviews by
D. Hannah, JTS 51 (2000) and J . Davila, JSJ 30 (1999) 345-346.
t i m e h e w h o w a s b o r n a c c o r d i n g to t h e flesh p e r s e c u t e d h i m w h o
w a s b o r n a c c o r d i n g to t h e Spirit, so it is n o w . " T h e o n e b o r n
is I s a a c , since h e w a s b o r n to p a r e n t s w h o w e r e b e y o n d t h e
age w h e n t h e y c o u l d n o r m a l l y p r o d u c e c h i l d r e n .
T h i s a r g u m e n t is s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t A b r a h a m
appears
a g a i n j u s t a f t e r o u r p a s s a g e in the allegory of S a r a h a n d H a g a r (Gal

4 : 2 1 - 3 1 ) . 1 2 8 P a u l e m p l o y s this allegory to s h o w h o w t h o s e w h o a r e
h e i r s of t h e p r o m i s e of life to A b r a h a m via S a r a h a r e , like I s a a c ,
c h i l d r e n of p r o m i s e . P a u l ' s l a n g u a g e of slavery is c o n t i n u e d also, in
t h a t H a g a r is a slave a n d h e r o f f s p r i n g r e p r e s e n t t h o s e w h o a r e in
t h e w o r l d a n d e n s l a v e d to t h e e l e m e n t a l p o w e r s .
W h e t h e r t h e G a l a t i a n s w o u l d h a v e b e e n a b l e to h e a r this allusion
to G e n 18 a n d A b r a h a m ' s r e c e p t i o n of t h e angels d e p e n d s 011 h o w
o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t c o m m u n i t y ' s m a k e u p . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it s e e m s
likely t h a t P a u l w o u l d h a v e h a d this p a s s a g e in m i n d as h e w r o t e
G a l a t i a n s a n d c o n s t r u c t e d his a r g u m e n t of t h e G a l a t i a n s (Gentiles)
as h e i r s to t h e p r o m i s e given t o A b r a h a m , a p r o m i s e t h a t w a s ultim a t e l y fulfilled in t h e n a r r a t i v e of G e n
18.
P a u l m a y b e d r a w i n g u p o n a n u m b e r of H e b r e w Bible t r a d i t i o n s
in w h i c h h u m a n s played host to angels w h e n h e says that the G a l a t i a n s
received h i m c o r r e c t l y t h a t is, s h o w e d h i m hospitality as if h e w e r e
a n a n g e l o r e v e n J e s u s himself. N o t only, t h e n , did t h e y receive P a u l
correctly in t h a t w a y , b u t P a u l also m e n t i o n s t h a t despite his infirmity
(4:14) t h e y did n o t t u r n h i m a w a y . T h e i n f i r m i t y c r e a t e s a s i t u a t i o n
w h e r e b y t h e G a l a t i a n s m i g h t h a v e r e j e c t e d P a u l w i t h o u t necessarily
b r e a c h i n g hospitality; i n s t e a d t h e y r e c e i v e d h i m graciously.
3.14
Taxo
Like o t h e r writings in t h e g e n r e , t h e T e s t a m e n t of M o s e s p u r p o r t s
to b e t h e final w o r d s of M o s e s to his successor J o s h u a . 1 2 9 I n
the
T e s t a m e n t of M o s e s 10:2 w e r e a d , " T h e n will be filled t h e h a n d s

of t h e m e s s e n g e r (Latin: nuntius), w h o is in the highest place a p p o i n t e d .
Y e a , h e will at o n c e a v e n g e t h e m of t h e i r e n e m i e s . " T h e i d e n t i t y of
this m e s s e n g e r h a s b e e n d e b a t e d b y scholars. T h r o u g h a c o m p a r i son of t h e role p l a y e d b y e a c h , this mmtius w a s first i d e n t i f i e d as t h e
128
129
L. Martyn, Galatians (New York: Doubleday, 1997) 431.

For arguments on dating see section 3.7 above.
a r c h a n g e l M i c h a e l . 1 3 0 T . M a n s o n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t nuntius, w h e n u s e d
in t h e V u l g a t e , refers t o h u m a n m e s s e n g e r s , w h i c h o f f e r e d Elijah
(citing t h e role of E l i j a h in M a i 3 : I f . a n d Sir 48:10) as a possible
c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e nuntius.m
H i s suggestion h a s n o t b e e n t a k e n u p b y
others, however. D. Carlson explored the relationship between T a x o

i n c h a p t e r 9 a n d t h e nuntius in c h a p t e r 10 f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of
v e n g e a n c e in a p o c a l y p t i c literature. 1 3 2 T h e s t r e n g t h of his analysis
w a s to see t h e close c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the s u f f e r i n g of T a x o a n d
his sons in c h a p t e r 9 a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t call f o r v e n g e a n c e in 10:2.
H i s analysis led h i m to see t h e m e s s e n g e r in 10:2 as a
"priestly"
h e a v e n l y figure. 1 3 3
R e c e n t l y , J . T r o m p h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e nuntius s h o u l d b e e q u a t e d
w i t h T a x o f r o m c h a p t e r 9. 1 3 4 T r o m p stresses t h a t t h e nuntius is a
h u m a n b e i n g , T a x o . H e states t h a t w h e n w e see T a x o as t h e figure in
10:2, " d i e disturbing a p p e a r a n c e of a superfluous angel is discarded.'" 3 5
T h i s s i t u a t i o n is a g o o d e x a m p l e of t h e a m b i g u i t y t h a t s e e m s t o
exist in t h e d e f i n i t i o n of " a n g e l s " in this p e r i o d . T h a t s c h o l a r s c a n
see e i t h e r - o r suggests t h a t p e r h a p s t h e best w a y to i n t e r p r e t t h e text
is to leave o p e n die possibility that the a u t h o r i n t e n d e d s o m e ambiguity.
T h e difficulties t h a t arise in t r y i n g t o d e c i d e b e t w e e n h u m a n
or
angelic m e s s e n g e r a r e alleviated w h e n w e r e c o g n i z e t h e possibility of

a fluid u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
If this is t h e c a s e , t h e n in the T e s t a m e n t of M o s e s this
nuntius
a p p e a r s to b e a figure w h o will a v e n g e t h e s u f f e r i n g of T a x o
his sons. S u c h a s c e n a r i o w o u l d b e in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e
and
evidence
130
This language is reminiscent of the role of Melchizedek in 11H3. Some have
argued for the equation of Michael and Melchizedek in the writings from the Dead
Sea, e.g., F. Garcia Martinez, "The Eschatological Figure of 4Q246" in Qumran and
Apocalyptic, ed. F. Garcia Martinez (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1992) 162-179; J. Davila,
"Michael, Melchizedek, and Holy War," pp. 259272 ;HJPAJC IIIi:450.
131
T. Manson, "Miscellanea Apocalyptica" JTS 46 (1945) 41-45.
132
D. Carlson, "Vengeance and Angelic Mediation in Testament of Moses 9 and
10 "JBL 101 (1982) 85-95. He sees the theme of vengeance playing out in other
apocalypses such as 1 En. 9-10, 47, 91-104, Rev 8:3-5 and also in Tob 12:12-15.
133
His insight may be given added support by J. Tromp, who notes (p. 209 n. 29)
that in Flecataeus (in Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, XL, 3, 5), the Jews, "call
this man the high priest, and believe that he acts as a messenger () to them
in God's commandments" (see 3.15).
134
J. Tromp, "Taxo, The Messenger of the Lord" JSJ 21 (1990) 200-209. See
also J. Tromp, The Assumption of Moses: A Critical Edition with Commentary (Leiden:
E. J. Brill, 1993) 228-231.
135
J. Tromp, "Taxo," p. 209.
f r o m this section t h a t r i g h t e o u s individuals s e e m e d to h a v e a p a r ticular access t o t h e angelic. T h e r e is n o t a s t r o n g c a s e h e r e f o r seeing T a x o as e i t h e r a n g e l o m o r p h i c o r as a n a n g e l .
3.15
77le High Priest in Hecateus of Abdera
H e c a t e u s of A b d e r a , a n o n - J e w w r i t i n g in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y B C E ,
is r e c o r d e d b y D i o d o r u s Siculus, Bibliotheca
Historien X L , 3, 5 (first
c e n t u r y B C E ) . D i o d o r u s is r e c o r d e d in P h o t i u s ( n i n t h c e n t u r y C E ) ,
so it is difficult t o k n o w for c e r t a i n h o w m u c h t h e text h a s b e e n
c h a n g e d o v e r t i m e a n d to w h a t a u d i e n c e it h a d originally ( a n d later)
b e e n d i r e c t e d . V e r s e s 5 - 6 says of t h e h i g h priest:
[5] These same m e n he appointed to be judges in all major disputes,
and entrusted to them the guardianship of the laws and customs. For
this reason the J e w s never have a king, and the authority over the peopie is regularly vested in whichever priest is regarded as superior to
his colleagues in wisdom and virtue. T h e y call this man the high priest,
and believe that he acts [] as a messenger [] to them
of God's commandments. [6] It is he, we are told, who in their assemblies a n d other gatherings announces what is ordained, a n d the J e w s
are so docile in such matters that straightaway they fall to the ground
and do reverence to the high priest w h e n he expounds the comm a n d m e n t s to them. 136
Falling to the g r o u n d is o f t e n p a r t of a n a n g e l o p h a n y , b u t it is a l m o s t
exclusively t h e case t h a t this o c c u r s o n c e t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e a n g e l
h a s b e e n r e v e a l e d to t h e seer. T h e r e is s o m e h i n t in t h e
Hebrew
Bible t h a t t h e priestly role is o n e of m e d i a t i o n t h a t m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d s o m e t h i n g like a n angel. M a i 2:7 says, " F o r t h e lips of a priest
[ ]s h o u l d g u a r d k n o w l e d g e , a n d m e n s h o u l d seek i n s t r u c t i o n f r o m
his m o u t h , f o r h e is t h e m e s s e n g e r
[ ] of t h e L o r d of h o s t s . "
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s stresses t h e w o r s h i p of t h e h i g h p r i e s t as r e p r e s e n t a tive of a n e x a l t e d n a t u r e a n d t h e d o n n i n g of t h e priestly g a r b as

integral to t h a t role. 1 3 7 H e writes, " F a l l i n g to t h e g r o u n d in rever-
136
M. Stem, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism (Jerusalem: Israel Academy
of Sciences and Humanities, 1974-1984) 1:26-35.
137
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 120-129. He develops more fully the idea of
the importance of the high priest's garbs as transformative to an angelic status in
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 222-251. The exegesis is pertinent to the Qiimran
group but is not as relevant to a discussion of the high priest more generally, so
it is simply noted here.
e n c e / w o r s h i p is obviously a p o s t u r e typical of t h e o p h a n i e s a n d a n g e l o p h a n i e s , a n d this a c t i o n d e m a n d s a n o n t o l o g i c a l r a t h e r t h a n a p u r e l y

f u n c t i o n a l sense to t h e priest's i d e n t i t y as . ' " 3 8 F l e t c h e r - L o u i s
h a s also s e e n t h e h i g h priest in t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of D a n
7:13. 1 3 9
H o w e v e r , L. S t u c k e n b r u c k , in his s t u d y o n a n g e l v e n e r a t i o n in this
p e r i o d , c o n c l u d e s t h a t " r e a c t i o n s to t h e p r e s e n c e of a n a n g e l
or
h u m a n s u p e r i o r [are] f r e q u e n t l y n o t d e e m e d a n a c t w h i c h r u n s at
all c o u n t e r to t h e w o r s h i p of o n e G o d . " 1 4 0 T h i s suggests t h a t d u e
r e v e r e n c e c o u l d b e given to t h e h i g h priest w i t h o u t d e m a n d i n g a n
o n t o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of his identity as m e s s e n g e r (), since
h e n e e d n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d as divine in o r d e r to b e treated reverentially.
T h e p r o b l e m in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p a s s a g e f r o m H e c a t e u s lies in
k n o w i n g in w h a t sense t h e t e r m is u s e d . Is it s i m p l y m e a n t
to r e f e r t o t h e h i g h p r i e s t as h u m a n m e s s e n g e r of divine will o r
s o m e t h i n g m o r e ? R e v e r e n c e for t h e h i g h priest suggests t h a t it m i g h t
b e s o m e t h i n g m o r e , b u t it is n o t c l e a r t h a t H e c a t e u s h a s p a r t i c u l a r l y
reliable i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e p r a c t i c e in t h e J e r u s a l e m
F. W a t s o n n o t i c e d this p a s s a g e s o m e t i m e ago.
141
cult.
Interestingly, he
concluded,
But while words cannot, certainly, be pressed as evidence of Jewish
attitudes 01 practices of the late fourth century B.C., it is at least interesting and perhaps significant that he [Hecateus] gives no hint of a
doctrine of angels [as present at the giving of the law], and knows of
no intermediary between G o d and the Jewish nation other than the
m a n to w h o m has fallen the sacred office of High Priest. 142
T h u s , it is difficult to c o m e to a n y firm c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g this
p a s s a g e , c o n s i d e r i n g o u r c u r r e n t u n c e r t a i n t i e s a b o u t its d a t e a n d c o n text. T h e n o n - J e w i s h a u t h o r H e c a t a e u s m a y h a v e u s e d t h e
term
t o r e l a t e t h e i d e a of t h e h i g h priest's role as i n t e r m e d i a r y
a n d i n t e r p r e t e r of divine o r d i n a n c e . T h a t t h e J e w s a r e said to fall
to t h e g r o u n d a n d w o r s h i p t h e h i g h priest m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e t h i n g
of a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e h i g h priest's role. T h e use of t h e t e r m
138

C. Fletcher-Louis, "The High Priest as Divine Mediator in the Hebrew Bible:
Dan 7:13 as a Test Case" SBLSP (1997) 161-193.
140
L. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology: A Study in Early Judaism and in
the Christology of the Apocalypse of John (Tbingen: J. C. B. Mhr, 1995) 83.
141
F. Watson, "The Messenger of God in Hecataeus of Abdera" HTR 48 (1955)
255-257.
142
F. Watson, "The Messenger," p. 257; words in brackets are mine.
139
p r o b a b l y d i d n o t c o n j u r e a n y i d e a s of t h e h u m a n h i g h priest
as a divine b e i n g o n e a r t h , b u t it c a n n o t b e c e r t a i n t h a t it d i d n o t
for s o m e h e a r e r s .
Lastly, b e f o r e m o v i n g o n it is n e c e s s a r y to discuss briefly t h e suggestion by F l e t c h e r - L o u i s of t h e p r i e s t h o o d (in g e n e r a l ) b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d as a n g e l o m o r p h i c . 1 4 3 T o m a k e his case, h e suggests t h a t t h e
p r o p h e t i c role, w i t h its m o r e suggestive s t a t u s b e t w e e n G o d
and
h u m a n i t y , was absorbed into the priesthood. T h e n , with the T e m p l e

as focus f o r J e w i s h w o r s h i p a n d a p l a c e w h e r e t h e e a r t h l y a n d h e a v enly coalesce, t h e p r i e s t h o o d c a n b e seen as a g r o u p t h a t e n j o y e d
a n " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " (quasi-divine) status. U l t i m a t e l y , e v e n t h o u g h it
is plausible t h a t t h e p r i e s t h o o d c o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n c e i v e d of in s u c h
a w a y , w e d o n o t see m u c h , if a n y , e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e
a c t u a l l y w a s so c o n c e i v e d . O n
this p o i n t , I r e m a i n
priesthood
unconvinced,
t h o u g h F l e t c h e r - L o u i s is c o n t i n u i n g w o r k in this vein.
3.16
The Daughters of Job
I n t h e T e s t a m e n t of J o b t h e d a u g h t e r s of J o b a r e d e s c r i b e d as u n d e r g o i n g a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . Like o t h e r w r i t i n g s in the t e s t a m e n t g e n r e ,
t h e w o r k p u r p o r t s t o r e c o r d t h e w o r d s of J o b n e a r t h e e n d of his
life. T h e d a t i n g of t h e w o r k is n o t c e r t a i n , b u t m o s t suggest a d a t e
a r o u n d the t u r n of t h e era. 1 4 4 T h e d a u g h t e r s of J o b receive g a r m e n t s
f r o m t h e i r f a t h e r t h a t s e e m to b r i n g a b o u t a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w i t h a n
angelomorphic character:
[48:1] Thus, when the one called Hermera arose, she wrapped around
her own string just as her father had said. [2] And she took on another
heartno longer minded toward earthly thingsbut she spoke ecstatically in the angelic dialect [ ], sending up a hymn
to G o d in accord with the hymnic style of the angels [
]. And as she spoke ecstatically, she allowed, " T h e Spirit"
[ ] to be inscribed on her garment.
[49:1] T h e Kasia b o u n d hers on and had her heart changed so that
she no longer regarded worldly things. [2] And her m o u t h took on
the dialect of the archons [ ] and she praised G o d for the
creation of the heights. [3] So, if anyone wishes to know " T h e Creation
of the Heavens," he will be able to find it in " T h e H y m n s of Kasia."
145
144
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 5687 and 222-251; Luke-Acts, pp. 118-129.
R. Spittler, "Testament of j o b " in OTP 1:833-834.
[50:1] T h e n the other one also, n a m e d Amaltheia's H o r n , b o u n d

on her cord. And her mouth spoke ecstatically in the dialect of those
on high, [2] since her heart also was changed, keeping aloof from
worldly things. For she spoke in the dialect of the cherubim, glorifying the Master of virtues by exhibiting their splendor. [3] And finally
whoever wishes to grasp a trace of " T h e Paternal Splendor" will find
it written down in " T h e Prayers of Amaltheia's Horn." 1 4 5
T h i s text c e r t a i n l y s e e m s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e d a u g h t e r s of J o b w e r e
t r a n s f o r m e d . O n e of t h e i m p o r t a n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s w a s t h e i r i n t e r n a l " c h a n g e of h e a r t . " T h e y n o l o n g e r w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h i n g s
of this life b u t f o c u s e d m o r e o n t h e w o r s h i p of G o d . T h e i r w o r s h i p
t o o k t h e f o r m of s p e a k i n g (ecstatically) in t h e m e l o d i c f o r m of t h e
angels (cf. L u k e 2 : 1 3 1;14C o r 13:1). 146 V a n d e r H o r s t says, h o w e v e r , t h a t h e sees t h e w o m e n as u n d e r g o i n g " a r a d i c a l a n d lasting
c h a n g e ; in fact t h e y b e c o m e virtually h e a v e n l y b e i n g s . ' " 4 7 It is n o t
c l e a r t h a t t h e i r c h a n g e w a s p e r m a n e n t o r w h e t h e r it w a s r e l a t e d t o
t h e i r p u t t i n g o n of g a r m e n t s .
W h a t is p a r t i c u l a r l y f a s c i n a t i n g a b o u t this p a s s a g e is t h a t it is t h e
daughters of J o b w h o b e c o m e a n g e l o m o r p h i c . I n n o o t h e r e x t a n t text
a r e w o m e n said to b e c o m e like angels. M o r e o v e r , as s e e n in c h a p t e r 2, angels w e r e o f t e n r e p r e s e n t e d as y o u n g m e n . Like all t h e texts
in this p e r i o d , t h e d o m i n a n t culture, w h e t h e r it w a s J e w i s h o r G r a e c o R o m a n , was patriarchal. T h i s certainly would flavor a n y portrayals.
T h a t m a n y angelic b e i n g s in t h e H e b r e w Bible w e r e first r e f e r r e d
to as " m e n " w a s also likely a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r in s u c h a bias.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is n o t entirely c l e a r w h y s u c h a g e n d e r b i a s s h o u l d
necessarily exist in t h e discussion of angels. It likely s t e m s f r o m a
belief t h a t w o m e n w e r e ritually i m p u r e (Lev 12:18 a n d
15:25-30,
cf. also m. K e l i m 1:8) a n d t h u s e x c l u d e d f r o m h o l y places s u c h as

the i n n e r p a r t s of t h e J e a t s a l e m t e m p l e ; s u c h a belief m a y h a v e b e e n
e x t e n d e d b y a n a l o g y to t h e h e a v e n s . H o w e v e r , t h e issue of g e n d e r
is n o t c o m p l e t e l y o u t s i d e t h e discussion r e l a t i n g to angels. 1 4 8
145
Translation from OTP 1:865-866. Greek text taken from S. Brock, Testamentum
Iobi (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1967) 56-57.
146
On glossolalia see W. Mills, ed., Speaking in Tongues: A Guide to Research on
Glossolalia (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1986).
147
P. W. van der Horst, "Images of Women in the Testament of Job" in Studies
on the Testament of Job, ed. M. Knibb and P. W. van der Horst (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1989) 104.
148
In 4.6 the issue of the veiling of the Corinthian women is considered, and in
chapter 6 the issue of human women mating with angels is examined. There remains
much work to be done, however, on issues of gender in relation to angel beliefs,
especially, angels' common portrayal as young men and the idea of angelic celibacy.
3.17
On Being like Angels in Heaven
Lastly, t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t s o m e g r o u p s believed h u m a n s w o u l d
b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o angels in t h e afterlife.
S o m e afterlife t r a d i t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t in the H e b r e w Bible. M o s t
r e f e r e n c e s a r e to a s h a d o w y e x i s t e n c e in S h e o l (Ps 6:6, 88:46,
115:17; Eccl 9 : 4 - 1 0 ; Isa 3 8 : 1 8 - 1 9 ) . T h e r e is n o r e f e r e n c e to this
e x i s t e n c e b e i n g angelic. T h e c l e a r e s t r e f e r e n c e to a n afterlife in t h e
H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s is D a n 12:23, 149 w h i c h states,
[2] A n d m a n y of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake,
some to everlasting life, and some to shame a n d everlasting contempt.
[3] A n d those w h o are wise shall shine like the brightness of the
firmament; a n d those who turn m a n y to righteousness, like the stars
for ever and ever.
T h e p a s s a g e s e e m s to s p e a k of a r e s u r r e c t i o n in w h i c h t h e d e a d will
b e j u d g e d . T h o s e f o u n d wise will s h i n e in t h e h e a v e n s , a n d t h o s e
w h o t u r n p e o p l e t o r i g h t e o u s n e s s will b e like stars. As a l r e a d y n o t e d ,
light is s o m e t i m e s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of angelic a p p e a r a n c e . M o r e i m p o r tantly, a n g e l s a r e s o m e t i m e s e q u a t e d w i t h stars in a n c i e n t J e w i s h
texts ( J o b 38:7
[LXX];
1 En.
104:2 1 5 0 .(6 T h i s e q u a t i o n is m a d e
explicit in t h e l a t e r w o r k 2 Bar. (early s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E ) , w h e r e

t h e s e e r asks, " I n w h a t s h a p e will t h e living live in y o u r
day?"
(49:2). 151 I n r e s p o n s e , h e is t o l d , " F o r t h e y will live in the h e i g h t s of

t h a t w o r l d a n d t h e y will b e like t h e a n g e l s a n d b e e q u a l t o t h e stars.
A n d t h e y will b e c h a n g e d i n t o a n y s h a p e w h i c h t h e y w i s h e d , f r o m
b e a u t y to loveliness, a n d f r o m light to t h e s p l e n d o u r of g l o r y " (51:10).
T h i s p a s s a g e s e e m s to b e t h e clearest i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e afterlife f o r
h u m a n s c o m e s in t h e f o r m of angels, w h i c h a r e e q u a l to stars. It
s e e m s o n e possible s t r a n d of afterlife t r a d i t i o n s f o r e s a w h u m a n s t r a n s f o r m i n g i n t o h e a v e n l y l u m i n a r i e s o r stars. T h i s c o n n e c t i o n is at best
i n d i r e c t a n d is n o t s e e n in t h e e v i d e n c e . T h a t h u m a n afterlife w a s
t h o u g h t to b e specifically a n g e l i c is c l e a r e r in s o m e o t h e r e v i d e n c e .
149
Other allusions are found in Ezek 37; Hos 6:2; and Isa 24-27; cf. 2 Macc
7:14 and 4Q521 fragment 2. See the comprehensive coverage of this topic in
G. W. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972). For a useful summary of the
evidence, see J. J. Collins, Daniel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987) 394-398.
150
See especially M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 170-173. F. Lelli, "Stars" in
DDD, pp. 1530-1540.
151
A. F . J . Klijn, "2 Baruch" in OTP 1:615-652.
P h i l o ' s Sacr. 5 d e s c r i b e s d i e p o s t m o r t e m existence of A b r a h a m as

angelic:
For also, w h e n A b r a h a m left mortal life, "he was added to the peopie of G o d " [Gen 25:8], having gained immortality [] and
having become equal to the angels [ ], for angels
are the host of God, incorporeal [] and blessed souls.
T h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t for this p a s s a g e is a discussion of the v i r t u e of
A b e l o v e r C a i n . P h i l o says, " t h e a d d i t i o n of o n e t h i n g is a t a k i n g
a w a y of s o m e o t h e r " (Sacr. 1). T h e a d d i t i o n of A b e l m e a n t t h e t a k i n g
a w a y of C a i n , so w h e n die v i r t u o u s A b r a h a m died, h e w a s " g a t h e r e d /
a d d e d to his p e o p l e " ( L X X G e n 25:8: ).
I n w . 5 - 6 P h i l o says t h a t b o t h J a c o b a n d I s a a c also left t h e i r c o r p o r e a l b o d i e s to a t t a i n a n e w state (cf. 4 M a c c
7:19, 16:25). All
t h r e e , as r i g h t e o u s m e n f o c u s e d u p o n G o d , a t t a i n e d a h i g h e r n a t u r e ,
" i m p e r i s h a b l e a n d p e r f e c t " ( , Sacr. 7).
P h i l o d e s c r i b e s a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m a c o r p o r e a l to a n i n c o r p o real state. T h e i n c o r p o r e a l state is e q u a l t o t h a t of angels, w h i c h a r e
akin to t h e t h o u g h t s (, Conf. 27) of G o d . T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
c o m e s a t t h e e n d of A b r a h a m ' s m o r t a l existence a n d d o e s n o t a p p e a r
to h a v e b e e n in a n y w a y p a r t of his e a r t h l y existence. H e r e , as in
t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h e person(s) t r a n s f o r m e d
into the angelic state w e r e h u m a n s of special c h a r a c t e r in their earthly
life. Also, P h i l o m a k e s n o o t h e r m e n t i o n of h u m a n s b e i n g
trans-
f o r m e d i n t o angels. It s e e m s h e r e , t h e n , t h a t P h i l o i n t e n d s to s h o w
t h a t A b r a h a m as a r i g h t e o u s m a n t o o k his r i g h t f u l p l a c e a m o n g the
p r o p e r divine t h o u g h t s of G o d i n t h e afterlife. T h u s in P h i l o ' s i n t e r pretation, A b r a h a m (and presumably Isaac a n d J a c o b ) were transf o r m e d i n t o angels in t h e afterlife.
1 En. 39, p a r t of t h e Similitudes of E n o c h , d e s c r i b e s a vision b y
E n o c h in w h i c h h e sees t h e h e a v e n s . I n c h a p t e r 3 8 the f a t e of sinn e r s is f o r e t o l d t h e y will b e d e s t r o y e d . I n 3 9 : 4 5 E n o c h sees " t h e
dwelling places of t h e h o l y o n e s a n d t h e i r resting p l a c e s too.
So,
t h e r e m y eyes s a w t h e i r d w e l l i n g p l a c e s with t h e h o l y a n g e l s a n d
t h e i r resting places w i t h t h e h o l y o n e s . " It s e e m s c l e a r t h a t , f o r t h e
a u t h o r of t h e Similitudes, the r i g h t e o u s will be in h e a v e n a n d s h a r e
in a life like t h e angels. H o w e v e r , t h e d a t i n g of this text is a n issue. 152
152
Most scholars accept a date sometime in the first century CE. See the discussion above in section 3.1.
If t h e text d a t e s to s o m e t i m e a r o u n d t h e first c e n t u r y C E , as m a n y
s c h o l a r s s u p p o s e , t h e n t h e i d e a of r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s b e c o m i n g angels
in h e a v e n s e e m s to be e v i n c e d in a t least o n e text.
T h e Synoptic Gospels contain a tradition wherein the Sadducees
c h a l l e n g e J e s u s o n t h e n a t u r e of t h e afterlife ( M a r k 1 2 : 1 8 - 2 7 , M a t t
2 2 : 2 3 - 3 3 , a n d Luke 20:27-40). T h e M a r k a n a n d L u k a n versions are
of p a r t i c u l a r interest. 1 5 3 T h e g e n e r a l setting h a s t h e S a d d u c c e e s pose
a h y p o t h e t i c a l q u e s t i o n r e g a r d i n g m a r r i a g e in t h e afterlife. T h e i r line
of q u e s t i o n i n g is m e a n t to expose the a b s u r d i t y of belief in resurrection
itself, since t h e S a d d u c e e s t h e m s e l v e s d o n o t believe in r e s u r r e c t i o n
( M a t t 2 2 : 2 3 , M a r k 12:18, L u k e 2 0 : 2 7 , Acts 4 : 1 - 2 ; 2 3 : 8 9 , J o s e p h u s
BJ 2 . 1 6 5 , Ant
18:16). T h e y ask w h o s e wife a w o m a n w o u l d b e in
t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n if, in k e e p i n g w i t h T o r a h , a series of seven b r o t h ers h a d all w e d t h e s a m e w o m a n b u t d i e d w i t h o u t m a l e issue ( w .

19 1 5 4 .(23 J e s u s ' s t w o f o l d r e s p o n s e to t h e i r q u e s t i o n e x p o s e s b o t h t h e
S a d d u c e a n m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e n a t u r e of r e s u r r e c t i o n life (v. 25)
a n d also t h e i r inability to see p r o o f of t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n in S c r i p t u r e
( w . 2 6 - 2 7 ) . J e s u s says t h a t in t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n n o o n e will m a r r y ,
b u t all will be "like angels in h e a v e n " ( ).
T h i s p e r i c o p e is f o u n d b e t w e e n o t h e r p a s s a g e s f o c u s e d o n c o r r e c t
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : t h e q u e s t i o n o n p a y i n g t a x e s to C a e s a r
(12:13-17)
a n d t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e scribes as to w h i c h c o m m a n d m e n t is t h e
g r e a t e s t ( 1 2 : 2 8 - 3 4 ) . T h e s e p e r i c o p e s s e e m g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r in o r d e r
to d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of J e s u s ' s s c r i p t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o
t h a t of all o t h e r J e w i s h g r o u p s .
The
t h r u s t of J e s u s ' s p r o n o u n c e m e n t
seems to p o i n t to
S a d d u c e a n f a i l u r e to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t h u m a n institutions, s u c h
the
as
m a r r i a g e , will n o t exist in t h e afterlife; t h e r e f o r e t h e i r q u e s t i o n is

m o o t . H u m a n s will b e like a n g e l s ( ) in t h a t t h e y will h a v e
n o n e e d of t h e institution of m a r r i a g e . T h i s d o e s n o t necessarily suggest a n e q u a t i o n of h u m a n s w i t h a n g e l s b u t i n s t e a d a similarity, in
t h a t n e i t h e r h a s a n y n e e d of m a r r i a g e . T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is o p e n
for d e b a t e , h o w e v e r . L u k e s e e m s to h a v e seen t h e a m b i g u i t y of t h e
M a r k a n f o r m a n d m a d e s o m e significant a l t e r a t i o n s .
153
The Matthean version does not vary from the Markan in any ways significant
to the discussion of angelic afteriife.
154
The Sadducean argument is based on the marriage prescription of Deut
25:5-10 (cf. also Gen 38:8, Ruth 4:1-10). The question of marital relations upon
the death of one brother is also seen in m. Yebam. 3:9.
I n 2 0 : 3 5 t h e L u k a n J e s u s states, " B u t t h o s e w h o w e r e a c c o u n t e d
w o r t h y to a t t a i n t h a t age a n d to t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n f r o m t h e d e a d n e i t h e r m a r r y n o r a r e given in m a r r i a g e , for t h e y c a n n o t die a n y m o r e ,
for t h e y a r e e q u a l to t h e angels [the hapax legomenon, ] a n d
a r e s o n s of G o d [ ], b e i n g sons of t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n [
]."
L u k e ' s t e r m is q u i t e s i m i l a r t o P h i l o ' s '
a n d m a y reflect t h e s a m e kind of i d e a of e q u a l i t y w i t h angels,
r a t h e r t h a n m e r e similarity t o a n g e l s as in M a r k a n d M a t t .
This
t e r m s e e m s to m a k e a s t r o n g e r s t a t e m e n t f o r t h e e q u a l i t y of angels
w i t h h u m a n s . Still, t h e q u e s t i o n m a y be raised as to w h e t h e r this is
e q u a l i t y of n a t u r e o r m e r e l y of status. A g a i n , it is n o t entirely clear.
L u k e also says t h a t " t h e y c a n n o t d i e " ( ) , j u s t as
P h i l o says t h a t angels a r e i m m o r t a l ().
T h e c o n t e x t , t h e n , s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t J e s u s speaks of t h e a f t e r life as angelic. A few s c h o l a r s h a v e seen in t h e L u k a n f o r m of this
p e r i c o p e t h e p r e c u r s o r f o r l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s of C h r i s t i a n s
renounc-
i n g m a r r i a g e as a m e a n s to a this-life a n g e l i c n a t u r e , a n '
. 155 T . K a r l s e n - S e i m a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e a r e g o o d r e a s o n s to see
the L u k a n version as c h a n g i n g t h e M a r k a n original t o s u p p o r t t h e
c u r r e n t c o m m u n i t y ' s r e j e c t i o n of m a r r i a g e as a m e a n s t o a n a n g e l i c
existence. 1 5 6 E v e n if w e a c c e p t t h a t L u k e i n t e n d s for his a u d i e n c e t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e t e a c h i n g of J e s u s as a n o u t l i n e f o r living t h e resurr e c t i o n life, it still r e p r e s e n t s h u m a n a c t i o n m i m i c k i n g t h e life of
angels. It d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t h u m a n s w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o angels
in t h e i r e a r t h l y lives.
L u k e r e c o r d s a n o t h e r t r a d i t i o n r e g a r d i n g a n g e l s a n d t h e afterlife in
Acts 2 3 : 6 8 . 1 5 7 P a u l h a s b e e n a r r e s t e d in J e r u s a l e m f o r c a u s i n g uprisings (22:22). H e is b r o u g h t b e f o r e a c o u n c i l of t h e J e w s (23:1). As
P a u l offers his d e f e n s e , h e m o v e s t h e discussion to t h e t o p i c of res-
155
See S. Frank, . Begnffanalytische und Begriffgeschichteliche Untersuchung
zum 1engelgleichen leben' in frhen Mnchtum (Munster, 1964); R. Lane Fox, Pagans and
Christians (London: Penguin, 1986) 336-374, esp. p. 363.
156
T. Karisen Seim, The Double Message: Patterns of Gender in Luke-Acts (Edinburgh:
T&T Clark, 1994). See also C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 86-88, and D. Aune,
"Luke 20:3436A Gnosticized Logion of Jesus?" in GeschichteTraditionReflexion
(Tbingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1996) 187-202, who sees the Jesus teaching passage as
being (1) stripped from its original narrative, (2) reformulated in an encratite baptismal context, and (3) inserted into the Gospel of Luke.
157
Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 59, notes that is the same
in Luke 20:39 and Acts 23:9, loosely linking these passages.
u r r e c t i o n in o r d e r to d i v e r t a t t e n t i o n f r o m himself a n d c a u s e factional
d e b a t e , since t h e P h a r i s e e s a n d S a d d u c e e s a r e split 011 t h e issue:
[6] But when Paul perceived that one part were Sadducees a n d the
other Pharisees, he cried out in the council, "Brethren, I am a Pharisee,
a son of Pharisees; with respect to the hope and the resurrection of
the dead I a m on trial." [7] And w h e n he had said this, a dissension
arose between the Pharisees and the Sadducees; and the assembly was
divided. [8] For the Sadducees say that there is no resurrection [], n o r angel [], nor spirit []; but the Pharisees
acknowledge them all [ ].
T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of verse 8 h i n g e s u p o n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e
t e r m . Its u s u a l m e a n i n g is " b o t h , " t h o u g h s o m e h a v e
t a k e n it to m e a n "all." It c o u l d m e a n t h e S a d d u c e e s d e n i e d " b o t h "
t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a n d t h e existence of angels. R e c e n t l y , D . D a u b e h a s
asserted t h a t t h e passage is b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d as t h e S a d d u c e e s ' denial
of r e s u r r e c t i o n a n d of " t h e s p a n b e t w e e n d e a t h a n d
resurrection,
w h i c h , in w i d e s p r e a d belief, a g o o d p e r s o n s p e n d s in t h e r e a l m o r
m o d e of a n g e l o r spirit.'" 5 8 It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r this w a s p a r t of
" w i d e s p r e a d " belief, b u t t h e e v i d e n c e in this s u b s e c t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t
it w a s in t h e m i n d s of s o m e J e w s in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d .
As G . N i c k e l s b u r g c o n c l u d e s , " T h e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t in t h e
i n t e r t e s t a m e n t a l p e r i o d t h e r e w a s n o single J e w i s h o r t h o d o x y o n t h e
time, m o d e , a n d place of resurrection, i m m o r t a l i t y , a n d eternal life.'" 5 9
B. V i v i a n o h a s t a k e n t h e discussion a s t e p f u r t h e r , a r g u i n g t h a t t h e
p a s s a g e is best u n d e r s t o o d as discussing t h e d e n i a l of t h e r e s u r r e c tion. 1 6 0 T h e refers to " b o t h " a n g e l a n d spirit as m o d e s
of r e s u r r e c t i o n . T h u s , t h e n o u n s a n d s t a n d in a p p o sition to , s u c h t h a t S a d d u c e e s d e n y t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n
in
" t h e f o r m of a n a n g e l " o r in t h e " f o r m of a spirit." V i v i a n o ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s e e m s to p r e s e n t the m o s t likely r e a d i n g of t h e p a s s a g e .

T h e r e is s o m e c o r r o b o r a t i n g evidence for t h e claim t h a t the S a d d u c e e s
d e n i e d the r e s u r r e c t i o n . T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e w h a t s o e v e r t h a t a n y
J e w i s h g r o u p a n d in p a r t i c u l a r o n e t h a t likely t o o k t h e P e n t a t e u c h ,
w h i c h c o n t a i n s t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t angels, as s a c r e d d e n i e d t h e exist e n c e of angels. T h e
158
fluidity
in afterlife beliefs s e e n 111 t h e e v i d e n c e
David Daube, "On Acts 23: Sadducees and Angels" JBL 109 (1990) 493-497.
G. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life, p. 180.
160
B. Viviano, "Sadducees, Angels, and Resurrection (Acts 23:8-9)" JBL 111
(1992) 496-498.
159
f r o m t h e p e r i o d s h o w s t h e r e w a s r o o m f o r d e b a t e o v e r t h e m o d e of
afterlife existence. It s e e m s p l a u s i b l e t h a t refers t o t h e
t e r m s " a n g e l " a n d "spirit," in w h i c h case Acts 2 3 serves as a n o t h e r
piece of e v i d e n c e t h a t s o m e J e w s believed t h e afterlife m o d e of exist e n c e w a s angelic.
I n R e v 6 : 9 - 1 1 , J o h n sees a vision of t h e souls () w h o h a v e
died u n d e r a n altar. T h e souls a r e e a c h given a w h i t e r o b e (cf.
Mart.
Asc. Isa. 9 : 2 4 - 2 6 ) a n d told to rest a while l o n g e r until t h e n u m b e r

of t h e i r b r o t h e r s is fulfilled. It is n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e vision is of angels,
b u t D . A u n e says, "It is theologically significant t h a t h e r e d i e d e a d
a r e in s o m e w a y p r e s e n t in h e a v e n , " since, as h e a d d s , " f r o m t h e
p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e O T it is n o t possible for m o r t a l s t o g o to h e a v e n
a f t e r t h e i r d e a t h . " 1 6 1 T h e facts t h a t t h e b e i n g s a r e u n d e r t h e a l t a r
in h e a v e n a n d also a r e given w h i t e r o b e s b o t h s e e m to p o i n t t o w a r d
a special status, w h i c h m a y p e r h a p s b e u n d e r s t o o d as angelic.
I n t h e Martyrdom, and Ascension of Isaiah t h e p r o p h e t I s a i a h h a s a
visionary ascent d i r o u g h the seven heavens. 1 6 2 D u r i n g his ascent Isaiah
is said to b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n angel. As it n o w exists in E t h i o p i e
mss., Mart. Ascen. Isa. consists of t w o m a i n p a r t s : t h e story of I s a i a h ' s
m a r t y r d o m ( c h a p t e r s 15 )a n d a v i s i o n / a s c e n t ( c h a p t e r s 6 1 1 ) . T h e
Ascension c i r c u l a t e d o n its o w n a n d is e x t a n t in L a t i n a n d
Slavonic
copies. 1 6 3 T h i s s u p p o r t s t h e c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e t w o p a r t s
of Mart. Ascen. Isa. s e e m to h a v e b e e n originally s e p a r a t e writings. 1 6 4
T h e r e is a g r o w i n g scholarly c o n s e n s u s t h a t Mart. Ascen. Isa. in its
c o m p l e t e f o r m d a t e s to t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . 1 6 5 J u s t i n M a r t y r
161
D. Aune, Revelation, 3 vols. (Dallas: Word Books, 1997-1998) 1:403.

Cf. the vision to Isa 6:1-13. On the seven heavens, see A. Yarbro Collins, "The
Seven Heavens in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses" in Death, Ecstasy and OtherWorldly Journeys, ed. J . Coffins and M. Fishbane (Albany: SUNY Press, 1995) 59-93.
163
M. Knibb, "Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah" in OTP 2:145-146.
164
HJPAJC 1111:337; M. Knibb, "Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah" in OTP
2:147-150; R. Hall, "Isaiah's Ascent to See the Beloved: An Ancient Jewish Source
for the Ascension of Isaiah" JBL 113 (1994) 463-484; J. Knight, The Ascension of Isaiah
(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995) 28-32; and j . Knight, Disciples of the
Beloved One: The Christology, Social Setting and Theological Context of the Ascension of Isaiah
(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996) 3339. V. Burch, "The Literary Unity of
the Ascensio Isaiae" JTS 20 (1919) 17-23, asserts its unity and Christian composition,
but this fails to acknowledge the Jewish character of the story of Isaiah's martyrdom.
165
HJPAJC IIIi:337-338; M. Knibb, "Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah" in
OTP 2:149-150; R. Hall, "The Ascension of Isaiah: Community Situation, Date, and
Place in Early Christianity" JBL 109 (1990) 300-306; J . Knight, The Ascension of
Isaiah, pp. 2123. On the basis of the ms. evidence alone R. H. Charles suggested
a date in the third to second century CE or even earlier; The Ascension of Isaiah
(London: Adam and Charles Black, 1900) xlv.
162
a n d T e r t u l l i a n b o t h m a k e r e f e r e n c e to Isaiah's m a r t y r d o m , specifically
his b e i n g s a w e d in half {Mart. Ascen. Isa. 5:11). 1 6 6 T h e r e a r e also indic a t i o n s t h a t 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 2 2 m a y r e f e r t o t h e e m p e r o r N e r o (d. 6 8 C E ) .
T h e s e p o i n t s aside, it is n o t entirely c l e a r w h e n the Ascension
itself
w a s c o m p o s e d . Affinities of t h e Ascension w i t h w o r k s like t h e Acts of

Peter (c. 1 5 0 - 2 2 0 C E ) a n d t h e Protoevangelium of James
(c. 150 C E )
suggest t h a t it w a s c o m p o s e d in t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y CE. 1 5 7 It

is i m p o r t a n t to b e a w a r e t h a t a n early s e c o n d - c e n t u r y d a t e , t h o u g h
w i d e l y a c c e p t e d , is n o t c e r t a i n .
T h e a c c o u n t of I s a i a h ' s m a r t y r d o m s e e m s t o b e a J e w i s h
a n d is o n l y loosely c o n n e c t e d to t h e a s c e n t m a t e r i a l . T h e
work
Ascension
is a C h r i s t i a n w o r k t h a t c u l m i n a t e s in I s a i a h seeing C h r i s t d e s c e n d
to e a r t h (disguised as a n angel) a n d o n c e a g a i n a s c e n d t o h e a v e n . 1 6 8
In chapters 6 1 1
w e l e a r n t h e c o n t e n t of t h e vision I s a i a h h a d w h e n
h e w a s p r o p h e s y i n g b e f o r e K i n g H e z e k i a h . As I s a i a h a s c e n d s , h e is
t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n a n g e l . In t h e t h i r d h e a v e n h e states, " f o r t h e
glory of m y f a c e w a s b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d as I w e n t u p f r o m h e a v e n
to h e a v e n " (7:25). M o r e explicitly in 8 : 1 5 I s a i a h is told by his a n g e l i c
g u i d e t h a t , w h e n h e dies a n d a s c e n d s a n d p u t s o n his h e a v e n l y r o b e ,
t h e n h e "will b e e q u a l to t h e angels w h o (are) in t h e seventh h e a v e n . "
M o r e o v e r , I s a i a h is a b l e t o praise G o d a l o n g s i d e t h e angels, " A n d
(strength) w a s given t o m e , a n d I also s a n g praises w i t h t h e m , a n d
t h a t a n g e l also, a n d o u r p r a i s e w a s like t h e i r s " ( 8 : 1 6 1 7 ) .
I n 11:35, w e a r e told t h a t I s a i a h r e t u r n s to n o r m a l a f t e r his vision
until h e dies, w h e n h e r e t u r n s to h e a v e n a n d takes o n a n a n g e l i c
f o r m . It s e e m s t h a t I s a i a h , w h e n h e dies, will b e a b l e to b e c o m e
o n e of t h e d e n i z e n s of t h e s e v e n t h h e a v e n (8:15, 9:39) a n d w o r s h i p
G o d as o n e of t h e r i g h t e o u s d e a d (e.g., A b e l a n d Enoch). 1 6 9
166
Dial. Trypho 120:5; De Patientia 14 respectively.

M. Knibb, "Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah" in OTP 2:149-150.
168
M. Himmelfarb says, "One might argue that Christ's disguise is the opposite
side of Isaiah's transformation: while a human being needs to become more like
the dwellers in the highest heavens to ascend, Christ needs to become more like
the dwellers in the lower heavens to descend." Ascent to Heaven (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1993) 57-58.
169
M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, pp. 56-57, argues that the righteous dead
actually enjoy a higher status than the angels in the seventh heaven, but this is not
entirely clear. She bases this on the fact that the righteous worship before the angels
(9:33-34), and the righteous are said to "gaze intently upon the Glory" of God,
unlike the angels who can only look upon the glory (9:37-38). There is some
difference in the status, but how much higher the righteous dead are exalted is
nominal since both groups are in the seventh heaven worshipping God. Cf.
J . Bhner, Der Gesandte, pp. 355-356.
167
T h u s , in h e a v e n Isaiah is a c c o m m o d a t e d by b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o
a n angel. 1 7 0 T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is n o t p e r m a n e n t , h o w e v e r . I n s t e a d ,
it is a p r e v i e w of w h a t will befall h i m , as o n e of Israel's
righteous,
w h o c a n t a k e u p his r o b e , b e t r a n s f o r m e d , a n d t a k e his p l a c e in t h e
s e v e n t h h e a v e n . It d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a privilege t h a t all will e n j o y ,
however.
T w o p a s s a g e s f r o m the H e r m e t i c L i t e r a t u r e (c. 1 0 0 - 1 5 0 C E ) m a y
also e v i n c e t h e i d e a of a n angelic afterlife. Vis. 2:2:7 states t h a t t h o s e
" w h o work righteousness must r e m a i n steadfast a n d be not doublem i n d e d , " so t h a t t h e i r " p a s s i n g m a y b e w i t h t h e H o l y
Angels"
( ). Similarly, H e r r n . Sim. 9:25:2

says of " a p o s t l e s a n d t e a c h e r s , " " T h e p a s s i n g of s u c h is w i t h t h e
angels" ( ). C . Osiek notes drat a l t h o u g h
t h e s e p a s s a g e s a r e o f t e n c o m p a r e d w i t h 1 En.
a n d Mart.
104:4; 2 Bar.
Pol. 2:3, the sense is m o r e akin to M a t t 22:30.
171
51:5;
In both
cases, t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to b e like angels in t h e afterlife s e e m s restricted

to a specific g r o u p , t h o s e w h o a r e v i r t u o u s in life. I t d o e s n o t s e e m
available to e v e r y o n e .
Lastly, t h e Mart.
Pol. (c. 175 C E ) 2:3 states of t h e C h r i s t i a n s as
t h e y w e r e m a r t y r e d , " b u t it [ ' g o o d t h i n g s w h i c h a r e p r e s e r v e d f o r
diose w h o e n d u r e ' ] w a s s h o w n by t h e L o r d to t h e m [the m a r t y r s ] w h o
w e r e n o l o n g e r m e n , b u t a l r e a d y a n g e l s " ('' '
). T h i s p a s s a g e s e e m s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to a n angelic n a t u r e a l r e a d y begins o n e a r t h f o r t h e m a r t y r . 1 7 2
T h u s , n o specific t r a d i t i o n s of h u m a n s t r a n s f o r m i n g i n t o a n g e l s in
the afterlife s e e m to b e e v i d e n t p r i o r to t h e first c e n t u r y C E . E a r l y
t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t t h e afterlife m a y h a v e u n d e r s t o o d h u m a n p a s s i n g as
l e a d i n g to a c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e divine as stars (= angels) in t h e
h e a v e n s . I n t h e case of P h i l o , A b r a h a m s e e m s t o h a v e
undergone
a n afterlife t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a n a n g e l , b u t f o r Philo, angels w e r e

akin to divine t h o u g h t s , a n d it w a s in t h e sense of A b r a h a m as a
r i g h t e o u s a n d v i r t u o u s m a n t h a t h e w a s a d d e d to t h e divine. I n t h e
gospels, t h e t r a d i t i o n s e e m s to h a v e m e a n t t h a t h u m a n s b e c a m e like
170
In some visionary writings, the seer is accommodated in heaven by becoming an angel (Apoc. Zeph-> 2 En. 22, 3 En), but in some cases, no such transformation occurs (Rev, Apoc. Paul). On this see M. Himmelfarb, "The Experience of
the Visionary and Genre in the Ascension of Isaiah 6-11 and the Apocalypse of
Paul" Semeia 36 (1986) 97-111.
171
C. Osiek, The Shepherd of Hermas (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999) 55 n. 12.
172
See the discussion on Stephen above (3:12), and cf. 4 Macc. 16:25.
or e q u a l to angels in h e a v e n a n d t h e r e f o r e h a d n o n e e d of t h e
h u m a n institution of m a r r i a g e (and copulation). T h e gospel tradition
was a p p a r e n t l y e x p a n d e d in the b u r g e o n i n g C h r i s t i a n tradition (martyrs, encratites), w h i c h s e e m e d to indicate the possibility of mimicking the angelic m o d e of existence on e a r t h .
Conclusions
T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e d the evidence for angels a p p e a r i n g as h u m a n
beings. Eight r e n o w n e d individuals f r o m the H e b r e w Bible, f o u r f r o m
the N T , as well as others, w e r e considered. T h e evidence for A d a m ,
the p r i m o r d i a l m a n , was interesting b u t n o t conclusive. T h e r e m a y
h a v e b e e n strands of tradition t h a t t h o u g h t of A d a m a n d Eve as
h a v i n g h a d a n angelic status b e f o r e the Fall. T h e evidence p e r t a i n ing to Sethel w a s f r o m only o n e text b u t did seem to suggest t h a t
he was u n d e r s t o o d to h a v e b e c o m e like a n angel in the afterlife.
T h e E n o c h i c literature a p p a r e n t l y b e c a m e m o r e explicit over time
about Enoch's angelic transformation a n d even equation with a
n a m e d angel, M e t a t r o n (in 3 En.)seemingly
an e x t r a p o l a t i o n u p o n
the G e n 5:24 saying t h a t E n o c h was t a k e n to h e a v e n b u t did n o t
die. I n two texts, N o a h was described as having a n g e l o m o r p h i c features at his birth, b u t it was n o t clear t h a t h e was ever c o n s i d e r e d
a n angel. T h e r e was evidence t h a t M e l c h i z e d e k w a s a n i m p o r t a n t
figure in speculations a b o u t the h e a v e n s in S e c o n d T e m p l e writings.
H e was certainly t h o u g h t of as a divine figure ( )a n d m a y h a v e
b e e n t h o u g h t of as a n angel.
I n the case of J a c o b , s o m e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u n d e r s t o o d his n a m e
c h a n g e to Israel as d e n o t i n g a c h a n g e in his n a t u r e to a n angel. It is
m a d e explicit t h a t h e is t h o u g h t of as a n angel in Pr. Jos. T h i s e q u a tion is significant, but it c a n n o t b e pressed too far either. T h e evidence
for M o s e s was s o m e w h a t difficult to assess. Certainly, a u t h o r s like
Philo deified Moses, even calling h i m , b u t there is little e x t a n t
evidence t h a t h e was t h o u g h t to be a n angel. A few texts c o m p a r e d
D a v i d to a n angel, yet only Pseudo-Philo gave any h i n t t h a t D a v i d
m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t of as angelic; even t h e r e the evidence suggested t h a t his a p p e a r a n c e was c h a n g e d b u t n o t his n a t u r e .
S o m e evidence f r o m the p r o p h e t s s e e m e d a m b i g u o u s . Certainly,
the role of the p r o p h e t as a m o u t h p i e c e f o r G o d suggests t h a t their
f u n c t i o n a n d the f u n c t i o n of angels could be u n d e r s t o o d at some
level as similar. 1 7 3 P e r h a p s t h e m o s t a m b i g u o u s e v i d e n c e w a s t h a t
f r o m Malachi. T h a t the term "angel" m a y have been taken to m e a n
b o t h h u m a n a n d divine m e s s e n g e r c a n b e seen in its use r e l a t e d t o
J o h n t h e B a p t i s t in t h e N T . C l e a r l y , O r i g e n d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t o n e
a u t h o r t h o u g h t of J o h n t h e B a p t i s t as a n a n g e l .
T h e r e w a s v e r y little e v i d e n c e f o r J e s u s a c t u a l l y b e i n g r e f e r r e d t o
as a n angel. T h e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n t a l k e d a b o u t J e s u s in a n g e l o m o r p h i c t e r m s , h o w e v e r . T h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s s h o w e d t h a t J e s u s c o u l d
b e c o m p a r e d to a n a n g e l b u t t h a t s u c h a c o m p a r i s o n w a s C h r i s t o logically insufficient. T h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e o t h e r N T
figures,
Stephen
a n d P a u l , d i d n o t d e m o n s t r a t e t h e y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d angels.
T. Moses c o n t a i n e d a t e x t t h a t s o m e h a v e t h o u g h t m i g h t
have
m e a n t t h e figure T a x o w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a n g e l , b u t this identification

w a s unlikely. T h e i n t e r e s t i n g case of t h e d a u g h t e r s of J o b in T. Job
saw t h e m u n d e r g o i n g a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c c h a n g e (speaking like angels)
w h e n d o n n i n g girdles f r o m t h e i r f a t h e r . It w a s n o t c l e a r t h e c h a n g e
w a s p e r m a n e n t , h o w e v e r . T h i s text w a s u n i q u e in t h a t w o m e n , r a t h e r
than men, were angelomorphic.
T h e f r a g m e n t f r o m H e c a t e u s c o n c e r n i n g t h e a n g e l i c n a t u r e of t h e
h i g h priest w a s interesting, b u t t h e c o n t e x t is n o t clear. S i n c e it c a m e
to us t h r o u g h v a r i o u s a u t h o r s , t h e r e is n o w a y to b e c e r t a i n
that
t h e original a u t h o r w a s a t all c l e a r a b o u t t h e realities r e l a t i n g to t h e

h i g h priest.
Lastly, t h e e v i d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o w h a t h a p p e n s to h u m a n s in h e a v e n
was considered. It w a s n o t clear that there was a n y late S e c o n d T e m p l e
t r a d i t i o n t h a t u n d e r s t o o d h u m a n s as b e c o m i n g a n g e l s in h e a v e n .
J . C h a r l e s w o r t h identified t h e m o t i f of s o m e r i g h t e o u s i n d i v i d u a l s
b e i n g p o r t r a y e d as angels. 1 7 4 H i s insight s e e m s c o r r e c t n a m e l y , t h a t
t h e m o t i f is m a i n l y , if n o t exclusively, a p p l i e d to r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s ;
m o r e o v e r it is a p p l i e d to specific i n d i v i d u a l s a n d n o t l a r g e r b o d i e s
of righteous, a t least n o t in die late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n
p e r i o d . O t h e r s , h o w e v e r , h a v e seen t h e i d e a e x t e n d i n g b e y o n d select
i n d i v i d u a l s to c o r p o r a t e h u m a n i t y . 1 7 5 F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s
argued
against M . M a c h ' s (and others') assertion t h a t representations of h u m a n s

t a k i n g o n a n g e l i c existences in this life relate t o a n interest in e s c h a 173
But Isa 6:1-13 seems to show a strong distinction between the seraphim
(= angels ?) and the prophet as a "man of unclean lips."
174
J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as an Angel," pp. 135-151.
175
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 109-215, and C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic
Christology, pp. 152-186.
tological p o s t m o r t e m e x i s t e n c e s a y i n g , " I t is j u s t as likely t h a t t h e

eschatological, p o s t - m o r t e m angelic life of t h e righteous is a n extension
of a belief in, o r s u b l i m a t e d h o p e for, a this-life a n g e l o m o r p h i c i d e n tity.'" 7 6 It m a y b e j u s t as likely, b u t it is n o t c l e a r a n y e v i d e n c e f r o m
t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d t r u l y s u p p o r t s s u c h a n assertion.
The
e v i d e n c e a n a l y z e d in this c h a p t e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t ,
although
d i e r e are texts in w h i c h h u m a n beings a r e described in a n g e l o m o r p h i c

t e r m s , a distinction a p p e a r s to b e m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d
angels. T h e n e x t step in this investigation is t o look a t cases in w h i c h
close i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels m i g h t suggest s o m e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h i s is t h e goal of p a r t t w o of this investigation.
176
PART T W O
INTERACTION
PART TWO
INTERACTION
Introduction
T h e second p a r t of diis investigation e x a m i n e s d1e relationship b e t w e e n
h u m a n s a n d angels b y l o o k i n g at p o r t r a y a l s of close o r i n t i m a t e intera c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s of b e i n g s o n e a r t h . Specifically, t h e
e v i d e n c e of h u m a n - a n g e l c o m m u n i t i e s ( c h a p t e r 4), t h e possibility of
h u m a n s p r o v i d i n g hospitality a n d e a t i n g w i t h angels ( c h a p t e r 5), a n d
h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g f r o m h u m a n - a n g e l r e l a t i o n s ( c h a p t e r 6) a r e c o n s i d ered. F o r t h e following discussion " I n t e r a c t i o n " will b e t a k e n to m e a n
" r e c i p r o c a l a c t i o n o r i n f l u e n c e . ' " T h e p a r t i c u l a r n u a n c e of this c h o i c e
of t e r m is t h a t t h e activity c a n p o t e n t i a l l y h a v e a m u t u a l aspect; it
is n o t simply a n g e l s a f f e c t i n g h u m a n s .
As w a s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e of angels in p a r t o n e , it is
h e l p f u l b e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g to survey b r o a d l y t h e v a r i e t y of w a y s in
w h i c h angels i n t e r a c t w i t h h u m a n s in t h e w r i t i n g s f r o m this p e r i o d
to p r o v i d e t h e c o n t e x t f o r t h e m a t e r i a l to b e e x a m i n e d in p a r t two.
T h i s survey is n o t i n t e n d e d t o b e a n e x h a u s t i v e list of a n g e l f u n c tions b u t i n s t e a d to situate this p a r t i c u l a r e v i d e n c e a m o n g t h e variety of a n g e l f u n c t i o n s e v i n c e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e f r o m this p e r i o d . 2
A n g e l s , as t h e y a r e m o s t c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d , a r e d e n i z e n s of
t h e h e a v e n s . 3 By definition, t h e n , t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h h u m a n beings
is limited. T h e y a r e m e m b e r s of t h e h e a v e n l y c o u r t w o r s h i p p i n g G o d
The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 709.
M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien des judischen Engelglaubens in vorrabinischer Zeit (Tbingen:
Mohr Siebeck, 1992) 60-63, provides an exhaustive list of the functions of angels
in the Hebrew Bible. In chapter 3, he delineates the additional functions of angels
in the extra-Biblical literature, pp. 114-278.
3
Davidson, Maxwell J., Angels at Qumran: A Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1-36,
72-108 and the Sectarian WritingsfromQumran, JSPS 11 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 1992) p. 291; M. Mach, "Angels" in The Encyclopaedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls,
ed. Lawrence Schiffman and James VanderKam (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2000) 1:24; D. Hannah, Michael and Christ: Michael Traditions and Angel Christology in
Early Christianity, WUNT 2:109 (Tbingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999) 17; P. Garreil, Jesus
and the Angels: Angelology and Christology in the Apocalypse ofJohn (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1997) 14.
2
a n d c a r r y i n g o u t t h e d i v i n e liturgy ( l Q S b 4 : 2 4 4;26Q_405f r a g . 20;

Luke 2:1314 ;H e b
1:6; R e v 4:8; Jub.
3 0 : 1 8 , 3 1 : 1 4 ; T. Le,vi 3:8;
1 En. 6 1 : 1 0 4 . ( 1 2 T h e i d e a t h a t angels " s t a n d " b e f o r e G o d is well

a t t e s t e d in J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e f r o m t h e p e r i o d a n d a f t e r w a r d s . 5 T e x t s
s u c h as t h e SSS a n d N T p a s s a g e s like 1 C o r 11:10 a n d C o l 2 : 1 8
suggest t h a t c o m m u n i t i e s s o u g h t to be p a r t of t h e o n g o i n g h e a v e n l y
liturgy of angels.
I n h e a v e n l y a s c e n t l i t e r a t u r e , angels o f t e n a c t as g u i d e s f o r h u m a n s
w h o h a v e c o m e i n t o t h e h e a v e n s ( D a n 7 - 1 2 ; 1 En. 1 7 - 3 6 ; Ap.
1 0 - 1 8 ; 4 Ezra
Abr.
3 - 1 4 ) . Interestingly, h u m a n s o n s u c h a s c e n t s s o m e -
t i m e s p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e a n g e l i c liturgy (3 En. 1:12; Apoc. Ab. 17, Mart.

Ascen. Isa. 7:37; 9:31).
A m o n g t h e o t h e r roles angels t a k e o n are: g u a r d i a n s a n d h e l p e r s
( G e n 24:7, 4 8 : 1 6 ; E x o d
14:19, 2 3 : 2 0 - 2 3 , et al.; Ps 34:7; Isa 63:9;
D a n 3:28, 6:22; T o b 5:21; A c t s 5:19, 1 2 : 7 - 1 1 ; 2 M a c c 11:6; T. Jac.

1:10; L.A.B.
5 9 : 4 ; H e r r n . Mand.
6.2.2), a n d c a r r y i n g o u t
God's
v e n g e a n c e ( N u m 22; 2 S a m 2 4 : 1 6 - 1 7 ; 1 C h r 2 1 : 1 2 - 3 0 ; 1 Q S 4:12;
Acts 12:23; R e v 16; Sir 4 8 : 2 1 ; 1 M a c c 7:41; Sus 1:55, 59).
As f u n c t i o n a r i e s of G o d , angels a r e s o m e t i m e s sent to c a r r y o u t
specific tasks o n e a r t h . It is m a i n l y in this c a p a c i t y t h a t t h e y i n t e r a c t w i t h h u m a n s . As t h e i r n a m e implies, t h e i r p r i m a r y task w a s t o
a c t as messengers (e.g., G e n
16:7, 2 2 : 1 1 , 15; J u d g 6 a n d
13; Z e c h
1:9; M a t t 1 - 2 ; L u k e 1 - 2 ; A c t s 8:26; 4 Ezra 4 - 5 ; et al.). C h a p t e r 4

e x a m i n e s w h a t is p e r h a p s t h e closest c o n t a c t b e t w e e n angels
and
h u m a n s , n a m e l y , the presence of angels in specific h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s .
4
Angels are actually called priests ( )in the SSS. For a fuller discussion of
angels as priests, see M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) esp. 29-46.
5
See Isa 6:3; Matt 18:10; Luke 1:19, 2:15; 1 Clem. 34:5. J. Fossum, The Name
of God and the Angel of the Lord{ Tbingen: J . C. B. Mhr, 1985) 55, 120-124, 139-141.
Cf. Philo, Sacrifices 89.
CHAPTER FOUR
" A N G E L S IN O U R
H U M AN-ANGEL
MIDST":
COMMUNITIES
I n this c h a p t e r , texts d e s c r i b i n g a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s living t o g e t h e r

in c o m m u n i t i e s a r e e x a m i n e d . T h e m a j o r i t y of this e v i d e n c e c o m e s
f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e d i s c o v e r e d a t Q u m r a n , b u t t w o o t h e r texts t h a t
m a y e v i n c e a n g e l - h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s P a u l ' s epistles to t h e C o r i n t h i a n s a n d t h e so-called H i s t o r y of t h e R e c h a b i t e s a r e also e x a m ined. A n u m b e r of s c h o l a r s h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t t h e l i t e r a t u r e
f r o m Q u m r a n s e e m s to p r e s e n t a p i c t u r e of a c o m m u n i t y t h a t u n d e r stood itself as h a v i n g angels present, w i t h t h e m o s t r e c e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n
c o m i n g f r o m Fletcher-Louis.5
I n his b o o k , All
the Glory of Adam,
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s seeks t o f o r e -
g r o u n d the p h e n o m e n o n of h u m a n - a n g e l interaction b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g
t w o " i n t e r l o c k i n g " theses:
(1) the theology of ancient J u d a i s m took for granted the belief that in
its original, true, redeemed state humanity is divine ( a n d / o r angelic),
and that (2) this belief was conceptually a n d experientially inextricable from temple worship in which ordinary space a n d time, and therefore h u m a n ontology, are transcended because the true temple is a
model of the universe which offers its entrants a transfer from earth
to heaven, from humanity to divinity and from mortality to immortality. 7
T h e s e theses will b e d e a l t w i t h as specific discussion arises a n d also
in t h e c o n c l u s i o n section. A t t h e outset, it is a p p r o p r i a t e to o f f e r a
g e n e r a l critique of t h e m . R e g a r d i n g his first thesis, it is p e r h a p s m o r e
a c c u r a t e to say simply t h a t h u m a n k i n d in its t r u e f o r m w a s " t h e o m o r p h i c " since A d a m w a s m a d e in t h e i m a g e of G o d . T h i s w o u l d
o b v i a t e s o m e of t h e c o n f u s i o n in t h e s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e r e g a r d i n g
"angelic" a n d "divine." R e g a r d i n g t h e second diesis, the H o l y of Holies
in t h e T e m p l e a n d p e r h a p s t h e liturgical s p a c e of t h e Q u m r a n g r o u p
6
H. Kuhn, Enderwartung und gegenwrtiges Heil (Gttingen: Vanderhoeck and
Ruprecht, 1966) 66-72; C. Rowland, The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism
and Early Christianity (New York: Crossroad, 1982) 113-120; M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien,
pp. 159-161; 209-218; 241-254. C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical
Anthropology in the Dead Sea Scrolls (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002).
7
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam, p. xii.
m a y i n d e e d h a v e b e e n places w h e r e s o m e J e w s believed t h a t
the
e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y s p h e r e s c o u l d h a v e c o n t a c t , c r e a t i n g a synergy.
H o w e v e r , s u c h c o n t a c t did n o t i m p l y a n y p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
of p a r t i c i p a n t s . T h a t is t o say, p a r t i c i p a n t s (either t h e h i g h priest o r
the Q u m r a n sectarians) m a y h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e t h i n g t r a n s c e n d e n t
in s u c h a locus w i t h o u t u n d e r g o i n g a p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
T h e p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n f o r this s t u d y is to w h a t e x t e n t living in a
specific c o m m u n i t y m e a n t i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h t h e a n g e l s t h a t
were
believed to b e p r e s e n t . I n o t h e r w o r d s , w e r e t h e s e c o m m u n i t i e s envisioning d i e i r m e m b e r s as b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o p a r t of t h e a n g e l i c
c o m m u n i t y ? O r did t h e y simply believe t h a t t h r o u g h a h e i g h t e n e d
state of p u r i t y t h e y , as h u m a n s , w e r e c r e a t i n g a s p a c e w h e r e angels
c o u l d dwell o n e a r t h ? T h e e v i d e n c e p o i n t s to t h e latter.
S i n c e m u c h of t h e e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r c o m e s f r o m t h e D e a d
Sea Scrolls, a p r e l i m i n a r y issue m u s t b e a d d r e s s e d . T h e scrolls a r e
o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Essenes, a J e w i s h s e c t a r i a n g r o u p k n o w n
p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e w r i t i n g s of J o s e p h u s a n d Philo. T h e m a n y p a r allels b e t w e e n t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e c a v e s n e a r t h e D e a d
Sea a n d t h e a c c o u n t s of t h e Essenes in classical r e p o r t s h a v e b e e n
well d o c u m e n t e d . 8 Also, J o s e p h u s [B.J.
2.142) says t h a t t h e E s s e n e
g r o u p w a s " t o p r e s e r v e the b o o k s of t h e sect a n d t h e n a m e s of t h e

a n g e l s . " M a n y s c h o l a r s p r o c e e d b y o u t l i n i n g t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s of "sect a r i a n " a n d " n o n s e c t a r i a n " texts, t h e n s p e a k i n g a b o u t
"sectarian"
beliefs. T h i s strategy o f t e n leads to using o n e text to i n t e r p r e t a n o t h e r ,

e v e n t h o u g h t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n s u c h texts is n o t entirely c l e a r ,
w h i c h c a n u l t i m a t e l y l e a d to a s y n t h e s i z e d a n d artificial p i c t u r e of
" s e c t a r i a n " beliefs. S e c t a r i a n p r o v e n a n c e of t h e s e w r i t i n g s d o e s n o t
change w h a t information can be gleaned f r o m t h e m about
angel
beliefs. N o r is it c o r r e c t to a s s u m e , e v e n if all t h e texts a r e " s e c t a r i a n , " t h a t all m e m b e r s h e l d t h e s a m e beliefs a t t h e s a m e
time.
E x a m i n i n g texts i n d i v i d u a l l y as e v i d e n c e for w h a t a t least o n e J e w i s h

a u t h o r ( a n d likely a u d i e n c e ) f r o m this p e r i o d w a s t h i n k i n g
about
angels is a m o r e s e c u r e f o u n d a t i o n f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . F o r t h e foll o w i n g analysis, t h e q u e s t i o n of s e c t a r i a n o r n o n s e c t a r i a n h a s b e e n

p u t aside, a n d e a c h p i e c e of e v i d e n c e is c o n s i d e r e d individually. 9
8
See, in particular, T. Beale, Josephus' Description of the Essenes Illustrated by the Dead
Sea Scrolls (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), and M. Goodman and
G. Vermes, The Essenes According to Classical Sources (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1989).
9
This is the same methodology employed by M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran: A
Comparative Study of 1 Enoch 1-36, 72-108 and the Sectarian Writings from Qumran
(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994) 138-141.
44
Vie Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice

11Q17,
Maslk)
T h e S o n g s of t h e S a b b a t h Sacrifice (SSS),
(4Q400-407,
also s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d
to as " T h e A n g e l i c L i t u r g y , " exists in eight m a n u s c r i p t s d i s c o v e r e d

at Q u m r a n in c a v e 4 ( 4 Q 4 0 0 - 4 0 7 ) , 1 0 o n e f r o m c a v e
11 ( 1 1 Q 1 7 ) ,
a n d o n e f r o m M a s a d a ( M a s l k ) . 1 1 T h e s e f r a g m e n t s s e e m to r e p r e s e n t
a liturgical cycle o n a 3 6 4 - d a y c a l e n d a r t h a t c o v e r s t h i r t e e n
sab-
b a t h s t h e first q u a r t e r of t h e y e a r d u r i n g w h i c h h o l o c a u s t sacrifices
are offered ( N u m 2 8 : 9 1 0
Ezek 46:4-5). C. N e w s o m p r o d u c e d the
first critical e d i t i o n of all t h e r e l e v a n t f r a g m e n t s in 1985. 1 2 R e c e n t l y ,

t h e SSS h a v e b e e n c o v e r e d in Discoveries in the Judaean
Desert a n d t h e
Princeton Theological Seminary Dead Sea Scrolls Series.13

T h e r e is n o i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e t h a t c a n b e u s e d t o d a t e t h e
SSS,
n o r is t h e r e l a t i o n of the SSS to o t h e r s e c t a r i a n l i t e r a t u r e a firm crit e r i o n . T h e SSS a r e d a t e d p a l e o g r a p h i c a l l y b e t w e e n 100 B C E
and
6 8 C E , a n d s c h o l a r s w i d e l y a g r e e u p o n this dating. 1 4 E v e n if e a r l i e r
o r l a t e r d a t e s w e r e to b e established, t h e SSS a r e still a n i m p o r t a n t
text in t h e overall discussion of late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n g e l beliefs.
O f all t h e texts f r o m t h e D e a d S e a , n o o t h e r w o r k s e e m s to b e
as f o c u s e d u p o n t h e i n n e r w o r k i n g of t h e h e a v e n l y s a n c t u a r y
and
t h e b e i n g s t h e r e i n as t h e SSS. J . S t r u g n e l l believed t h a t t h e SSS w e r e

" n o a n g e l i c liturgy, n o v i s i o n a r y w o r k w h e r e a sect h e a r s t h e praise
of t h e angels, b u t a Maskil's
c o m p o s i t i o n f o r a n e a r t h l y liturgy in
w h i c h t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e a n g e l s is in a sense i n v o k e d . " 1 5 Still, t h e
10
First critical edition of 4Q403 and 4Q405 by J . Strugnell, "The Angelic Liturgy
at Qumran4Q Serek Shirot Olat Hashshabbat" in Supplements to Vetus Testamentum,
Congress Volume, ed. G. Andersen et al. (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1960) 318-345.
11
Prefiminary edition by C. Newsom and Y. Yadin, "The Masada Fragment of
the Qumran Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice" IEJ 34 (1984) 77-88; see also, Y. Yadin,
"The Excavations at Masada" IEJ 15 (1965) 105-108, and E. Puech, "Notes sur
les manuscrits des Cantiques du Sacrifice du Sabbat trouv Masada" RQ 12/48
(1987) 575-583.
12
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice: A Critical Edition (Atlanta: Harvard
Semitic Studies, 1985).
13
C. Newsom, Discoveries in the Judean Desert XI (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998);
J . Charlesworth, ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls: Hebrew, Aramaic, and. Greek Texts with English
Translations: Vol. 4B Angelic Liturgy: Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice (Tbingen: J. C. B.
Mhr [Paul Siebeck], 1999).
14
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 1, notes that "the hand of the
oldest manuscript, 4Q400, may be dated to ca. 75-50 BCE." See also, J. Charlesworth,
ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls, p. 4; Stegemann, The library at Qumran, (Grand Rapids,
MI: Eerdmans, 1998) 99.
15
j . Strugnell, "The Angelic Liturgy at Qumran," p. 320.
similarities b e t w e e n t h e SSS a n d l a t e r a s c e n t o r mystical l i t e r a t u r e

as e v i n c e d in l a t e r M e r k a v a h a n d H e k h a l o t s o u r c e s h a s b e e n r e g u larly n o t e d , a n d t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of t h o s e f o r m s of m y s t i c i s m is still b e i n g e x p l o r e d . 1 6 N e w s o m
sug-
gests t h a t t h e SSS a r e a " q u a s i - m y s t i c a l liturgy d e s i g n e d to e v o k e a

sense of b e i n g p r e s e n t in t h e h e a v e n l y T e m p l e . ' " ' W h a t is w i d e l y
a c c e p t e d is t h a t t h e SSS r e p r e s e n t s o m e kind of liturgical d o c u m e n t .
W h a t is less c l e a r is h o w t h a t d o c u m e n t w o u l d h a v e b e e n
used.
N e w s o m believes t h a t e a c h s o n g b e g a n w i t h " ( t o / f o r t h e
I n s t r u c t o r " ) 1 8 a t e r m t h a t a p p e a r s in o t h e r f i n d s f r o m a m o n g t h e
D e a d S e a Scrolls a n d s e e m s to r e f e r to a h u m a n l e a d e r of t h e sect. 1 9
T h i s t e r m m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e type of d e d i c a t i o n " t o t h e I n s t r u c t o r "
( s o m e t i m e s suggested to b e t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s ) , o r it m a y
r e p r e s e n t a n o t a t i o n t h a t this is " f o r t h e I n s t r u c t o r . "
T h e SSS a r e o f t e n f r u s t r a t i n g l y i n c o m p l e t e , full of suggestive term i n o l o g y w h o s e m e a n i n g is o f t e n difficult, if n o t i m p o s s i b l e , to disc e r n . F e w p a s s a g e s a r e of decisive i n t e r p r e t a t i v e v a l u e . J . D a v i l a says,
" t h e overall g e n r e of t h e w o r k r e m a i n s elusive, b u t it d o e s s h a r e a
n u m b e r of f e a t u r e s w i t h a p o c a l y p s e s c o n t a i n i n g o t h e r w o r l d l y j o u r neys. . . . E v e n t h e v e r y basic p r o b l e m of w h e t h e r t h e s e songs a r e
prose or poetry does not have a clear answer."20 M o r e o v e r , regarding t h e a n g e l o l o g y of t h e SSS, N e w s o m states, " B e c a u s e t h e cycle of
the S a b b a t h Shirot is a liturgical d o c u m e n t a n d n o t a treatise
on
a n g e l o l o g y , n o t all t h e q u e s t i o n s o n e w o u l d like t o raise c a n
be
a n s w e r e d . " 2 1 A l t h o u g h t h e y a r e o f t e n r e f e r r e d to as t h e
"angelic
l i t u r g y , " t h e SSS d o n o t a c t u a l l y m e n t i o n a n y of t h e w o r d s of t h o s e
16
J. Baumgarten, "The Qumran Sabbath Shirot and Rabbinic Merkabah

Traditions" i?U3 (1988) 199-213; C. Newsom, "Merkabah Exegesis in the Qumran
Sabbath Shirot" JJS 38 (1987) 11-30; L. Schiffman, "Merkavah Speculation at
Qumran: The 4 Q Serekh Shirot Olat ha-Shabbat," in Mystics, Philosophers, and
Politiaans, ed. J. Reinharz and D. Swetschinski (Durham, NC: Duke University Press,
1982) 15-47; C. Rowland, "The Visions of God in Apocalyptic Literature" JSJ 10
(1979) 137-154; C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 387, 392-393.
17
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 59.
18
C. Newsom, "He Has Established for Himself Priests" in Archaeology and History
in the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. L. Schiffman (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1990) 102. The term
is found or can be confidently restored in 4Q401 frag. 1; 4Q403 frag. 1 2:18;
4Q405 frag. 20 2:6; 11Q17 frag. 16-18, line 9.
19
Seen elsewhere in 1QS 3:13, 9:12; lQSb 1:1, 3:22, 5:20; CD 12:21, 13:22;
4Q510 4, 4Q511 2 i 1, 8:4; 1QH 20:11.
20
J. Davila, Liturgical Works (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000) 87-88.
21
in w o r s h i p . 2 2 T h u s , it s e e m s safest t o c o n c e d e t h a t t h e g e n r e of t h e
SSS is u n c e r t a i n . E x a m i n a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r p a s s a g e s is t h e best w a y
to g l e a n i n f o r m a t i o n .
I n h e r critical e d i t i o n , N e w s o m p r o v i d e s a t h o r o u g h discussion of
the various t e r m s d i a t m a y refer to angels in h e r section o n angelology 2 3
a n d also in h e r c o n c o r d a n c e , 2 4 so t h e r e is n o n e e d to r e p e a t s u c h
lists in detail here. 2 5 H o w e v e r , it is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h a t N e w s o m ' s
p a r a d i g m f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e SSS h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n criticized b y
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s . 2 6 H e b e l i e v e s t h a t in h e r initial s t u d y of t h e
SSS
N e w s o m p r o p o u n d e d a dualistic i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p a r a d i g m t h a t
has
p r e v e n t e d a c o r r e c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e Songs. R a t h e r t h a n seeing
a d u a l i s m of e a r t h l y w o r s h i p reflecting t h e h e a v e n l y cult (as N e w s o m
does), F l e t c h e r - L o u i s believes t h a t t h e songs r e p r e s e n t a crossing of
t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e a l m s , s u c h t h a t b y p a r t i c i p a t i n g in
t h e songs, t h e s e c t a r i a n s w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o divine b e i n g s w h o
p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e a c t u a l h e a v e n l y cult. H e o b s e r v e s t h a t " i n g e n eral w e h a v e b e e n a b l e to distinguish t h e s e h e a v e n l y h u m a n s f r o m
angels a n d spiritual b e i n g s w h o a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y associated w i t h t h e
physical f e a t u r e s of t h e cultic s t r u c t u r e s . " 2 H o w e v e r , h e t h e n a d d s ,
" A c o n f i d e n t c l a i m to k n o w j u s t h o w m u c h ' d i v i n e ' l a n g u a g e is given
to t h e h u m a n w o r s h i p p e r s is n o t possible." 2 8 F l e t c h e r - L o u i s suggests
t h a t this w a y of e n v i s i o n i n g t h e liturgy g a v e t h e s e c t a r i a n s a n altern a t i v e to t h e J e r u s a l e m c u l t t o w h i c h t h e y , n o w living in t h e d e s e r t of
Q u m r a n , n o l o n g e r h a d access. Suffice it t o state a t this p o i n t t h a t
t h e overall a i m of this s t u d y is to clarify o u r t e r m i n o l o g y a n d to m a k e
a case for s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e h e a v e n l y a n d t h e earthly, so t h a t m y
findings
largely g o a g a i n s t t h o s e of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s . H o w e v e r , b e f o r e
saying m o r e , w e n e e d t o r e t u r n to o u r e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e texts.
In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d the relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels
in t h e SSS, it is n e c e s s a r y to a t t e m p t to clarify t h e m e a n i n g of t h e
various terms found therein.
22
D. Allison, "The Silence of .Angels: Reflections on the Songs of the Sabbath
Sacrifice" RQ 13 (1988) 189-197.
23
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, pp. 23.28
24
C. Newsom, The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, pp. 389-466.
25
See also M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, pp. 248-253.
26
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 252-394.
27
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 392.
28
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 392.
First, t h e t e r m itself is r a r e in t h e SSS,
a n d t h e r e a r e 110
n a m e d a r c h a n g e l s . 2 9 P e r h a p s t h e m o s t c o m m o n t e r m in t h e SSS t h a t
m a y r e f e r t o angels is . T h e t e r m is r a r e in t h e H e b r e w
Bible (Pss 29:1, 89:7; D a n 11:36) b u t is m o r e c o m m o n in t h e litera t u r e f o u n d a t t h e D e a d S e a (especially 1 Q M a n d
1QH).
A n o t h e r c o m m o n t e r m is . I n t h e H e b r e w Bible, this t e r m
is o f t e n used f o r t h e H e b r e w G o d (e.g., G e n
13 ;)h o w e v e r , it is
p l u r a l in f o r m , so it c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d to r e f e r to m u l t i p l e "gods 5 '
of o t h e r n a t i o n s (e.g., E x o d 12:12, 18:11, 20:3; 1 K g s 14:9) o r p e r h a p s e v e n to a n g e l s (e.g., Ps 8 2 : 1 , 6; 138:1). 3 0 As N e w s o m
notes,
" m a n y o c c u r r e n c e s of in t h e Shirot a r e a m b i g u o u s a n d m i g h t
r e f e r e i t h e r to G o d o r to t h e angels." 3 1 S o m e cases s u c h as
m o s t likely r e f e r to s o m e k i n d of divine b e i n g s , n o t to G o d . It s e e m s
t h a t h e r e in t h e SSS, t h e a r e m e a n t to s t a n d for s o m e t y p e
of d i v i n e b e i n g s s u b o r d i n a t e to G o d . It is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r a n d
a r e m e a n t to b e t h e s a m e o r q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t beings.
C e r t a i n l y , t h e t e r m s a r e c o g n a t e , w i t h b e i n g t h e p l u r a l of
(God) a n d ( pl. in f o r m : G o d o r gods). T h a t t h e t w o t e r m s
a r e s o m e t i m e s used in t h e s a m e section i m p l i e s s o m e type of distinction b e t w e e n t h e m , b u t equally t h e y m i g h t b e used i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y
for the same being.
O t h e r t e r m s , s u c h as " h o l y o n e s " ( ) a n d "spirits" (),
m a y also r e f e r to a n g e l s / d i v i n e beings. O n e of t h e m o r e u n c o m m o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e SSS a n g e l o l o g y is t h e discussion of a n g e l s as
priests (), t h o u g h this is n o t a n i d e a exclusive t o t h e SSS (cf.
T.
Levi 3:4f.). T h e w i d e a r r a y of t e r m s t h a t m a y r e f e r to a n g e l i c b e i n g s
m a k e s a n y investigation i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s
and
a n g e l s q u i t e difficult, since t h e m o r e t e r m s t h a t a r e believed to r e f e r

to " a n g e l s , " t h e m o r e c o m p l e x t h e discussion b e c o m e s . It s e e m s best,
t h e n , t o look f o r a n y e v i d e n c e t h a t h u m a n s a n d a n y
apparently
divine b e i n g s a r e discussed in t h e s a m e unit.

T h e r e a r e v e r y few p a s s a g e s in w h i c h h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s a r e disc u s s e d t o g e t h e r . T h e first six lines of 4 Q 4 0 0 f r a g m e n t 2 o f f e r o n e
such instance:
29
C. Newsom suggests that Melchizedek may be named in the 4M01, 11, 3

(See The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 37) and perhaps in 4Q401 22, 3. The reconstructions are by no means certain but are plausible.
30
BDB, pp. 43-44.
81
[1] to praise your glory wondrously with of knowledge and the

praises of your kingship a m o n g the [Most ] h o y ones].
[2] T h e y are honoured in all the camps of the and revered by
the assembly of h u m a n s [ ], wondrously . . .
[3] than or humans [ ]they declare the majesty of his
kingship according to their knowledge and they exalt [ . . .]
[4] the heavens of his realm. A n d in all the highest heights wondrous
psalms according to all [. . .1
[5] glory of the king of they declare in the dwellings their station. ..
[6] How shall we be accounted [among] them? And how shall our
priesthood (be accounted) in their dwellings?
T h e p a s s a g e is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e difficulties f a c e d
in t r y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d the r e l a t i o n s h i p of h u m a n s a n d angels in t h e
SSS. A t least t w o w o r d s ( a n d ) s e e m to r e f e r to divine
beings. T h e h u m a n s m e n t i o n e d s e e m to c o n s t i t u t e a s e p a r a t e g r o u p .
L i n e 6 suggests, h o w e v e r , t h a t p e r h a p s t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y seeks
to b e c o m e p a r t of t h e h e a v e n l y w o r s h i p p i n g c o m m u n i t y .
T h i s is e c h o e d in 4 Q 4 0 1 f r a g m e n t 14, c o l u m n 1, line 8, " T h e y
a r e h o n o r e d a m o n g all t h e c a m p s of t h e a n d r [ e v e r e d b y t h e
asse]mb1y of h u m a n s []." T h e s e p a s s a g e s d o n o t s e e m to p r e e l u d e t h e possibility t h a t t h e t w o r e a l m s , h u m a n a n d angelic, c a n
b e o n e a n d t h e s a m e i n s o m u c h as t h e y exist c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s l y a n d
p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e s a m e activity, b u t t h e h u m a n s d o n o t necessarily
b e c o m e angels.
G i v e n t h e lack of specific e v i d e n c e w i t h i n t h e SSS,
discussion of
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s in t h e SSS h a s i n s t e a d
f o c u s e d o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e overall f u n c t i o n of t h e text. T h u s , t h a t
it is " a q u a s i - m y s t i c a l " liturgical text m i g h t suggest s o m e sort of c o m m u n a l e x p e r i e n c e of t h e divine liturgy. T h e SSS s e e m u n i q u e a m o n g
t h e e x t a n t l i t e r a t u r e , to t h e e x t e n t t h a t this c a n n o t b e r u l e d
out.
T h i s t y p e of a p p r o a c h t o t h e texts h a s led C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s r e c e n t l y
to suggest a " n e w p a r a d i g m " for r e a d i n g t h e SSS. R a t h e r t h a n u n d e r s t a n d all t h e v a r i o u s t e r m i n o l o g y as " a n g e l s , " h e suggests t h a t t h e
SSS b e c o m e s m u c h m o r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e if o n e applies m a n y of these
r e f e r e n c e s to t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y , w h o " n o w h a v e a h e a v e n l y ,
a n g e l i c a n d divine identity. 3 2 H e calls u p o n his o w n r e c e n t w o r k a n d
52
C. Fletcher-Louis, "Heavenly Ascent or Incarnational Presence? A Revisionist
Reading of The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice" in SBL 1998 Seminar Papers (Atlanta, GA:
Scholars Press, 1998) 2:367-399; quote p. 369.
t h a t of C . M o r r a y - J o n e s , w h i c h a r g u e d t h a t in t h e l a t e
Second
T e m p l e p e r i o d r i g h t e o u s i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e w i d e l y believed t o b e c o m e
a n g e l o m o r p h i c beings. 3 3 T h i s s t u d y c h a l l e n g e s w h e t h e r such a belief
w a s a c t u a l l y held. M o r e o v e r , t h e r e a r e b a s i c issues of t h e
applic-
ability of t o p o i f r o m t h e " Q u m r a n l i t e r a t u r e " as a c o r p u s to t h e

SSSnamely,
t h a t t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e SSS a n d , for e x a m -
pie, 1 Q H is n o t c l e a r unless o n e a s s u m e s t h e y a r e b o t h w o r k s f r o m
t h e s a m e c o m m u n i t y . As i n t e r e s t i n g as his suggestion is, it w o u l d
r e p r e s e n t t h e o n l y e v i d e n c e f o r a s u s t a i n e d r e f e r e n c e t o h u m a n s as
essentially " g o d s " ( a n d ) . T h a t t h e SSS w o u l d b e u n i q u e
a m o n g t h e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t p r e c l u d e its possibility, b u t it d o e s s e e m
to m a k e it less likely. U l t i m a t e l y , s u c h a p a r a d i g m c a n n o t b e p r o v e d
a n d c a n n o t e v e n really b e s u s t a i n e d w i t h o u t c o n n e c t i n g t h e SSS
to
o t h e r w o r k s f r o m t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls. 3 4
I n s u m m a r y , t h e r e s e e m s little d o u b t t h a t t h e SSS a r e liturgical in
s o m e sense. O n e of t h e i r p r i m a r y c o n c e r n s is w o r s h i p in t h e h e a v enly t e m p l e , t h e h i e r a r c h y a n d s t r u c t u r e , a n d so o n . C l e a r l y , t h e SSS
s h a r e a n affinity w i t h b o t h c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s a p o c a l y p t i c (visionary)
w o r k s a n d also w i t h l a t e r mystical writings. W h a t is m u c h less c l e a r
is t h e g e n r e of t h e SSS a n d its f u n c t i o n in its c o m m u n i t y . T h e m a i n
h i n t t h a t it w a s m e a n t in s o m e f o r m t o b e r e a d a n d u s e d b y a c o m m u n i t y is t h e o p e n i n g of e a c h song, " t o t h e m a s k i l " ( ) . B e y o n d
t h a t i n d i c a t o r , t h i n g s b e c o m e m u c h less clear. It is c e r t a i n l y possible
t h a t t h e i n t e n t of r e a d i n g such a d o c u m e n t w a s to give die c o m m u n i t y
t h e sense t h a t t h e y w e r e p a r t a k i n g in t h e h e a v e n l y liturgy, a n d if so
s o m e sort of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m i g h t h a v e b e e n i m p l i e d . It is a t least
c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t t h e SSS w e r e i n d e e d m e a n t to p r o v o k e a sense of
c o m m u n i o n w i t h angels. It m a y b e t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t i n t e n d e d f o r
r e g u l a r liturgical use b u t i n s t e a d f o r use a t a specific t i m e , n a m e l y
t h e e s c h a t o n . It c a n n o t b e s u b s t a n t i a t e d t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y itself is
t h e r e f e r e n t of t e r m s like a n d as " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " beings.
T h e r e is n o clear i n d i c a t i o n f r o m t h e text itself t h a t angels live a m o n g
33
C. Fletcher-Louis, "Heavenly Ascent," esp. pp. 369-382. See also, J. Charlesworth,
"The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels" in Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism: Profiles
and Paradigms, ed. J. Collins and J. Charlesworth (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980)
135-151.
34
Additionally, Newsom (The S0?1gs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, p. 23) says that the term
is used frequently within the Qumran corpus to refer to angels. If the SSS is
a sectarian document as Retcher-Louis supposes, then this goes against his paradigm as well.
t h e c o m m u n i t y . It is m o r e likely t h a t , if t h e SSS
a r e m e a n t as a
m e a n s by w h i c h t h e c o m m u n i t y c o u l d p a r t a k e in t h e h e a v e n l y liturgy,
t h e n t h e y w o u l d in s o m e sense a s c e n d to t h e h e a v e n s to d o so, b u t
t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t , if t h e y did, t h e y u n d e r w e n t a n y k i n d of
p e r m a n e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n b y d o i n g so. T h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e
SSS
is a m b i g u o u s . T h e t e x t d o e s n o t clearly distinguish b e t w e e n h u m a n s
a n d a n g e l s b u t suggests a u n i q u e c i r c u m s t a n c e in w h i c h h u m a n a n d
divine liturgy is in s o m e sense c o m b i n e d o r s h a r e d . It is difficult to
d r a w any firm conclusions f r o m the
4.2
SSS.
The War Scroll (1QM
and
4Q491-496)
A m o n g t h e seven l a r g e m a n u s c r i p t s d i s c o v e r e d in c a v e 1 w a s a d o c u m e n t t h a t c o n t a i n e d n i n e t e e n H e b r e w c o l u m n s of w h a t first c a m e
to b e k n o w n f r o m Y. Y a d i n ' s s e m i n a l w o r k as t h e Scroll of t h e W a r
of t h e S o n s of L i g h t a g a i n s t t h e S o n s of D a r k n e s s b u t is n o w m o r e
c o m m o n l y k n o w n as t h e W a r Scroll (1Q_M). 35 I n c a v e 4 f r a g m e n t s
of a n o t h e r six copies of this w o r k w e r e later discovered ( 4 Q 4 9 1 - 4 9 6 ) . 3 6
A t first g l a n c e , t h e W a r Scroll s e e m s t o b e u n i f i e d in c o n t e n t a n d
t h e m e , w h i c h suggests t h a t it c o u l d c o m e f r o m a single
author.
H o w e v e r , closer e x a m i n a t i o n reveals r e p e t i t i o n s (e.g., 1 2 : 8 1 6
and
19:1^8) a n d o t h e r d i s c r e p a n c i e s in details s u c h as t i m i n g a n d i m p i e m e n t s of w a r , w i t h t h e result t h a t t o d a y it is widely a c c e p t e d t h a t

t h e W a r Scroll is a c o m p o s i t e text w i t h v a r i o u s levels of r e d a c t i o n .
J . V a n d e r Ploeg first suggested t h a t c o l u m n s 1 a n d 1 5 1 9 c o n s t i t u t e d
t h e earliest f o r m of t h e text. 3 ' D a v i e s h a s i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e levels of
redaction (
9, 1 0 , and 1 5 1 9
with 1 a n d
1314
additions). 3 8 I n m o s t r e c e n t a t t e m p t s to r e c o n s t r u c t t h e literary hist o r y of t h e W a r Scroll, c e r t a i n sections h a v e b e e n r e g u l a r l y r e c o g n i z e d as l i t e r a r y u n i t s : c o l u m n s 2 9,
1 0 - 1 2 (or 14), a n d
15-19.
N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e o r d e r in w h i c h t h e s e w e r e p r o d u c e d o r h o w
35
and
Y. Yadin, The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962).
36
J . VanderKam, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994).
H. Stegeman, The Library of Qumran: The Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus (Grand
Rapids, Ml/Cambridge: Eerdmans, 1998) 102, finds'10 mss. of the War Scroll.
37
J . van der Ploeg, "La composition littraire de la Rgle de la Guerre de
Qumran" in Sacra Pagina IL, ed. J. Coppens, A. Descamps, and E. Massaux (Gembloux:
Duculot) 13-19.
38
P. Davies, 1QM: The War Scroll from Qurman (Rome: Biblical Institute, 1977).
w h y t h e y w e r e fitted t o g e t h e r in t h e i r p r e s e n t f o r m , as well as t h e
r e l a t i o n of c o l u m n 1 t o t h e o t h e r s , r e m a i n m a t t e r s of d e b a t e . T h e
c o m p l e x i t y of t h e issues i n v o l v e d h a s c a u s e d s o m e to c o n t i n u e
to
a s s u m e u n i t y w h e n p e r f o r m i n g exegesis. 3 9 T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m t o
b e a n y specific set of a n g e l beliefs r e l a t e d to a n y o n e level of r e d a c tional activity, so f o r t h e p u r p o s e of t h e f o l l o w i n g discussion,
the
W a r Scroll will be c o n s i d e r e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e final r e d a c tor, w h o b r o u g h t t h e text i n t o its p r e s e n t f o r m .

T h e literary d e p e n d e n c e of t h e W a r Scroll u p o n t h e B o o k of D a n i e l
(e.g., 1 Q M 1 a n d D a n 1 1 : 4 0 - 1 2 : 3 ) gives us a terminus a quo of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 160 B C E . 4 0 P a l o g r a p h i e e v i d e n c e d a t e s 1 Q M to t h e s e c o n d
half of t h e first c e n t u r y B C E , t h u s a likely terminus ad quem.iX H o w e v e r ,
given t h a t t h e scroll w a s d i s c o v e r e d a m o n g t h e finds at t h e
Dead
Sea, Y a d i n posits t h a t t h e latest d a t e f o r t h e c o p y i n g of t h e
War
Scroll e x t a n t to us is 70 C E .
42
M o r e precise d a t e s h a v e b e e n sug-
g e s t e d for t h e t e x t o n t h e basis of c o m p a r i s o n s to c o n t e m p o r a r y military m a n u a l s , b u t t h o s e discussions n e e d n o t c o n c e r n us h e r e . T h e

W a r Scroll is firmly w i t h i n t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l b o u n d s of o u r s t u d y .
D u e to its eschatological c o m p o n e n t s , t h e W a r Scroll a p p e a r s o f t e n
i n d i s c u s s i o n s of a p o c a l y p t i c l i t e r a t u r e f r o m t h e S e c o n d
period.
43
Temple
H o w e v e r , it is g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d as a rule b o o k , a n d in t h e
s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e it is s o m e t i m e s e v e n r e f e r r e d t o as t h e W a r R u l e .
T h e s e " r u l e s " w e r e a p p a r e n t l y a m a p of t h e c o r r e c t c o n d i t i o n s n e e d e d
t o c r e a t e a h u m a n - a n g e l a r m y to fight the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l battle. 4 4
39
E.g., M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran (Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1992) 213.

G. Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls in English, 4th ed. (New York: Penguin, 1995) 124.
41
F. Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran, 3rd ed. (New York: Doubleday, 1995) 138.
42
See also, D. Dimant, "Qumran Sectarian Literature" in Jewish Writings of the
Second Temple Period, ed. Michael Stone (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984) x;
H. Stegeman, The library at Qumran, pp. 102-104.
43
The rubric "apocalyptic" should not be overemphasized with regard to the
War Scroll, however, since the War Scroll lacks the definitive mark of an apocalypse, i.e., a revelation. C. Rowland states of the evidence regarding the War Scroll,
"All this seems to indicate that we are dealing with a text which is related to the
apocalypses, but one which hardly justifies the label 'apocalyptic'." The Open Heaven,
p. 42. His point is echoed by J . Cotns, who, more recently, says the War Scroll
is "perhaps the most 'apocalyptic' book in the corpus, although its literary form is
that of a rule book and not of a revelation." Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls
(London: Routledge, 1997) 10. See also, R. Bauckham, 77; Climax of Prophecy
(Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1993) 212ff.
44
In some sense, the term "utopian" might be appropriate to this situation, insomuch as the War Scroll seems to describe a synergy between humans and angels
as the "Sons of Light."
w
T h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n is: H o w d o e s s u c h a set of rules f u n c t i o n ?

I n c o l u m n 1 w e a r e told t h a t t h e d o c u m e n t is " F o r t h e M [aster, T h e
R u l e of] W a r o n t h e u n l e a s h i n g of t h e a t t a c k of t h e sons of light
a g a i n s t t h e s o n s of d a r k n e s s , t h e a r m y of Belial: a g a i n s t t h e t r o o p of
E d o m , M o a b , t h e sons of A m m o n . " C o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t
c o l u m n s a r e specific d i r e c t i o n s o n t h e a s s i g n m e n t of t r o o p s (col. 2),
t h e rule for t h e t r u m p e t s (cols. 2 - 3 ) , rules f o r t h e s t a n d a r d s (cols.
3 - 4 ) , inscriptions, p r a y e r s , a n d so o n . T h e detail is e x t r a o r d i n a r y .
T h i s specificity w o u l d s e e m to h a v e a d e f i n i t e p u r p o s e . T h e n u m b e r ,
a n d p e r h a p s e v e n c o m p u l s i v e n a t u r e , of t h e rules s e e m s to i m p l y a
n e c e s s a r y state o r c o n d i t i o n m u s t b e o b t a i n e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d f o r
t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l w a r to t a k e p l a c e a n d f o r t h e S o n s of L i g h t to b e
successful. C o l u m n
16 r e i t e r a t e s t h a t " T h e y shall a c t a c c o r d i n g t o
this e n t i r e r u l e . "
T h e W a r Scroll utilizes a t h e m e a l r e a d y p r e s e n t in t h e
Hebrew
Bible: holy w a r t h e i d e a t h a t a r m e d c o n f r o n t a t i o n o r d a i n e d b y G o d
a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o s t a n d ideologically o p p o s e d to t h e c h o s e n p e o p l e
of G o d is a n essential c o m p o n e n t in t h e r e o r d e r i n g of history. T h a t
angels a r e a n essential c o m p o n e n t of holy w a r f a r e is well attested
( J o s h u a 5 : 1 3 - 1 5 , 1 C h r 2 1 : 1 6 , 2 K g s 19:35, 1 M a c c 7:41 a n d 2
M a c c 15:22fi, N u m 2 2 : 2 2 , 3 M a c c 6 : 1 8 , 4 M a c c 4 : 1 0 S i r a c h 48:21).
As B a u c k h a m suggests, " h o l y w a r " t r a d i t i o n s c a n b e d i v i d e d
into
t w o types: (1) t h o s e in w h i c h G o d (alone o r w i t h his h e a v e n l y forces)

is v i c t o r i o u s (e.g., E x o d
1 4 : 1 3 - 1 4 ; 2 K g s 1 9 : 3 2 - 3 5 ; et al)
a n d (2)
t h o s e in w h i c h h u m a n s assist in t h e w a r f a r e . 4 5 H e n o t e s t h a t
"the
o n e w o r k n o t p r e s e r v e d b y C h r i s t i a n s w h i c h d o e s give us d e t a i l e d
e v i d e n c e of ideas a b o u t a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l holy w a r in w h i c h Israelite
a r m i e s will fight is t h e W a r Scroll f r o m Q u m r a n ( 1 Q M ) . " 4 6 B a u c k h a m
h i g h l i g h t s t h e u n i q u e n e s s of t h e W a r Scroll's h u m a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
t h e h o l y w a r to d e m o n s t r a t e c e r t a i n similarities b e t w e e n 1 Q M
and
t h e B o o k of R e v e l a t i o n .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t h e m e of h o l y w a r in t h e H e b r e w Bible, t h e r e
is also a t r a d i t i o n of G o d as w a r r i o r . E x o d 15:3 states, " T h e L o r d
is a man of war*1
t h e L o r d is his n a m e " ( ).
T h e L X X w a s n o t as c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h calling t h e L o r d a " m a n of
w a r " a n d i n s t e a d h a s " t h e L o r d is c r u s h i n g w a r s ; the L o r d is his
45
46
47
R. Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy, pp. 21 Off.

R. Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy, p. 212.
See also Isa 42:13; Hos 12:6, and cf. josh 5:13.
n a m e " ( ). . Segal h a s
s h o w n t h a t in t h e r a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n s , this p a s s a g e b e c a m e o n e of a
n u m b e r of s o u r c e s t h a t led to t h e " t w o p o w e r s " c o n t r o v e r s y , since
t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e L o r d as a h u m a n w a r r i o r c o u l d h a v e b e e n
u n d e r s t o o d as a n e n t i t y s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e L o r d , especially in light
of p a s s a g e s like D a n 7:13. 4 8 F o r t h e p r e s e n t discussion, t h e p a s s a g e
is r e l e v a n t i n s o m u c h as a d i v i n e b e i n g is d e s c r i b e d as a
"man."
H o w e v e r , this t h e o p h a n y d o e s n o t tell us m u c h a b o u t a n g e l s a n d
h u m a n s . Still, t h e L o r d - a s - w a r r i o r m o t i f likely i n f l u e n c e d p o r t r a y a l s
of t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l in 1 Q M a n d R e v e l a t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e .
T h e W a r Scroll, t h e n , s e e m s to allow believers to p a r t i c i p a t e in
t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of G o d ' s o r d e r in history, first t h r o u g h
in t h e rules, t h e n a c t u a l l y
final
fighting
preparation
side-byside w i t h angels in t h e
battle. 4 9
Column
1 states t h a t in t h e final struggle b e t w e e n t h e S o n s of
L i g h t a n d t h e S o n s of D a r k n e s s " t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n of divine b e i n g s
[ ]a n d t h e a s s e m b l y of m e n [ ], t h e S o n s of L i g h t , a n d t h e
lot of d a r k n e s s shall fight e a c h o t h e r " ( w . 1011). F u r t h e r m o r e , in
t h a t b a t t l e t h e r e will b e w a r cries (v. 11) f r o m b o t h t h e
and
the ( v. 11). H o w e v e r w e u n d e r s t a n d , it is c l e a r t h a t t h e y
a r e s o m e t h i n g qualitatively d i f f e r e n t f r o m . T h e
"congregation
of divine b e i n g s " ( ) a n d t h e " a s s e m b l y of m e n

d o b a t t l e a g a i n s t a single f o r c e , t h e lot of d a r k n e s s () . T h i s
lot, called t h e A r m y of Belial in v. 13, also s e e m s to h a v e angels
( ) a m o n g its f o r c e s (v. 15). S o a distinction is m a d e
between
the t w o g r o u p s of b e i n g s i n v o l v e d , b u t t h e y s e e m to c o n s t i t u t e o n e
fighting
force.
C o l u m n 7 : 4 - 6 c o n t a i n s o r d i n a n c e s for p u r i t y specifically b e c a u s e
the angels a r e to b e w i t h the host. I t states:
[4] . . . Neither lame, nor blind, nor crippled, nor a m a n in whose flesh
there is a permanent blemish, nor a m a n stricken by some uncleanliness
[5] in the flesh, none of them shall go to battle with them. T h e y shall
all be freely enlisted for war, perfect in spirit and in body and prepared for the Day of Vengeance. And
[6] no m a n shall go down with them on the day of battle who is
impure because of his "fount," for the holy angels [ ] shall
be with their hosts [ ] .
48
A. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1977) 33-57.

My conclusions regarding the nature of the War Scroll are very much like
those of C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory, pp. 395-475.
49
T h e r e s e e m to b e t w o e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r s u c h rules. First, t h e r e m a y
h a v e b e e n m e m b e r s of t h e g r o u p w h o fit t h e s e criteria: b l i n d , d e a f ,
i n f i r m , a n d so o n ; t h u s t h e c o n c e r n w a s to e x c l u d e s u c h
members
at key m o m e n t s t o e n s u r e t h e possibility of a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e . S e c o n d ,
t h e r e w e r e n o t necessarily s u c h m e m b e r s , b u t t h e i r h e i g h t e n e d sense
of p u r i t y w a s r e l a t e d to p r e p a r i n g for a holy w a r , since t h e s e p r o scriptions a r e v e r y m u c h like t h o s e o u t l i n e d in D e u t 2 3 : 9 1 4
t h o s e e n c a m p e d a g a i n s t t h e i r e n e m i e s . It is n o t possible to k n o w
w h i c h of t h e s e is t h e c a s e , o r w h e t h e r it is s o m e of b o t h .
Also, t h e a n g e l s a r e s i m p l y said t o b e "with 5 ' ( )t h e host. T h i s
d o e s n o t necessarily i m p l y a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of e i t h e r p a r t y
but
simply a j o i n i n g of forces.
A g a i n in 12:8, t h e a n g e l s a r e said to b e a m o n g t h e m e n ,
"For
t h e L o r d is holy, a n d t h e g l o r i o u s king (is) w i t h us, t o g e t h e r w i t h

t h e h o l y o n e s [[ ]. . .] the h o s t of angels [ ] is a m o n g
o u r n u m b e r e d m e n [ ] . " T h e angels a r e w i t h t h e m e n , b u t
t h e r e is n o c l e a r sense t h a t t h e m e n a r e t r a n s f o r m e d , o n l y t h a t t h e y
h a v e likely a c h i e v e d a n e c e s s a r y level of p u r i t y to allow t h e angels
to b e p r e s e n t .
T h e c o m m u n i t y d o e s s e e m t o h a v e a special c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e
angels. C o l u m n 10:911 states:
[9] W h o is like your people Israel which you have chosen for yourself from all the peoples of the lands,
[10] the people of the saints of the Covenant, instructed in the laws
and learned in wisdom, taught in d i s c e r n [ m e n t . . .]hearers of the glorious voice, and seers of
[11] holy angels [ ] , open of ear, and hearers of profound
things . . .
T h e r e f e r e n c e to " h e a r e r s of t h e g l o r i o u s v o i c e " m a y m e a n n o m o r e
than understanding T o rah, but when combined with the reference
to s e e i n g angels, it suggests a m o r e i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
heavenly realm.
50
the
N o n e of this implies t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , h o w e v e r . T h a t
t h e m e m b e r s m a y b e a b l e t o see angels is n o t e x t r a o r d i n a r y in t h e
c o n t e x t of t h e W a r Scroll itself, since n u m e r o u s p a s s a g e s s p e a k of
angels being present.
Lastly, s o m e o t h e r p a s s a g e s also s e e m to i n d i c a t e t h a t angels a r e
believed to b e p r e s e n t d u r i n g t h e final battle. T h e a r c h a n g e l s ' n a m e s
(Sariel, M i c h a e l , G a b r i e l , a n d R a p h a e l ) a r e i n v o k e d o n shields of t h e
50
C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, p. 116.
for
t o w e r s ( 9 : 1 4 - 1 6 ) . Also, M i c h a e l will b e definitive in t h e victory of

the S o n s of L i g h t (17:6):
H e has sent an everlasting help to the lot w h o m he has redeemed
through the might of the majestic angel. (He will set) the authority of
Michael in everlasting light. He will cause the covenant of Israel to
shine in joy. Peace and blessing to the lot of God. H e will exalt over
all the divine beings the authority of Michael and the dominion of
Israel over all the flesh.
T h e P r i n c e of L i g h t s m a y b e t h e s a m e b e i n g as M i c h a e l a n d is also
said to b e e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e r e s c u e of t h e " S o n s of L i g h t " (13:10).
T h e W a r Scroll s h o w s us o n e J e w i s h g r o u p ' s i d e a s a b o u t t h e eschatological w a r t h a t w o u l d r e o r d e r history. T h e rules t h e r e i n p r o v i d e
t h e c o m m u n i t y w i t h g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a t t l e t h a t is
to t a k e p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e f o r c e s of d a r k n e s s . T h a t
angels a r e m e a n t to b e a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of this b a t d e c a n n o t b e
d o u b t e d . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e h u m a n believers t o t h e angels is
n o t entirely c l e a r , h o w e v e r . T h e p a s s a g e s c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e
repre-
sent a v e r y small p e r c e n t a g e of t h e e n t i r e d o c u m e n t , w h i c h is largely

c o n c e r n e d with the actions necessary for the h u m a n
community.
T h e r e is a n a p p a r e n t c o n c e r n to m a i n t a i n a h e i g h t e n e d sense of
p u r i t y to allow the a n g e l s to b e a m o n g m e n . T h e c o m b i n e d h u m a n angelic fighting f o r c e t h e S o n s of L i g h t w i l l c a r r y o u t G o d ' s p l a n
of d e s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e S o n s of D a r k n e s s . T h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m to b e
a n y r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e h u m a n w a r riors is i n t e n d e d , at least b e f o r e a n d d u r i n g t h e final battle.
A Related Fragment:
4Q491
O n e o t h e r f r a g m e n t , a t t r i b u t e d to t h e W a r Scroll f a m i l y of texts, is
r e l e v a n t to t h e discussion of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s
and
angels: 4 Q 4 9 1 f r a g m e n t 11, col. 1 w a s originally d e e m e d " T h e S o n g

of M i c h a e l a n d t h e J u s t " b y M . Baillet. 5 1 O t h e r r e c e n s i o n s of w h a t
is n o w b e l i e v e d t o b e t h e s a m e text (or at least a v e r y similar text)
a r e : 4 Q 4 7 1 b ; 4 Q 4 2 7 f r a g m e n t 7, a n d p e r h a p s 1 Q H col. 26. 5 2
Baillet w a s likely led to die conclusion t h a t t h e speaker w a s die angel
M i c h a e l b e c a u s e t h e s p e a k e r in t h e text m a k e s s o m e b o l d claims:
51
M. Baillet, DJD VII (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982) 45-49.

E. Schuller, "A Hymn from a Cave Four Hodayaot Manuscript: 4Q427 7 i +
ii" JBL 112 (1993) 605-628.
52
[12] . . . a powerful throne in the congregation of divine beings [],

on which all the kings of the East cannot sit, and their nobles [. . .]
stand still
[13][. . .] my glory. None is exalted besides me, and none comes to
me, for I have sat on [. . .] in the heavens. T h e r e is no
[14][. . .]jbwm I reckon myself a m o n g the divine beings [ ] , and
my place (is) in the holy congregation.
V e r s e 18 adds, " F o r I a m r e c k o [ n e d ] a m o n g t h e divine b e i n g s [],
[ a n d ] m y glory is w i t h the k i n g ' s s o n s . "
T h e a t t r i b u t i o n of these w o r d s to t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l h a s b e e n c h a l lenged by M . Smith, w h o thinks that Michael would not c o m p a r e
himself to s u c h " s m a l l f r y " as e a r t h l y kings ( A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s ) . 5 3
S m i t h sees this as a c l a i m m a d e b y t h e M a s t e r , p e r h a p s t h e T e a c h e r
of R i g h t e o u s n e s s , to a h e a v e n l y seat. J . Collins n o t e s t h a t S m i t h ' s
position n e e d s s o m e q u a l i f i c a t i o n . S m i t h is c o r r e c t t h a t t h e b e i n g is
n o t a n a n g e l , b u t h e is i n c o r r e c t t o say t h a t this text r e p r e s e n t s a n
a s c e n t . C o l l i n s suggests t h a t it is c l o s e r t o texts t h a t discuss t h e
d e i f i c a t i o n ( e n t h r o n e m e n t ) of M o s e s t h a n m y s t i c a l a s c e n t
texts. 5 4
Collins's q u a l i f i c a t i o n s s e e m t o m a k e m o r e sense of t h e text as it

currently stands.
H o w e v e r this p a s s a g e is u n d e r s t o o d , it s e e m s c l e a r e n o u g h
that
t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k i n g sees himself to h a v e b e e n e x a l t e d a n d is n o w
a m o n g t h e g r o u p called t h e ( line 14) a n d t h a t this g r o u p c o u l d
b e u n d e r s t o o d as a class o r type of angels. 5 5
4.3
The Hodayot
(1QH)
T h e Hodayot, o r T h a n k s g i v i n g Scroll, w a s d i s c o v e r e d in c a v e 1, surviving in t w o originally s e p a r a t e m a n u s c r i p t s as well as s o m e sixtyfive f r a g m e n t s . T h e r e a r e e i g h t e e n c o l u m n s w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y thirty

h y m n s e x t a n t . T h e h y m n s likely d a t e t o t h e first c e n t u r y B C E . 5 6 A
53
M. Smith, "Two Ascended to Heaven: Jesus and the Author of 4Q491" in Jesus
and the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. J . Charlesworth (New York: Doubleday, 1992) 290-301.
54
J. Collins, "A Throne in the Heavens: Apotheosis in pre-Christian Judaism"
in Death, Ecstasy and Other Worldly Journeys, ed. J. Collins and M. Fishbane (New
York: SUNY, 1995) 43-58.
55
The terms and do appear elsewhere in the 4 Q material: 4QM1
frag. 1-3, v. 3; frag. 5 - 6 v. 1; frag. 13 v. 1; 4QM5 frag. 2 v. 4; 4QM6 frag. 2 v.
2; 3 v. 5, but they add comparatively little to our overall understanding due to
their limited context.
56
D. Dimant, "Qumran Sectarian Literature," p. 107.
f e w s c h o l a r s h a v e e v e n a s s e r t e d t h a t s o m e h y m n s in t h e first p e r s o n
m a y h a v e b e e n written by the T e a c h e r of Righteousness. 5 7 Nevertheless,
their authorship remains uncertain.
H . K u h n ' s w o r k w a s a m o n g t h e first t o suggest the
m u n i t y i d e a f o r this text.
58
angel-com-
O t h e r s h a v e n o t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of this
w o r k in u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n g e l - h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s as well. 5 9
T h e h y m n s m a k e k n o w n t h e full p o t e n t i a l of t h e believers. C o l u m n
1 1 : 2 0 - 2 2 says:
[20] And I know there is hope
[21] for someone you fashioned out of clay to be an everlasting community. T h e corrupt spirit you have purified from the great sin so that
he can take his place
[22] with the host of the holy ones, a n d can enter in communion with
the congregation of the sons of heaven [ ] .
H e r e t h e t e r m " a n g e l " d o e s n o t a p p e a r explicitly, b u t t h e situation
s e e m s relatively clear. T h o s e " f a s h i o n e d o u t of c l a y , " h u m a n b e i n g s
( G e n 2:7) w i t h a " c o r r u p t spirit" ( h u m a n s in a fallen state), h a v e a
c h a n c e to t a k e t h e i r p l a c e w i t h t h e " h o l y o n e s , " e n t e r i n g i n t o c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e " s o n s of h e a v e n . " 6 T h i s s e e m s t o suggest a r e t u r n
to a p u r e r , p e r h a p s p r e - F a l l state (cf. A d a m in 3.1 above). I n this
case, h u m a n s b e g i n as s o m e t h i n g d i s t i n c t t h a t is, " t h o s e f a s h i o n e d
o u t of c l a y " w i t h a " c o r r u p t spirit." T h e
righteous
are purified a n d
e n t e r i n t o c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e angels.
M e n a n d angels a r e m e n t i o n e d in 1 Q H c o l u m n
14:1213:
[12] . . . For you have brought [your truth and your] glory
[13] to all the men of your council [ ] and in the lot,
together with the angels of the face [ ] , without there being
an interpreter [ ]between y [ 0 u r holy o n e s . . . ]
T h e t e r m a p p e a r s in this p a s s a g e a n d s e e m s j u x t a p o s e d w i t h
t h e " m e n " of t h e c o u n c i l . T h e e n d of line 13 is suggestive. It says
" w i t h o u t t h e r e b e i n g a b e t w e e n . " 6 1 T h e text b r e a k s off a f t e r
57
J. Hyatt, "The View of the Man in the Qumran 'Hodayot'," NTS 2 (1955-1956)
276-284; H. Stegemann, Library, p. 107.
58
H. Kuhn, Enderwartung, pp. 66-72.
59
See, C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, pp. 116-118; C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts,
pp. 185-188 and All the Glory, pp. 104-112; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology,
p. 174.
60
H. Kuhn, Enderwartung, pp. 91-92, argues that the "holy ones" should be understood as angels, and this seems correct.
61
Interestingly, in Job 33:23 the term is used in connection with , and
the two terms may even stand in apposition.
this p o i n t . T h a t m e n m a y be t o g e t h e r w i t h " a n g e l s of t h e f a c e " is

significant. I t m a y reflect a u n i o n w i t h t h e a n g e l s t h a t n e e d s
no
m e d i a t i o n . T h e s o m e w h a t f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e of the text is frustrating,

since a c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s c a n n o t b e m a d e .
In 1 Q H
1 9 : 1 0 - 1 4 t h e r e s e e m s t o b e a c o n c e r n for p u r i t y so t h a t
m e m b e r s c a n a t t a i n a n e l e v a t e d status:
[10] For your glory, you have purified m a n f r o m sin,
[11] so that he can make himself holy for you from every impure
abomination and blameworthy iniquity, to become united with the sons
of your truth and the lot of your holy ones,
[12] to raise the worms of the dead from the dust, to an [everlasting]
community and from a depraved spirit, to your knowledge,
[13] so that he can take his place in your presence with the peipetual host and the [everlasting] spirits, to renew him with everything
that will exist,
[14] and with those who know in a community of jubilation.
A n g e l s a r e n o t explicitly m e n t i o n e d , b u t t h e p e r p e t u a l h o s t suggests
t h e a n g e l s w h o c o n s t a n t l y w o r s h i p G o d in t h e h e a v e n l y t e m p l e . T h i s
p a s s a g e is n o t u n l i k e c o l u m n 11 a b o v e in t h a t it a p p a r e n t l y speaks
of a r e s t o r a t i o n to a sinless state. S u c h a p u r i f i e d state s e e m s to allow
t h e m e m b e r s t o b e c o m e p a r t of t h e a n g e l i c host. It is n o t c l e a r
w h e t h e r this w o u l d h a p p e n in t h e i r m o r t a l lives o r a f t e r , b u t it is at
least plausible t h a t t h e i n t e n t i o n is f o r a this-life e l e v a t e d state. 5 2
T h e T h a n k s g i v i n g H y m n s a r e suggestive. S o m e passages give t h a n k s
for a p u r i f i e d state in w h i c h it s e e m s h u m a n s c o u l d b e in c o m m u n i o n
w i t h t h e h e a v e n l y host. T h e r e is a c l e a r sense t h a t h u m a n s b e g i n as
flesh a n d b l o o d ( f o r m e d o u t of clay) a n d a r e sinful ( a n d in n e e d of
purification). O n c e t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m the h u m a n condition,
they
a p p a r e n t l y b e l i e v e d in t h e possibility of b e i n g identified w i t h angels

in h e a v e n .
4.4
The Rule of the Community
(1QS,
lQSa,
and
lQSbf
T h e R u l e of the C o m m u n i t y was also discovered in cave 1. C o n t a i n e d

o n the s a m e scroll a r e t h r e e w o r k s t h a t a r e n o t c o n t i n u o u s : (1) t h e
R u l e of t h e C o m m u n i t y ( 1 Q S ) , (2) t h e R u l e of t h e
Congregation
( l Q S a ) , a n d (3) t h e R u l e of t h e Blessings ( l Q S b ) . All t h r e e w o r k s

62
C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, pp. 117-118.

Additionally, there are fragments from cave 4 (4Q255-264) and perhaps cave
5 (5QJ 1) that are part of S.
63
a r e in t h e s a m e h a n d . It is believed to h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d s o m e t i m e
a r o u n d 1 5 0 - 1 0 0 B C E . 6 4 T h e Serekh c o n t a i n s g u i d e l i n e s f o r c o m m u n a l living. T h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e w o r k s w r i t t e n o n t h e s a m e scroll
suggests t h a t t h e r e m a y b e s o m e relation a m o n g t h e m , b u t this s h o u l d
not be automatically assumed.
1 Q S 11:7 8 suggests a f u s i n g of t h e e a r t h l y c o m m u n i t y w i t h t h e
heavenly:
[7] . . . T o those whom G o d has selected he has given them an everlasting possession; until they inherit t h e m in the lot of
[8] the holy ones []. H e joins their assembly to the sons of heaven
[ ] in order for the counsel of the Community and a foundation
of the building of holiness to be an eternal plantation throughout
[9] all future ages. . .
T h e r e is n o explicit m e n t i o n of angels i n t h e p a s s a g e itself, b u t if
t h e " h o l y o n e s " a r e u n d e r s t o o d as r e f e r r i n g t o t h e h u m a n c o m m u n i t y
a n d t h e " s o n s of h e a v e n " to h e a v e n l y beings, t h e n w e c o u l d p e r h a p s
i n f e r a c o m b i n i n g of t h e t w o g r o u p s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e p a s s a g e
suggests t h a t t h e t w o g r o u p s a r e distinct a n d will o n l y b e j o i n e d
t o g e t h e r a t a specific p o i n t in t i m e . T h e i r j o i n i n g t o g e t h e r d o e s h a v e
a p e r m a n e n t effect (lines 8 9 ) . C . R o w l a n d suggests h e r e t h a t t h e
c o m m u n i t y c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as " a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e h e a v e n l y
w o r l d , " a d d i n g , " G o d h a s , as it w e r e , e x t e n d e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s of
h e a v e n to i n c l u d e this h a v e n of holiness." 6 5
l Q S a sets o u t r e g u l a t i o n s f o r t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n ( m e n , w o m e n , a n d
c h i l d r e n ) . T h e r e a r e o n l y t w o e x t a n t c o l u m n s , b e g i n n i n g , " N o w this
is t h e R u l e f o r t h e e n t i r e c o n g r e g a t i o n of Israel, d u r i n g t h e
end
t i m e . " T h e R u l e of die C o n g r e g a t i o n 2 : 5 ~ 9 explicitly m e n t i o n s angels.

T h e c o n c e r n h e r e is f o r t h e p u r i t y of t h e m e m b e r s , b e c a u s e
the
angels a r e said to b e " a m o n g t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n . "

[5] . . . And everyone who is defiled in his flesh, defiled in his feet or
[6] in the hands, lame 01 blind, deaf or d u m b 01 defiled in his flesh
with a blemish
[7] visible to the eyes, or an old m a n who cannot maintain himself
in the congregation;
[8] these shall not enter to take their place a m o n g the congregation
of the men of name, for angels
[8] of holiness are a m o n g their congre [gation] . . .
64
65
D. Dirnant, "Qumran," pp. 497-498; H. Stegemann, Library, p. 107.

C. Rowland, The Open Heaven, p. 118.
T h i s text q u i t e clearly states t h a t a n g e l s a r e in t h e m i d s t of d i e c o m m u n i t y (cf. 1 Q M
7:6, 12:8 above). First, it s e e m s t h e r e m a y well
h a v e b e e n m e m b e r s of t h e g r o u p w h o fit t h e s e criteria: b l i n d , d e a f ,
i n f i r m , etc. If this w e r e t r u e , t h e n c e r t a i n l y n o t all m e m b e r s w o u l d
be a b l e to p a r t i c i p a t e in a n y c e r e m o n y t h a t m i g h t involve t h e p r s e n c e of angels. S e c o n d l y , t h a t t h e a n g e l s a r e said to b e p r e s e n t d o e s
n o t m e a n m e m b e r s a r e in a n y w a y t r a n s f o r m e d by t h e i r p r e s e n c e .
T h e r e is p e r h a p s t h e possibility t h a t t h e p u r e m e m b e r s of the c o m m u n i t y a r e m e a n t to b e in s o m e w a y t r a n s f o r m e d t h r o u g h
their
e x p e r i e n c e , b u t this is b y n o m e a n s necessary.
1 Q S b , T h e R u l e of t h e Blessings, c o l u m n 4 reads:
[24] . . . and you
[25] like an angel of the face [ ] in the holy residence for
the glory of the G o d of Hosts [.. .] [. . .] you be around, serving in
the temple of
[26] the kingdom, casting lot with the angels of the face []
and the Council of the Community . . .
T h i s p a s s a g e is e v e n m o r e suggestive of t h e possible angelic status
of t h e believers. I n line 2 4 only t h e w o r d is e x t a n t , b u t m a n y
t r a n s l a t o r s suggest r e a d i n g s like " m a y y o u b e like" o r " y o u shall b e
like" a n a n g e l of t h e f a c e . T h e s e a r e possible r e a d i n g s , b u t t h e y suggest a p a r t i c u l a r m e a n i n g . 5 6 It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h e p r e f i x to
. It m a k e s a c o m p a r i s o n (like o r as), n o t a n e q u a t i o n (cf. G a l
4:14). I n line 26, t h e angels of t h e f a c e a r e a g a i n m e n t i o n e d ,
and
t h e s a m e f o r m r e c u r s n e a r t h e e n d of line 25. I n line 26 w e

also get t h e v e r b . It is n o t entirely c l e a r w h a t this p h r a s e m e a n s
(cf. Ps 22:19). 6 7
4.5
Songs of the Sage (4Q511
Fragment
35)
T h e S o n g s of t h e S a g e a r e a n u m b e r of f r a g m e n t s t h a t s e e m t o b e
h y m n s against d e m o n s a n d evil spirits. T h e y are written in a H e r o d i a n
66
E.g., J. Charlesworth and L. Stuckenbruck, The Rule of the Community and Related
Documents (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1994) 127-128; F. Garcia-Martinez,
The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994) 433.
67
C. Fletcher-Louis (All the Glory, pp. 150-161) discusses this text in light of
"priestly" anthropomorphism. While his exegesis is interesting, his synthetic approach
of tying the priesthood to this text is not one that is accepted here.
script a n d d a t e to a r o u n d d i e t u r n of t h e era. 6 8 O n f r a g m e n t 3 5
n i n e lines a r e e x t a n t , t h o u g h o n l y seven c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h
c o n f i d e n c e . T h e first five lines a r e of t h e m o s t interest. L i n e 4 in
p a r t i c u l a r c o u l d b e s e e n as e q u a t i n g priests, t h e r i g h t e o u s p e o p l e ,
G o d ' s a r m y (or host), his servants, a n d t h e a n g e l s t h a t a r e a b l e t o
see the . A fairly literal t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e first five lines is o f f e r e d :
[1] G o d against all flesh, and a j u d g m e n t of vengeance to destroy
wickedness, and through the raging
[2] anger of God. Some of those who are refined seven times and the
holy ones [ [
ary, and purity a m o n g those purified. And they
[4] shall be priests [], his righteous people [ ] , his host
[ ]and his servants [], the angels of his glory [ [
T h e " h o l y o n e s " of line 2 a r e usually u n d e r s t o o d t o b e t h e h u m a n

c o m m u n i t y . 6 9 A s s u m i n g this is d i e case, t h e n t h e r e f e r e n t of t h e v a r ious titles of line 4 c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as t h e h u m a n " h o l y o n e s , "
in w h i c h c a s e " a n g e l s of his g l o r y " c o u l d b e o n e of t h o s e titles.
M . Baillet b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e " h o l y o n e s " w o u l d b e c o m e
"servants"
of t h e angels. T h e final mem. of i n d i c a t e s o t h e r w i s e , since a

construct form would be expected.
M . D a v i d s o n sees a b r e a k at "his s e r v a n t s " a n d b e g i n s a n e w sent e n c e w i t h " t h e angels of his glory will praise h i m . " 7 0 T h i s is a p l a u sible t r a n s l a t i o n , in w h i c h case t h e r e w o u l d b e n o e q u a t i o n b e t w e e n
h u m a n s a n d angels. As D a v i d s o n himself says, " N o w h e r e else in t h e
c o r p u s [of Q u m r a n l i t e r a t u r e ] is t h e r e f o u n d a n e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e
sectaries will live in h e a v e n , let a l o n e b e c o m e a n g e l s . " 1
C . G i e s c h e n s i m p l y n o t e s line 4 as a n e x a m p l e of a n
equation
b e i n g m a d e b e t w e e n priests a n d angels. 7 2 C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s
goes
m u c h f u r t h e r , r e f u t i n g translations t h a t w o u l d n e g a t e equality b e t w e e n
a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s h e r e . 7 3 H e s u p p o r t s this position b y c o n n e c t i n g
68
M. Baillet, DJB VII (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982) 215, 219. Hebrew text
taken from pp. 237-238, pl. LXII.
69
M. Baillet, DJD VII, pp. 237-238; M. Davidson, Angels at Qumran, pp. 282-285;
70
71
72
73
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, pp. 189-193. See also C. Fletcher-Louis, All the
Glory, pp. 293-296.
t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e w i t h t h e E s s e n e s a n d suggesting t h a t w i t h i n
t h e sect w e r e s o m e w h o r e m a i n e d c e l i b a t e b e c a u s e t h e y
deemed
t h e m s e l v e s t o b e living in a "state of T e m p l e p u r i t y , " w h i c h
they
u n d e r s t o o d as e q u i v a l e n t to a n " a n g e l i c existence." 7 4 J o s e p h u s
(B.J.
2 : 1 1 9 - 1 2 1 , 1 6 0 - 1 6 1 ) does r e c o r d drat t h e r e w e r e two types of Essenes,

o n e s t h a t led a c e l i b a t e life a n d o t h e r s t h a t m a r r i e d . T h e
problem
in c o n n e c t i n g t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls as a c o r p u s
w i t h w h a t J o s e p h u s says a b o u t t h e Essenes is t h a t t h e link b e t w e e n
t h e scrolls a n d t h e Essenes is n o t c e r t a i n . It m a y well b e w a r r a n t e d ,
b u t a n y conclusions b a s e d o n such a c o n n e c t i o n m u s t r e m a i n tentative.
T h i s f r a g m e n t in a n d of itself d o e s n o t p r o v i d e m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n
a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. A n u m b e r of
t r a n s l a t i o n s a r e possible, s o m e of w h i c h w o u l d m e a n t h a t n o e q u a t i o n
is i n t e n d e d b e t w e e n t h e h u m a n "holy o n e s " a n d t h e " a n g e l s of glory."
Lastly, t h e r e a r e t w o o t h e r pieces of e v i d e n c e b e y o n d t h e D e a d
S e a Scrolls t h a t n e e d to b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r possible c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t
e n v i s i o n e d t h e m s e l v e s as living t o g e t h e r w i t h angels.
4.6
The Corinthian
Community
P a u l s e e m s to h a v e h a d a special r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e c o m m u n i t y
in C o r i n t h , w r i t i n g a n d visiting t h e m o f t e n . A s n o t e d , t h e
term
a p p e a r s o n l y t e n times in t h e seven letters c o n s i d e r e d to b e

a u t h e n t i c a l l y P a u l i n e (see 3.13). F o u r of t h o s e t e n o c c u r in 1 C o r ,
a n o t h e r t w o in 2 C o r . T h e m o s t suggestive p a s s a g e in t e r m s of
h u m a n - a n g e l i n t e r a c t i o n is 1 C o r
11. P a u l ' s d i s c u s s i o n
concerns
p r o p e r w o r s h i p (11:2). I n 11:3 h e says, " t h e h e a d of even, m a n is

C h r i s t , t h e h e a d of a w o m a n is h e r h u s b a n d , a n d t h e h e a d of C h r i s t
is G o d " (11:3). I n 11:10 P a u l m a k e s t h e e n i g m a t i c s t a t e m e n t , " T h a t
is w h y a w o m a n o u g h t t o h a v e [ (lit. " a u t h o r i t y , "
m o s t t r a n s l a t e as " v e i l " as a s y m b o l of a u t h o r i t y ) ] o n h e r
b e c a u s e of t h e a n g e l s [ ] ."
75
though
head,
T w o issues a r e involved
a n d a r e integrally linked f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e passage: t h e m e a n i n g of t h e u p o n t h e w o m a n ' s h e a d a n d t h e m e a n i n g of t h e

p h r a s e .
74

The word "veil" appears in several mss. and Patristic sources (Irenaeus,
Jerome). It appears to be a gloss meant to explain the difficult term . See
also Tertullian, Virg. Vet. 7:2.
75
M a n y i n t e r p r e t e r s suggest t h a t t h e " a u t h o r i t y " o n h e r h e a d is a

m a r k of s u b o r d i n a t i o n in k e e p i n g with P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t in 11:3. O t h e r s
h a v e suggested t h a t it is simply a veil t h a t is m e a n t t o m a i n t a i n t h e
c o r r e c t social m o r e s in k e e p i n g with 11:5: t h a t is, a w o m a n ' s b a r e
h e a d is like a s h o r n h e a d - it is n o t socially a c c e p t a b l e . T h i s d o e s n o t
explain w h y P a u l t h e n includes the p h r a s e t , h o w e v e r .
It h a s b e e n suggested t h a t the sense m a y b e t h a t w i t h o u t
some
sort of c o v e r i n g f o r t h e i r h e a d s as a p r o p h y l a c t i c , t h e w o m e n of t h e
C o r i n t h i a n c o n g r e g a t i o n w e r e v u l n e r a b l e t o evil angels s u c h as t h e
"sons of G o d " w h o lusted a f t e r w o m e n ( G e n 6:2). 76 T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
h a s o n t h e w h o l e b e e n d i s r e g a r d e d , since it d o e s n o t m a k e sense in
the c o n t e x t of P a u l ' s discussion. P a u l h a s n o t said a n y t h i n g t o suggest these angels a r e p r e s e n t o r w o u l d r e p r e s e n t a n y p r o b l e m . 7 7 O t h e r
i n t e r p r e t e r s h a v e suggested t h a t t h e a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e m a y b e " g o o d "
angels i n t e r e s t e d in t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e o r d e r of c r e a t i o n
and
p r o p e r w o r s h i p . 7 8 I n s u c h a case, t h e w o m e n m u s t b e veiled b e c a u s e
t h e y will l e a d t h e a n g e l s to sin. 7 9
J . F i t z m y e r h a s o b s e r v e d t h a t P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t reflects a n i d e a seen
in s o m e of t h e t e x t s f r o m t h e D e a d
Sea c o m m u n i t y
considered
a b o v e n a m e l y , t h a t angels s e e m to dwell a m o n g t h e a c t u a l h u m a n
m e m b e r s of t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n at specific times. 8 0 I n this case t h e c o n c e r n of P a u l a n d t h e C o r i n t h i a n s is s o m e t h i n g a k i n to w h a t is seen
in t h e W a r Scroll (cf. D e u t 32), w h e r e p u r i t y is a n issue in o r d e r
for a n g e l s t o b e p r e s e n t . T h e w o m e n n e e d to h a v e t h e i r
"veils"
b e c a u s e t h e i r u n c o v e r e d h e a d s r e p r e s e n t t h e e q u i v a l e n t of a " b o d i l y
d e f e c t . " F i t z m y e r s u m m a r i z e s his insights f r o m the Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e :
" W e a r e invited b y t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m Q u m r a n to u n d e r s t a n d
that
the u n v e i l e d h e a d of a w o m a n is like a b o d i l y d e f e c t w h i c h s h o u l d
be e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e a s s e m b l y , ' b e c a u s e h o l y a n g e l s a r e p r e s e n t in
76
B. Reicke, The Disobedient Spirits and Christian Baptism (Copenhagen: Munksgaard,
1946).
77
M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head: An Examination of I Cor XI. 10" NTS
10 (1964) 412; G. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans,
1987) 521.
78
Foerster, TDNT 2:573f.; M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head," pp. 412-413.
79
Cf. T. Reu. 5.
80
J . Fitzmyer, "A Feature of Qumran Angelology and the Angels of 1 Cor 11:10"
in Paul and Qumran, ed. J . Murphy-O'Connor (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1968)
187-204. See also H. Cadbury, "A Qumran Parallel to Paul" Harvard Theological
Review 51 (1958) 1-2.
the c o n g r e g a t i o n . 8 "
'
T h e evidence f r o m Q u m r a n
demonstrates
c o n c e r n e q u a l l y for i n f i r m a n d i m p u r e m e n as it is d o e s f o r w o m e n .
M . H o o k e r h a s o f f e r e d a slightly d i f f e r e n t exegesis. 8 2 S h e suggests
t h a t b e t a k e n t o m e a n " a u t h o r i t y " in t h e sense t h a t
the
w o m e n in t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y c a n p r a y a n d p r o p h e s y sideby-side w i t h m e n in t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y . T h e r e is n o w a y t o
be c e r t a i n of P a u l ' s m e a n i n g h e r e , b u t it is n e c e s s a r y to h a v e a n
i d e a of t h e r a n g e of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s since t h e s e a r e integrally r e l a t e d
to h o w o n e i n t e r p r e t s .
F i t z m y e r ' s a n d H o o k e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e n o t m u t u a l l y exclusive,
h o w e v e r . 8 3 B o t h suggest t h a t t h e angels a r e p r e s e n t in t h e c o m m u n i t y
d u e to a c o n c e r n f o r p r o p e r w o r s h i p . P e r h a p s , r a t h e r t h a n s e e i n g t h e
u n v e i l e d h e a d as a " b o d i l y d e f e c t " t h a t r e q u i r e s a veil, it is m o r e
n a t u r a l t o t a k e as " a u t h o r i t y , " as H o o k e r suggests.
The
" a u t h o r i t y " is a sign t h a t in this n e w c o m m u n i t y w o m e n a r e e m p o w e r e d to p r a y a n d p r o p h e s y as m e n . T h e is a sign to t h e

a n g e l s t h a t this is c o r r e c t a n d p a r t of t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r t h a t P a u l
o u t l i n e d in 11:3. As w a s t h e case w i t h m u c h of t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m
Q u m r a n a n d as will b e t h e case in t h e text b e l o w (4.7), t h e c o n c e r n
f o r p u r i t y in o r d e r t h a t a n g e l s c a n dwell w i t h h u m a n s s e e m s to b e
i m p o r t a n t , b u t t h e m a y also b e a sign t h a t t h r o u g h b a p t i s m
i n t o t h e c o m m u n i t y a n g e l s c o u l d dwell w i t h w o m e n as well as m e n .
1 Cor
11:10 is n o t t h e o n l y p a s s a g e t h a t suggests t h o s e in t h e
C o r i n d n a n c o m m u n i t y believed in t h e p r e s e n c e of angels. I n 1 C o r
4 : 9 P a u l says, " F o r I t h i n k t h a t G o d
has exhibited us
apostles
[] as last of all, like m e n s e n t e n c e d to d e a t h [];

because w e h a v e b e c o m e a spectacle [] to the world [],
to angels a n d to m e n [ ] . " I n this section,
P a u l is d e f e n d i n g his a p o s t l e s h i p . H e w a r n s t h e C o r i n t h i a n s a g a i n s t
j u d g i n g a n y p e r s o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y " s e r v a n t s " s u c h as himself o r Apollos,
w h o h a v e c o m e to h i m to s p r e a d t h e gospel. I t is n o t entirely c l e a r
w h y P a u l b r i n g s a n g e l s i n t o this discussion. It m a y simply b e a w a y
of talking a b o u t t h e entire cosmos. 8 4 H o w e v e r , t h e i r inclusion suggests
81
J. Fitzmyer, "A Feature of Qumran Angelology," p. 200.

M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head," pp. 411-416.
83
In discussion at the Graduate NT Seminar (Oxford, UK on 31 January 2002),
Prof. Hooker said she did not see a great difference between hers and J. Fitzmyer's
interpretation of the passage.
84
G. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdrnans, 1987) 521.
82
t h a t P a u l a n d p e r h a p s his a u d i e n c e b e l i e v e d t h a t a n g e l s t o o k
an
interest in t h e affairs of h u m a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e c a r r y i n g o u t G o d ' s

work.85
I n 1 C o r 6:3 P a u l asks, " D o y o u n o t k n o w t h a t w e will j u d g e
[] 8 6 angels []? H o w m u c h m o r e [], m a t t e r s
p e r t a i n i n g to this life!" T h e c o n t e x t is P a u l ' s discussion
m e m b e r s of the C o r i n t h i a n c h u r c h w h o a r e b r i n g i n g o n e
regarding
another
b e f o r e s e c u l a r a u t h o r i t i e s to solve disputes. I n 6:2 P a u l asks,
"Do
y o u n o t k n o w t h a t t h e saints [oi ] will j u d g e [] d i e w o r l d

[ ] ? " M o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s t a k e t h i s v e r s e t o r e f e r t o
the
C o r i n t h i a n s . T h u s , P a u l s e e m s to b e saying t h a t m e m b e r s of t h e c o m m u n i t i e s h a v e b e e n given a special p o w e r / o b l i g a t i o n to m a k e j u d g m e n t s n o w a b o u t angels. T h i s w o u l d i m p l y a s u p e r i o r i t y of h u m a n s

o v e r a n g e l s (cf. H e b 2:5), w h i c h i n t u r n w o u l d c e r t a i n l y suggest a
s t r o n g distinction b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
Lastly, P a u l m a y h i n t a t a n angelic a t t r i b u t e for himself in 1 C o r
13:1 w h e n h e says t h a t h e c a n " s p e a k in t h e t o n g u e s of a n g e l s a n d
m e n " ( ). 8 7 It
s e e m s n a t u r a l f r o m t h e c o n t e x t to t a k e this to r e f e r to t h e ecstatic
p o w e r of s p e a k i n g in t o n g u e s (spiritual gifts []), b u t p e r h a p s it m e a n s s o m e t h i n g m o r e in t h e sense of a c t u a l l y s p e a k i n g t h e
l a n g u a g e of t h e angels. P a u l d o e s n o t say t h a t h e does, only "if h e
w e r e t o " s p e a k as a n angel. T h i s w o u l d b e parallel t o P a u l ' s use of
the h y p e r b o l e in G a l 1:8, " B u t e v e n if w e , o r a n a n g e l f r o m h e a v e n ,
s h o u l d p r e a c h to y o u a g o s p e l c o n t r a r y t o t h a t w h i c h w e p r e a c h e d
to y o u , let h i m b e a c c u r s e d . " Still, in light of t h e fact t h a t P a u l uses
the t e r m o n t h r e e o t h e r o c c a s i o n s in 1 C o r , it is at least c o n c e i v a b l e
t h a t h e uses this a n a l o g y b e c a u s e it is f u n c t i o n a l for t h e C o r i n t h i a n s .
T h u s , t h e only p a s s a g e t h a t s e e m s explicitly to r e f e r to t h e p r s e n c e of a n g e l s is 1 C o r 11:10: " b e c a u s e of t h e a n g e l s . " T h e c u m u lative effect of t h e f o u r C o r i n t h i a n p a s s a g e s m i g h t suggest m o r e t h a n
a p a s s i n g i n t e r e s t in t h e p r e s e n c e of a n g e l s in t h e c o m m u n i t y , b u t
t h e r e is n o w a y to b e c e r t a i n . I n 1 C o r 4 : 9 P a u l s e e m s t o say t h a t
angels as well as m e n o b s e r v e h u m a n affairs. 1 C o r 11:10 i n d i c a t e s
85
M. Hooker, "Authority on Her Head," p. 413.

That the verb is future indicative suggests that perhaps Paul is referring to an
eschatological setting for this judgment scene.
87
Speaking in the angelic dialect was an aspect at least one other text considered abovein the transformation undergone by the daughters of Job in T. Job 48
when they donned special clothing. In that case both their hearts and mouths were
transformed, which is not unlike Paul's overall message in 1 Cor 13.
86
s o m e specific c o n c e r n a b o u t a n g e l s ' p r e s e n c e a t liturgy. T h e
enig-
m a t i c s t a t e m e n t in 1 C o r 6 : 3 p l a c e s h u m a n s in j u d g m e n t of angels,
a n d lastly in 1 C o r 13:1 P a u l h i n t s a t t h e possibility of s p e a k i n g in
a n a n g e l i c dialect, b u t this m a y simply b e s o m e kind of a n a l o g y .
T h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y m a y not have been the only early
C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y to h a v e h a d s u c h beliefs. C o l 2:18 says, " L e t
n o o n e disqualify y o u , insisting o n s e l f - a b a s e m e n t a n d w o r s h i p of
a n g e l s [ ], t a k i n g his s t a n d o n visions, p u f f e d u p
w i t h o u t r e a s o n b y his s e n s u o u s m i n d . " R o w l a n d a r g u e s p e r s u a s i v e l y
for t a k i n g as a subjective genitive. 8 8 T h i s m e a n s t h a t it
is n o t t h e c o m m u n i t y w o r s h i p p i n g angels, b u t i n s t e a d t h e c o m m u nity is c o n c e r n e d f o r t h e w o r s h i p of t h e angels in h e a v e n . T w o r e c e n t
studies s h o w t h a t s c h o l a r s h i p is m o v i n g in this direction. 8 9
T h e e v i d e n c e h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m t o suggest a n y
identification
b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , it s e e m s to m a i n t a i n
die distinction. 111 1 C o r 11:10 the is n e e d e d .
H u m a n f e m a l e s n e e d s o m e type of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g m a r k b e c a u s e of
t h e angels. P a u l says h e c o u l d speak in t h e t o n g u e of m e n or angels
(13:1). A n g e l s and m e n (not necessarily t o g e t h e r ) o b s e r v e t h e a p o s ties, w h o h a v e b e c o m e a spectacle, a n d h u m a n s j u d g e a n g e l s (4:9).
E v e n in 6:3, w h e r e P a u l suggests t h a t h u m a n s m a y j u d g e t h e angels,
t h e r e b y giving h u m a n s a s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n , t h e r e is still a distinction
b e t w e e n t h e classes of beings. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e e v i d e n c e d o e s suggest t h a t P a u l a n d t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y saw t h e liturgical s p a c e
as o n e w h e r e h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s c o u l d a n d did i n t e r a c t . B u t at t h e
s a m e t i m e the n e c e s s a r y s e p a r a t i o n / d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d
angels is m a i n t a i n e d .
4.7
The Community
of the Rechabites (Hist.
Rech.)
T h e text k n o w n as T h e History of die R e c h a b i t e s (also sometimes called

t h e A p o c a l y p s e of Z o s i m u s ) is difficult to d a t e . T h e
of t h e text suggested t h a t t h e Hist.
88
first
Rech, c a m e f r o m a
translator
fifth-century
C. Rowland, "Apocalyptic Visions and the Exaltation of Christ in the Letter

to the Colossians" JSNT 19 (1983) 73-83. See also F. Francis, "Humility and Angelic
Veneration in Col 2:18" in Conflict at Cotossae, rev. ed., ed. F. Francis and W. Meeks
(Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1975) 163-195.
89
J. Dunn, The Epistles to the Colossiatis and U> Philemon (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans,
1996) 177-185, and C. Marvin Pate, "The Agony of the Ecstasy" in Communities of
the Last Days: The Dead Sea Scrolls, the New Testament, and the Story of Israel (Leicester:
Apollos, 2000) 179-195 and 271-275.
C E C h r i s t i a n m o n a s t i c setting. 9 0 M o r e r e c e n t l y , b o t h B. M c N e i l a n d
J . C h a r l e s w o r t h h a v e s e e n in it a m o r e a n c i e n t J e w i s h s t r a t u m a n d
h a v e a r g u e d f o r its
first-century
C E p r o v e n a n c e . 9 1 T h e p r o b l e m s of
d a t i n g a r e insoluble. S i n c e it is possible t h a t t h e r e is a line of t r a d i t i o n in this text d a t i n g b a c k to t h e p e r i o d of this study, t h e text

is e x a m i n e d .
T h e R e c h a b i t e s a p p e a r in J e r 35:2, 3, 5, 18. I n J e r e m i a h this relig i o u s g r o u p is said to a b s t a i n f r o m w i n e ; t h e y d o n o t f a r m o r m a k e
p e r m a n e n t h o m e s , living in tents. 9 2
T h e Hist. Rech, r e c o u n t s t h e visit of a h o l y m a n n a m e d
Zosimus
to t h e island of t h e p e o p l e k n o w n as " t h e Blessed O n e s . " Z o s i m u s

a b s t a i n s f r o m b r e a d a n d w i n e a n d d o e s n o t see o t h e r h u m a n s f o r
f o r t y y e a r s . A n a n g e l a p p e a r s to h i m a n d tells h i m t h a t h e will b e
g i v e n his wish t o see t h e p e o p l e k n o w n as " t h e Blessed O n e s . "
A f t e r a l o n g j o u r n e y , Z o s i m u s arrives o n t h e island, w h e r e
he
m e e t s a n a k e d m a n . H e asks t h e m a n w h y h e is n a k e d , to w h i c h
t h e m a n replies t h a t it is Z o s i m u s w h o is a c t u a l l y n a k e d a n d tells
h i m t h a t , if h e wishes to see h i m , h e s h o u l d look t o t h e h e a v e n s .
As Z o s i m u s d o e s so, h e sees, "his f a c e (to be) like t h e f a c e of a n
a n g e l " (cf. S t e p h e n , A c t s 6:15). Z o s i m u s ' s "eyes w e r e d i m m e d f r o m
f e a r " a n d h e falls to t h e g r o u n d ( 5 : 4 ) c o m m o n r e a c t i o n s to a n g e l o p h a n i e s . T h e " m a n " discloses t h a t h e is o n e of the "Blessed O n e s "
(6:1). Z o s i m u s is told a b o u t t h e p l a c e a n d t h e "Blessed O n e s . " T h e
island is like t h e G a r d e n of E d e n , a n d d i e Blessed O n e s a r e like
A d a m a n d E v e b e f o r e t h e y s i n n e d (7:2-3).
W h e n m a n y of t h e c o m m u n i t y h e a r t h a t Z o s i m u s h a s c o m e
to
t h e m , t h e y wish to cast h i m o u t ,
[10] And many noble elders and spiritual youths, who were like angels
from heaven, assembled, formed an assembly, and said to me, " O man
of sin, go, exit from a m o n g us. W e do not know how you prepared
yourself so that you were able to come a m o n g us; [10a] perhaps you
90
M. R. James, "On the Story of Zosimus" in Apocrypha Anecdota, Texts and
Studies 2:3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1893) 86-108.
91
B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus" JSJ 9 (1978) 68-82, and J . Charlesworth,
OTP 2:443-461; J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels" in
Ideal Figures in Ancient Judaism, ed.J. Collins and G. Nickelsburg (Chico, CA: Scholars
Press, 1980).
92
That the Essenes or Qumran community might be the descendants of the
Biblical Rechabites has been suggested by some scholars, among them M. Black.
This has on the whole been rejected. See C. H. Knights, "The Rechabites of
Jeremiah 35: Forerunners of the Essenes?" JSP 10 (1992) 81-87.
wish to deceive us as the Evil O n e deceived our father A d a m . " [11]

However, I, miserable, Zosimus, fell upon my face before them, a n d
with mournful tears entreated them earnestly and said, " H a v e mercy
upon me, Blessed Ones; And forgive m e my offense, earthly angels."
(Hist. Rech. 7:10-11)
T h e Blessed O n e s a r e c o n c e r n e d for t h e p u r i t y of t h e i r c o m m u n i t y .
I n this case t h e i m p u r i t y is sin, b u t t h e sinful b o d y is like a c o r r u p t e d g a r m e n t (5:3).
W h a t is m e a n t b y " e a r t h l y a n g e l s " is n o t entirely clear; it suggests
s o m e t y p e of liminal existence. H o w e v e r , t h e c o m m u n i t y is explicit
t h a t t h e y a r e m o r t a l s (11:2a). T h e " a n g e l s of G o d " a r e said to c o m e
a m o n g t h e c o m m u n i t y c o n t i n u o u s l y (12:6).
J . C h a r l e s w o r t h says t h a t t h e Blessed O n e s " a r e in a p o s t - e a r t h l y
b u t p r e - r e s u r r e c t i o n f o r m ; t h e y a r e in a p l a c e w a i t i n g to b e t a k e n
to h e a v e n b y t h e a n g e l s w h o visit t h e m , " 9 3 w h i l e F l e t c h e r - L o u i s c o n e l u d e s t h a t , " i n this text w e h a v e a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of a n
angelo-
m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y . . . a c o m m u n i t y w h o s e total lifestyle reflects t h e i r

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . " 9 4 I n s o m e sense calling t h e Blessed O n e s
"angelo-
m o r p h i c " is a p p r o p r i a t e , since t h e vision t h a t Z o s i m u s h a s of t h e

first m a n he e n c o u n t e r s uses the imagery of angelophanies. Nevertheless,
t h e Blessed O n e s a r e m o r t a l (11:2a) a n d a r e clearly d i f f e r e n t f r o m
t h e h e a v e n l y a n g e l s w h o visit t h e m r e g u l a r l y (12:6).
B. M c N e i l h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e Hist. Rech, is a w r i t i n g of t h e J e w i s h
ascetic g r o u p k n o w n as t h e T h e r a p u t a e . 9 5 T h e T h e r a p u t a e a r e k n o w n
to us only f r o m Philo, w h o discusses t h e m in his treatise, " O n
Contemplative Life" (2-3, 1 0 - 4 0 , 64-90).
96
The Theraputae
the
share
a n u m b e r of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h t h e Essenes, w h o , if t h e y a r e t a k e n
to b e t h e s a m e g r o u p as t h o s e w h o c o m p o s e d t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls,
w o u l d s h a r e a c o m m u n a l lifestyle, etc. 9 P h i l o says t h e y e x e m p l i f y a
c o m m u n i t y focused on c o n t e m p l a t i o n a n d mystical vision of the divine:
[11] T h e T h e r a p u t a e , a people always taught from the first to use
their sight, should desire the vision of the Existent and soar above the
sun and our senses and never leave their place in this company which
carries them on to perfect happiness. . . [12] but carried away by a
heaven-sent passion of love, remain rapt and possessed like bacchanals
93
94
95
96
97
J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as Angels," p. 143.

B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus," pp. 68-82.
F. Colson, Philo IX (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1941).
HJPAJC 11:592-597.
01 corybants until they see the object of their yearning. [13] T h e n

such is their longing for the deathless a n d blessed life that thinking
their mortal life already ended they abandon their property to their
sons and daughters 01 to other kinsfolk, thus voluntarily advancing the
time of their inheritance. (11-13)
P h i l o e n d s his discussion b y calling t h e T h e r a p u t a e t h o s e w h o h a v e
"lived in t h e soul a l o n e , citizens of H e a v e n a n d t h e w o r l d . " (90).
T h e r e is n o explicit m e n t i o n of a n g e l s in Contempt. Life. M c N e i l h i m self n o t e s a t the b e g i n n i n g of his a r g u m e n t , "Also significant is t h e
lack of a single m e n t i o n of a n g e l s w e a r e n o t e v e n told t h a t t h e
T h e r a p u t a e believe in a n g e l s w h e r e a s t h e R e c h a b i t e s a r e ' b r e t h r e n
of a n g e l s ' . " 9 8
M c N e i l c o n c l u d e s , " B u t if it b e a c c e p t e d t h a t t h a t N a r r a t i o n is a
s t a t e m e n t of t h e ideals of a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , t h e n t h e g r o u p w h o s e
ideals it fits w i t h m i n i m u m of difficulty is t h e T h e r a p u t a e . " 9 9 T o b e
m o r e precise, w h a t M c N e i l s h o u l d say is t h a t it b e s t fits w i t h t h e
J e w i s h e v i d e n c e f r o m a m o n g those g r o u p s a b o u t w h o m m o d e r n schola r s h a v e s o m e k n o w l e d g e . It is equally possible t h a t t h e Hist.
Rech.
r e p r e s e n t s the i d e a s of a g r o u p a b o u t w h i c h w e h a v e n o o t h e r i n f o r mation or perhaps a m u c h later c o m m u n i t y .

C . Fletcher-Louis includes the T h e r a p u t a e
in his discussion
of
" A n g e l o m o r p h i c c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h i n Israel." 1 0 0 N o t h i n g explicit in

P h i l o ' s a c c o u n t suggests t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y , o r a n y o n e l o o k i n g at
t h e m , t h o u g h t t h e y w e r e living a n angelic o r t r a n s f o r m e d life. P h i l o
d o e s say t h a t t h e T h e r a p u t a e s o u g h t to h a v e visions of t h e divine.
H e also says t h a t t h e y " h a v e lived in t h e soul a l o n e , citizens of
H e a v e n a n d t h e w o r l d . " T h e i r ascetic p r a c t i c e s c o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n n e c t e d to s o m e belief in angels living a m o n g t h e m , as w e see in
Ilist.
Rech, o r p e r h a p s in s o m e of t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e , b u t t h e r e
is n o w a y to be c e r t a i n of this.
T h a t t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r of c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t w e r e c o n c e r n e d
f o r p u r i t y a n d lived disciplined, ascetic lifestyles c a n n o t b e d o u b t e d ,
b a s e d on the Q u m r a n evidence, Philo's description of t h e T h e r a p u t a e ,
a n d t h e p i c t u r e seen in t h e Hist. Rech., as well as p e r h a p s t h e c o m m u n i t y b e h i n d t h e G o s p e l of T h o m a s . 1 0 1 N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e is n o
98
99
100
101
B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus," p. 77.

B. McNeil, "The Narration of Zosimus," p. 81.
See A. DeConick, Seek to See Him: Ascent and Vision Mysticism in the Gospel of
r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t all t h e c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e o n e a n d t h e s a m e ,
n o r t h a t a n y of t h e m specifically believed t h a t b y t h e i r a c t i o n s t h e y
w e r e b e c o m i n g angels.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e Hist. Rech, m u s t b e u s e d w i t h s o m e c a u t i o n in a n y
discussion of late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n g e l beliefs, since its d a t e
and
provenance
the
are by no m e a n s certain. An identification with
T h e r a p u t a e m a y b e c o r r e c t , b u t it is also possible t h a t this g r o u p is

t h e best fit f r o m a m o n g t h e g r o u p s a b o u t w h i c h w e h a v e i n f o r m a tion. F u r t h e r , e v e n if this i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w e r e c o r r e c t , it a d d s little to
o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e R e c h a b i t e c o m m u n i o n w i t h angels.
Hist.
The
Rech, suggests t h e r e w a s a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y t h a t believed it
w a s d e s c e n d e d f r o m t h e R e c h a b i t e s of J e r 3 5 a n d t h a t h a d angels
living a m o n g t h e m . T h i s i d e a of e a r t h l y c o m m u n i o n w i t h a n g e l s is
n o t u n l i k e w h a t w a s s e e n in s o m e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e D e a d
Sea
Scrolls. T h i s g r o u p s e e m s t o h a v e m a i n t a i n e d a p u r e state so t h a t
h e a v e n l y a n g e l s c o u l d b e p r e s e n t . T h e t e r m " e a r t h l y a n g e l s " suggests t h e liminal o r t r a n s f o r m e d state of t h e c o m m u n i t y . U l t i m a t e l y ,
this m a t e r i a l r e m a i n s a m b i g u o u s .
Conclusions
S e v e n u n i t s of e v i d e n c e w e r e e x a m i n e d in this c h a p t e r . T h e a n a l y sis a i m e d to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a n g e l s d w e l l i n g a m o n g a
human
c o m m u n i t y signified o r i m p l i e d a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e
human
c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s into a n angelic status. S o m e of t h e
Qumran
m a t e r i a l clearly s h o w e d a belief t h a t angels w e r e to live a m o n g t h e

c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s , b u t o f t e n p u r i t y laws w e r e laid o u t t h a t s e e m e d
to b e a n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e . 1 Q H did suggest t h a t h u m a n s , t h o u g h originally distinct f r o m angels, m i g h t b e c o m e
p a r t of t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n of h e a v e n as angels.
R e g a r d i n g the evidence f r o m Q u m r a n generally,
Fletcher-Louis
c o n c l u d e s , "this discussion of Q i i m r a n m a t e r i a l , in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h
w h a t else is k n o w n of t h e Essenes [ f r o m J o s e p h u s ] , h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d
t h e i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y of a n i d e n t i t y t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m
t h a t of n o r m a l m o r t a l i t y to t h e angelic life.'" 0 2 T h e e v i d e n c e o n t h e
Thomas (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1996) 86-93, who makes a strong case for seeing the
Gos. Thorn, as a mysticalrather than Gnostictext wherein the community sought
communion with the divine through an ascetic lifestyle.
102
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 198; bracketed material is my own.
w h o l e d o e s n o t s u p p o r t s u c h a n assertion. M u c h of t h e e v i d e n c e is
a m b i g u o u s , a n d if t h e Q u m r a n m a t e r i a l is n o t first s y n t h e s i z e d a n d
t h e n m a t e r i a l f r o m J o s e p h u s ( a b o u t t h e Essenes) a d d e d to t h e discussion, s u c h a n assertion s e e m s e v e n less t e n a b l e .
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s r e c e n t l y a r t i c u l a t e d this p o s i t i o n m o r e fully. 1 0 3
H e sees t h e locus of h u m a n to a n g e l (divine) t r a n s f o r m a t i o n as t h e
T e m p l e , o r in t h e case of Q u m r a n , t h e c o m m u n a l liturgical space.
T h e r e a r e t w o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s w i t h this idea. 1 0 4 O n e is seei n g t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m Q u m r a n as a c o r p u s ; t h e o t h e r is seeing t h e
d o c u m e n t s as r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i d e a s of t h e c o m m u n i t y a t a n y given
t i m e . T h e s e t w o issues d e t r a c t f r o m t h e i m p a c t of a n y exegesis t h a t
w o u l d d e r i v e a c o h e r e n t set of beliefs f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y . Still, t h e s e
c r i t i q u e s aside, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s p r o v i d e d s c h o l a r s w i t h s o m e useful insights. T h e T e m p l e o r liturgical s p a c e of t h e c o m m u n i t y
may
105
It is
b e u n d e r s t o o d as qualitatively d i f f e r e n t f r o m n o r m a l space.
c e r t a i n l y possible t h a t this specific locus w a s a p l a c e w h e r e a t least

s o m e J e w s ( a n d in this case, the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y )
understood
that the earthly and heavenly spheres could have contact a n d some
f o r m of t r a n s c e n d e n c e c o u l d o c c u r . T h i s s e e m s to be t h e type of
u n d e r s t a n d i n g m a n y J e w s w o u l d h a v e h e l d f o r t h e h i g h priest e n t e r i n g t h e H o l y of H o l i e s o n Y o m K i p p u r . W h e t h e r it e x t e n d e d b e y o n d
this locus for m o s t J e w s is u n c l e a r . E v e n if it d i d . h o w e v e r , t h e effect
s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t r a n s i e n t .
I n s o m u c h as a n y " m y s t i c a l " e x p e r i e n c e c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as transf o r m a t i v e , it s e e m s this o n e w o u l d h a v e b e e n as well; h o w e v e r , t h e
p r e p o n d e r a n c e of t h e e v i d e n c e s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t s u c h t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s w e r e o n l y g l i m p s e s p e r h a p s at m o s t a c c u m u l a t i n g steps in
the right d i r e c t i o n t h a t w o u l d n o t h a v e c a u s e d p a r t i c i p a n t s to see
o n e a n o t h e r as angels b u t i n s t e a d as r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s
ultimately
seeking to c o m m u n e w i t h (and p e r h a p s t r a n s f o r m into) angels in t h e

afterlife. I n so d o i n g , t h e y w o u l d t h u s fulfill t h e u l t i m a t e goal of t h e
mystic: to reside w i t h G o d in t h e t h r o n e r o o m . T h i s , I suggest, w a s
n o t s i m p l y a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i d e a / h o p e . T h e belief in t h e possibility
of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o n the m o d e l of
righteous
i n d i v i d u a l s of t h e p a s t
w a s a f o c u s of t h e m y s t i c in this life. O n e c o u l d n o t s i m p l y believe,

"I will t r a n s f o r m i n t o a n a n g e l w h e n I die, a n d t h u s I will o n e d a y
103
104
105
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory.

See my review of All the Glory in CBQ 65 (2003) 256-258.
This seems to be similar to what Paul is suggesting in 1 Cor. See 4.6 above.
be w i t h G o d . " O n e h a d to p r e p a r e oneself in this life a n d b e g i n a

p r o c e s s t h a t w o u l d ( a n d could) o n l y b e fully realized in t h e afterlife.
S e e n in this light, F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s assertions a r e v a l u a b l e .
T h e first p a r t of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s thesis f r o m All the Glory is t h a t
"in its original, t r u e a n d r e d e e m e d state h u m a n i t y is divine ( a n d / o r
angelic)." A d a m is said to b e m a d e in t h e i m a g e of G o d a n d t h u s
h u m a n i t y is as well. T h i s m e a n s t h a t A d a m a n d h u m a n s a r e t h e o m o r p h i c (or p e r h a p s " d i v i n e " ) , b u t to call t h e m
"angelomorphic"
s e e m s to a d d u n n e c e s s a r y c o n f u s i o n to t h e discussion, so I suggest
stressing t h e " t h e o m o r p h i c " c h a r a c t e r of h u m a n i t y i n its o r i g i n a l
state. T h e thesis m a y o r m a y n o t b e c o r r e c t , b u t it is n o t n e c e s s a r y
as l o n g as t r a n s f o r m a t i o n could o c c u r in t h e afterlife. 1 0 6
T h e s e c o n d , interlocking c o m p o n e n t of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s thesis states
that:
T h e attainment now, for the redeemed, of this true humanity was conceptually and experientially grounded in their 'temple' worship in which
ordinary space and time, a n d therefore h u m a n ontology, are trailscended. T h e y take for granted a cultic mythology which means that
those who enter the worship of the community experience a transfer
from earth to heaven, from humanity to divinity and from mortality
to immortality. 107
T h i s s e e m s possible f o r a v e r y specific set of loci (i.e., t h e T e m p l e
o r t h e liturgical s p a c e a t Q u m r a n ) , b u t u l t i m a t e l y it is u n c l e a r t h a t
t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e scrolls s u p p o r t s s u c h a c l a i m , especially o n a
c o r p o r a t e level. As s e e n in c h a p t e r 3, " h u m a n o n t o l o g y " w a s t r a n s c e n d e d o n l y for specific, r i g h t e o u s individuals. H u m a n s a n d angels
r e m a i n e d s e p a r a t e , a l t h o u g h it d o e s s e e m t h a t s o m e of t h e Q u m r a n
texts (as well as p e r h a p s s o m e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n texts), s a w the liturgical s p a c e as a p l a c e w h e r e t h e e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y s p h e r e s c o u l d
h a v e c o n t a c t a n d h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s c o u l d i n t e r a c t . T h i s is d i f f e r e n t
f r o m saying t h a t t h e s e c t a r i a n s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o " d i v i n e h u m a n i t y . "
A n g e l s m e d i a t e b e t w e e n G o d a n d h u m a n s (i.e., t h e y a r e a b l e to
cross t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e h e a v e n l y a n d t h e earthly) a n d s t a n d
b e f o r e G o d in t h e t h r o n e r o o m . S o m e h u m a n s (especially "mystics")
s o u g h t to e x p e r i e n c e G o d . S o it s e e m s logical t h a t t h e s e
humans
w o u l d a s p i r e t o angelic status in o r d e r t o b e c o m e closer to G o d .

T h e e x a m p l e s f r o m t h e i r p a s t of h u m a n s w h o h a d a c t u a l l y g o n e t o
106
107

h e a v e n a n d a t t a i n e d a n a n g e l i c status m e a n t t h a t t h e y believed t h e
potential
existed f o r access t o G o d . T h e early J e w i s h a n d
Christian
mystics likely built u p o n this belief, a n d eventually t h e early C h r i s t i a n s

d e v e l o p e d it i n t o the i d e a of t h e . 1 0 8
I n t h e case of t h e C o r i n t h i a n c o m m u n i t y , it w a s n o t entirely c l e a r
w h a t beliefs t h e y h e l d c o n c e r n i n g angels, b u t 1 C o r 11:10 c e r t a i n l y
s e e m e d t o suggest t h e r e w a s s o m e belief in t h e p r e s e n c e of angels
d u r i n g t h e liturgy. T h e m e a n i n g of w a s u n c l e a r also, b u t
it s e e m s likely, especially in light of e v i d e n c e f r o m Q u m r a n ,
that
w h a t e v e r P a u l m e a n s b y t h e t e r m , it s t e m s f r o m a c o n c e r n f o r m a i n t a i n i n g p u r i t y so t h a t a n g e l s c a n b e p r e s e n t . O n t h e w h o l e ,
only
11:10 s e e m e d t o suggest a n g e l i c p r e s e n c e in t h e c o m m u n i t y .
T h e Hist. Rech, p r e s e n t e d insights i n t o w h a t o n e
author/commu-
n i t y e n v i s i o n e d as t h e p r o g r e s s of t h e ascetic c o m m u n i t y of J e r 35.
T h e difficulties involved in d a t i n g t h e text m a k e a n y c o n c l u s i o n s t e n tative, b u t e v e n t h e r e t h e Blessed O n e s a r e m o r t a l s . E v e n in this
case p u r i t y issues a r e i n v o l v e d in m a i n t a i n i n g a state in w h i c h divine
angels c o u l d b e p r e s e n t . T h e status of t h e " e a r t h l y a n g e l s " of t h e
community was somewhat ambiguous.
It is f a s c i n a t i n g to c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t a n g e l s a r e
believed to b e p r e s e n t a m o n g v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e
e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t e v e n in cases w h e r e a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s live
in c o m m u n i t i e s t o g e t h e r , a distinction is m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n t h e t w o
classes of beings. T h e distinction b e t w e e n t h e t w o is cast i n t o h i g h
relief by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e o f t e n s e e m to b e serious p u r i t y c o n c e r n s
involved w h e n a n g e l s a r e m e a n t to b e p r e s e n t ; h u m a n s m u s t m a i n t a i n a h e i g h t e n e d state of p u r i t y in o r d e r for t h e possibility of angelic
p r e s e n c e e v e n to o c c u r .
108
One step along this path might be seen in a passage like 2 Cor 3:18.
CHAPTER FIVE
"GUESS WHO'S C O M I N G T O
DINNER":
HOSPITALITY AND EATING WITH
ANGELS
T h i s c h a p t e r will c o n s i d e r h u m a n - a n g e l i n t e r a c t i o n b y
examining
p o r t r a y a l s of h u m a n s o f f e r i n g h o s p i t a l i t y t o a n g e l s o n e a r t h
and
angels a p p e a r i n g to c o n s u m e h u m a n f o o d . T h e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s
t h a t w h e n h u m a n s offer angels hospitality, t h e angels h a v e
almost
always a p p e a r e d in h u m a n f o r m a n d the o n e visited is n o t a w a r e

of t h e a n g e l ' s t r u e n a t u r e . I n s o m e i n s t a n c e s angels a p p e a r to eat
h u m a n f o o d , b u t late S e c o n d T e m p l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e s e t r a d i tions d e n y t h a t t h e a n g e l ate.
F o r t h e p u r p o s e s of t h e discussion in this c h a p t e r , hospitality is
u n d e r s t o o d as " t h e f r i e n d l y a n d g e n e r o u s r e c e p t i o n a n d
entertain-
m e n t of guests o r s t r a n g e r s . ' " I n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d t h e t w o m a i n

c o m p o n e n t s of this w o u l d likely h a v e b e e n f o o d a n d shelter.
E x a m p l e s of t h e practice of hospitality a r e f o u n d in G r a e c o - R o m a n ,
J e w i s h , a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s f r o m t h e p e r i o d . 2 T h e r e is n o
o n e H e b r e w t e r m t h a t directly t r a n s l a t e s as " h o s p i t a l i t y . " I n G r e e k
t h e t e r m is .
I n t h e J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n A b r a h a m s e e m s to s t a n d as the p a r a d i g m
of t h e v i r t u e of hospitality, b a s e d u p o n G e n 18. 3 M o s t of t h e t r a d i tions discussed i n this c h a p t e r a r e b a s e d o n A b r a h a m ' s
encounter
w i t h divine guests (e.g., Gm. Rab. 43:7). E v e n L o t ' s hospitality is likely

m o d e l e d o n A b r a h a m ' s . 4 H o s p i t a l i t y is also listed a m o n g t h e virtues
of J o b ( J o b 31:32).
1
656. See also J. Koenig, "Hospitality" in ABD 3:299-301.
2
For examples in Graeco-Roman writings, see Ovid, Metamorphoses 628-632,
where Zeus and Hermes are guests of the old couple Baucis and Philemon (cf. Acts
14:11-12, Homer, Od. 17:485-487) and the discussion in L. Martin, "Gods or
Ambassadors of God? Barnabas and Paul in Lystra" NTS 41 (1995) 152-156. See
also G. Sthlin, "" in TDNT 5:1-36, esp.' 17-25; Philo, Mos. 1:58.
3
See JE 8:1030-1033 for a summary of the Jewish evidence regarding hospitality. Cf. T. Zeb. 6:4.
4
T. Desmond Alexander, "Lot's Hospitality: A Clue to His Righteousness" JBL
104 (1985) 289-291.
H o s p i t a l i t y s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a n i m p o r t a n t v i r t u e in t h e e a r liest C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s . T h e N T c o n t a i n s a n u m b e r of o t h e r p a s sages t h a t state t h e i m p o r t a n c e of hospitality generally. 5 I n p a r t i c u l a r ,

J e s u s ' s p r o n o u n c e m e n t s a b o u t t h e k i n g d o m in t h e gospels, t h e G o s p e l
of L u k e itself, a n d t h e w r i t i n g s of P a u l s e e m to e v i n c e a c o n c e r n f o r
this virtue. 6 T h e s e w r i t i n g s s e e m to h a v e a p r a c t i c a l o r h u m a n i t a r ian basis r a t h e r t h a n overtly suggesting t h a t t h e g u e s t so w e l c o m e d
m a y b e a n a n g e l . H e b r e w s 13:2 d o e s s e e m t o suggest t h a t t h e v i r t u e
of h o s p i t a l i t y is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e h o s t m a y u n k n o w i n g l y
e n t e r t a i n i n g a n g e l s , as s o m e f i g u r e s f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible
be
had
d o n e . 7 T h e early c h u r c h f a t h e r s c o n t i n u e d to stress t h e i m p o r t a n c e
of hospitality, a n d it h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t C h r i s t i a n
hospitality
facilitated t h e s p r e a d of t h e gospel. 8 T h e v i r t u e of hospitality w a s

i m p o r t a n t across c u l t u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a r o u n d t h e
t u m of t h e e r a .
A n i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t of hospitality is f o o d . T h e q u e s t i o n of
whether or not angels require any sustenance has been considered
by D . G o o d m a n . 9 H i s article s u r v e y e d t h e J e w i s h m a t e r i a l o n t h e
t o p i c f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible t h r o u g h t h e r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e , a s k i n g
t h r e e q u e s t i o n s : (1) H o w a r e angels s u s t a i n e d ? (2) Is t h e r e a n y e a t ing o r d r i n k i n g in h e a v e n ? A n d (3) d o angels b e h a v e as m e n w h e n
t h e y d e s c e n d to e a r t h ? 1 0 T h e last of his q u e s t i o n s is m o s t r e l e v a n t
to t h e p r e s e n t discussion, b u t it is also useful to c o n s i d e r his c o n elusions a b o u t t h e first t w o q u e s t i o n s to give c o n t e x t t o t h e t h i r d .
W i t h r e g a r d t o angelic s u s t e n a n c e (1), G o o d m a n b e g i n s his a n a l y sis w i t h Ps 7 8 : 2 3 2 5 , w h i c h states, " Y e t h e c o m m a n d e d t h e skies
a b o v e , a n d o p e n e d t h e d o o r s of h e a v e n ; a n d h e r a i n e d d o w n
upon
t h e m m a n n a to e a t , a n d g a v e t h e m t h e g r a i n of h e a v e n . M a n
ate
of t h e b r e a d of the m i g h t y [ ] o r as t h e L X X r e a d s , ' b r e a d
of t h e a n g e l s '
[ ] . " 1 1 G o o d m a n
notes that a
certain
5
Rom 12:13; 1 Tim 3:2, 5:10; Tit 1:8; 1 Pet 4:9; Heb 13:2 and cf. Acts 28:7.
For more on this idea see C. Pohl, Making Room: Recovering Hospitality as Christian
Tradition (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), and A. Malherbe, "Hospitality and
Inhospitality in the Church" in Social Aspects of Early Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress
Press, 1983) 92-112.
6
J. Koenig, New Testament Hospitality (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985).
7
Heb 13:2 is discussed in more detail below in section 5.7.
8
D. Riddle, "Early Christian Hospitality: A Factor in the Gospel Transmission"
JBL 57 (1938) 141-154. Did. 11-13 suggests that such hospitality could be abused,
however.
!1
D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" JJS 37 (1986) 160-175.
10
D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 160.
11
See also D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" p. 161 n. 5.
a m b i v a l e n c e t o w a r d t h e m a n n a is a l r e a d y e v i n c e d in t h e
Bible. E x o d
Hebrew
16:15 states, " W h e n t h e p e o p l e of Israel s a w it, t h e y
said t o o n e a n o t h e r , ' W h a t is it?' F o r t h e y did n o t k n o w w h a t it

was. A n d M o s e s said to t h e m , 'It is t h e b r e a d w h i c h the L o r d h a s
given y o u t o e a t . ' " Little else is said in t h e H e b r e w Bible r e g a r d ing angelic f o o d . G o o d m a n cites b. Torna 7 5 b , in w h i c h R .
Aqiba
says t h e m i n i s t e r i n g a n g e l s e a t t h e h e a v e n l y b r e a d , b u t R . I s h m a e l
rejects R . A q i b a o n t h e basis of D e u t 9:18, w h e r e M o s e s o n Sinai
states, " I n e i t h e r a t e b r e a d n o r d r a n k w a t e r . "
As f o r e a t i n g a n d d r i n k i n g in h e a v e n (2), G o o d m a n s h o w s t h a t
m u c h of t h e e v i d e n c e focuses u p o n h o w M o s e s w a s s u s t a i n e d d u r i n g his f o r t y d a y s o n S i n a i ( D e u t 9 : 9 , 18; E x o d
24:912.(11
To
G o o d m a n , t h e e v i d e n c e suggests t h a t t h e a n c i e n t a u t h o r s believed
t h e r e w a s n o f o o d in h e a v e n . H o w e v e r , h u m a n s in mystical a s c e n t
c a n survive b y n o u r i s h m e n t f r o m t h e divine ( E x o d 3 4 : 2 8 9 ,
Abr.
Apoc.
13). S u r v e y i n g t h e r a b b i n i c writings, G o o d m a n finds little dis-
cussion of h o w t h e a n g e l s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e s u s t a i n e d , since d u e to
t h e i r i n c o r p o r e a l i t y t h e y a p p a r e n t l y did n o t r e q u i r e s u s t e n a n c e . By
t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y C E a t r a d i t i o n s e e m s to h a v e d e v e l o p e d t h a t t h e
a n g e l s w e r e s u s t a i n e d by c o n t a c t w i t h t h e S h e k i n a h .
As f o r h o w angels b e h a v e o n e a r t h (3), G o o d m a n s u r v e y e d t h e
related literature: J u d g 6 a n d
13, in w h i c h f o o d is o f f e r e d to t h e
Angel of t h e L o r d , w h o refuses, b u t t h e f o o d is nevertheless c o n s u m e d

by fire; T o b
12, w h e r e t h e a n g e l R a p h a e l a n n o u n c e s t h a t h e o n l y
a p p e a r e d to e a t a n d d r i n k ; a n d L u k e 24, w h e r e t h e r e s u r r e c t e d J e s u s
eats fish in f r o n t of t h e disciples as p r o o f h e is n o t a n
apparition.
T h e m a j o r i t y of G o o d m a n ' s analysis is f o c u s e d u p o n A b r a h a m
his h e a v e n l y visitors ( G e n
1819
and
a n d r e l a t e d traditions). I t is w i t h
t h e s e s a m e p a s s a g e s a n d o n e o t h e r t h a t this c h a p t e r is c o n c e r n e d . 1 3
G o o d m a n s u m s u p his c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g angelic
sustenance
by r e l a t i n g t h e m to t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of P. S c h f e r o n t h e n e g a t i v e
r e p o r t s a b o u t angels in m u c h of t h e r a b b i n i c literature: 1 4
12
D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" pp. 162-163; There is also a late tradition
that Moses partook of the food of the angels while on Sinai (based on Exod 34:28)
in the Samaritan M. Marq. 4.6 (cf. also Philo, Moses 2.69; Josephus, Ant. 3.99). See
W. Meeks, "Moses as God and King" in Religions in Antiquity, ed. J. Neusner (Leiden:
E . J . Brill, 1968) 370 n. 5.
13
To the discussion of angelic sustenance it is illuminating to add the honeycomb in JA, which will be considered below (5.4).
14
P. Schfer, Rivalitt zwischen Engeln und Menschen (New York: de Gruyter, 1975).
T h e earliest stage in the beliefs concerning angelic sustenance seems

to be that angels do not eat the same food as m e n but nevertheless
partake of some form of nourishment. Subsequent to the mid-second
century C E , when negative reports are found about the angels, particularly in the dealings with m a n , interest in the angelic appetite
evolves m o r e from a concern for the welfare of m a n when he is in
heaven, either during a mystical ascent 01 at the eschatological time,
t h a n from an interest in the angels themselves. 15
T h u s it s e e m s t h a t in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , a n g e l s w e r e
believed to h a v e s o m e f o r m of s u s t e n a n c e , b u t it w a s n o t t h e s a m e
as t h a t m e a n t f o r h u m a n s (cf. LA.E.
4:2). I n s t e a d , angels in h e a v e n
w e r e s u s t a i n e d b y b e i n g p r e s e n t to G o d . T h e y h a d n o n e e d of sust e n a n c e in t h e s a m e w a y as h u m a n s . G o o d m a n says t h e t r a d i t i o n s
based on G e n
1819
angels a n d m e n . ' "
suggest "possibly a n equality of status
between
T h i s e q u a l i t y , h o w e v e r , s e e m i n g l y c o m e s in h o w
o n e receives a visitor, b u t it d o e s n o t e x t e n d to t h e r e a l m of i d e n tity. G i v e n t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e G e n 1 8 1 9
story o n s u b s e q u e n t t r a -
ditions a b o u t h o s p i t a l i t y t o a n g e l s , it is a p p r o p r i a t e t o b e g i n
the
e x a m i n a t i o n of e v i d e n c e t h e r e .
5.1
The Book of Genesis
18-19
S e c t i o n 2.1 a b o v e lays o u t t h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e " m e n " of G e n
18-19
b e i n g i n t e r p r e t e d as a n g e l s in t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . F r o m
t h a t evidence, it s e e m e d p r o b a b l e t h a t m o s t i n t e r p r e t e r s in t h a t p e r i o d
u n d e r s t o o d t h e s e " m e n " to b e angels. T h i s b e i n g t h e case, w h a t will
b e c o n s i d e r e d in this section is t h e i n t e r e s t i n g n o t i o n t h a t A b r a h a m
a n d L o t o f f e r e d hospitality (food, shelter, rest, etc.) t o t h e i r angelic
guests.
In G e n
18:2 A b r a h a m sees t h e t h r e e " m e n " a p p r o a c h his t e n t ;
h e h u r r i e s o u t to g r e e t t h e m a n d o f f e r t h e m hospitality.
Abraham
b e g s t h e v i s i t o r s t h o u g h h e a d d r e s s e s t h e " L o r d " in t h e s i n g u l a r ,
w h o is said to a p p e a r to h i m (v. 1)to r e m a i n w i t h h i m (v. 3). First,
A b r a h a m o r d e r s w a t e r t o b e b r o u g h t so t h e y c a n w a s h t h e i r feet
a n d sees t h a t t h e y rest t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r t h e t r e e (v. 4). H e
then
asks w h e t h e r t h e y will r e m a i n f o r s o m e b r e a d t o r e f r e s h t h e m s e l v e s
(v. 5). O n c e t h e y a g r e e , A b r a h a m tells S a r a h to p r e p a r e t h r e e c a k e s
15
16

D. Goodman, "Do Angels Eat?" pp. 174-175; italics are mine.
of b r e a d (v. 6). H e n e x t selects a t e n d e r calf a n d gives it to his serv a n t t o p r e p a r e (v. 7). T h e e n t i r e m e a l , w h i c h i n c l u d e s c u r d s a n d

milk, is p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e travelers. T h e n A b r a h a m s t a n d s by t h e m
u n d e r the t r e e " a n d t h e y a t e " ( ; ) (v. 8). A b r a h a m ' s
hospitality is q u i t e g e n e r o u s . F r o m t h e n a r r a t i v e , A b r a h a m d o e s n o t
s e e m to k n o w the visitors o r t h e i r divine n a t u r e . H e r e q u e s t s t h a t
t h e y r e m a i n , rest t h e m s e l v e s , a n d eat. T h e m e a l h e p r e p a r e s is m o r e
t h a n t h e simple b r e a d h e h a s originally o f f e r e d t h e m . T h e text explicitly states t h a t t h e visitors a t e w h a t w a s p r e p a r e d f o r t h e m .
I n c h a p t e r 19, L o t g r e e t s t h e visitors, n o w r e f e r r e d to as angels
(19:1, 15; t h e y a r e called " m e n " a g a i n i n 19:16), w i t h a n e n t r e a t y
to r e m a i n w i t h h i m t h r o u g h t h e n i g h t . H i s w o r d s e c h o t h o s e of
A b r a h a m to his t h r e e visitors. T h e visitors a g r e e t o stay w i t h
Lot
a f t e r first s a y i n g t h e y w o u l d r e m a i n in t h e s t r e e t (v. 2). L o t feeds

t h e m (v. 3). B e f o r e t h e visitors a r e a b l e to settle in f o r t h e n i g h t ,
the t o w n s m e n s u r r o u n d Lot's house, d e m a n d i n g the m e n be given
to t h e m . T h e visitors a r e o n c e a g a i n r e f e r r e d to as angels in v. 15,
w h e n t h e angels w a r n L o t to leave t h e city w i t h his f a m i l y o r b e
d e s t r o y e d a l o n g w i t h t h e city. W h a t is p e r t i n e n t for t h e p r e s e n t discussion is t o c o n s i d e r w h a t s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s did w i t h t h e t r a d i tion of angels eating; t h a t is, did they m a i n t a i n , c h a n g e , o r eliminate it?
I n Abr. P h i l o m a k e s s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g c o m m e n t s o n A b r a h a m ' s visitors. 1 7 P h i l o says explicitly t h a t " a n g e l s r e c e i v e d hospitality []
f r o m m e n " (115 cf. 167). I n s o m e sense, P h i l o i n t e r p r e t s A b r a h a m ' s
v e r y hospitality as t h e r e w a r d () for his v i r t u e b u t a d d s t h a t
A b r a h a m ' s hospitality w a s only a " b y - p r o d u c t of his g r e a t e r virtue . . .
piety [ ] " (114). 1 8
P h i l o is c l e a r t h a t t h e guests did n o t p a r t a k e of t h e f o o d o f f e r e d
to t h e m , s a y i n g t h a t d i e y f e a s t e d " n o t so m u c h o n t h a t p r e p a r e d f o r
t h e m as o n t h e g o o d will of t h e i r h o s t " (110). M o r e explicitly, P h i l o
says of A b r a h a m ' s visitors, "It is a m a r v e l i n d e e d t h a t t h o u g h t h e y
n e i t h e r a t e n o r d r a n k , t h e y g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of b o t h e a t i n g a n d
d r i n k i n g " (118). So for P h i l o , t h e angels received A b r a h a m ' s h o s p i tality a n d r e s p o n d e d b y a p p e a r i n g t o e a t t h e f o o d p r e p a r e d for t h e m
w i t h o u t actually e a t i n g it.
17
Unfortunately, Philo's QG end immediately before where the events of Gen
18-19 would likely have been discussed.
18
This same idea is evident in 1 Clem. 10:7: "Because of his faith [] and
hospitality [] a son was given him in his old age." Lot is saved for his
"hospitality [] and piety []" (11:1). (Cf. also 1 Clem. 12:1; Did. 12).
J o s e p h u s in t h e Ant.
1 . 1 9 6 - 1 9 7 p r e s e n t s a similar analysis of t h e
situation. T h e t h r e e m e n a r e a n g e l s () t h a t A b r a h a m t a k e s t o
b e s t r a n g e r s (), w h o m h e asks to p a r t a k e of his hospitality ().
A b r a h a m h a s c a k e s m a d e a n d kills a calf. T h e angels, h o w e v e r , o n l y
" g a v e t o h i m t h e a p p e a r a n c e of h a v i n g c o n s u m e d " (oi
). J o s e p h u s also stresses t h a t L o t e x t e n d e d h o s p i tality to t h e angels, a lesson l e a r n e d f r o m living w i t h A b r a h a m
(Ant.
1.200). Like P h i l o , J o s e p h u s is c l e a r t h a t t h e b e i n g s w e r e a n g e l s w h o
only g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g .
T h e o n l y o t h e r r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g t h e r e c e p t i o n of this
p a s s a g e c o m e s f r o m t h e T a r g u m i m . Tg. Onq. is q u i t e similar to t h e
G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e as w e h a v e it in t h e M a s o r e t i c t r a d i t i o n a n d t h e
L X X . A c c o r d i n g to 18:8, t h e angels did a p p a r e n t l y e a t w h a t A b r a h a m
p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e m , a n d a g a i n in 19:3 t h e t w o angels w h o visited
L o t a p p e a r to h a v e e a t e n t h e m e a l p u t b e f o r e t h e m . Tg. Neo. says
t h a t t h e a n g e l s o n l y " g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g a n d d r i n k i n g . "
Tg. Ps-J. also m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e a n g e l s only a p p e a r e d to p a r t a k e of
the f o o d p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e m , a d d i n g t h a t t h e hosts d i d this " a c c o r d ing t o t h e m a n n e r (and) c u s t o m of h u m a n b e i n g s . ' " 9 T h i s s e e m s t o
h i n t at b o t h t h e c u s t o m of hospitality p r a c t i c e d a m o n g h u m a n b e i n g s
as well as t h e simple fact t h a t t h e y w e r e g i v e n f o o d t h a t
humans
n e e d but angels d o not.

O v e r a l l , t h e t r a d i t i o n is c l e a r t h a t A b r a h a m w a r m l y o f f e r e d h o s pitality to his (angelic) visitors. I n t h e H e b r e w n a r r a t i v e it a p p e a r s
a t least t h a t t h e visitors a t e w h a t w a s p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e m . By t h e
late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d , i n t e r p r e t e r s w e r e a p p a r e n t l y
m a k i n g c l e a r t h a t t h e angels did n o t e a t b u t w o u l d give t h e a p p e a r a n c e of d o i n g so in o r d e r t o c o n c e a l t h e i r i d e n t i t y o r a c c e p t t h e i r
h o s t s ' hospitality.
5.2
The Book of Judges
6 and
13
T w i c e in t h e B o o k of J u d g e s , t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d a p p e a r s
to
h u m a n s . I n e a c h of t h e s e a c c o u n t s t h e o n e visited offers hospitality

i n c l u d i n g f o o d to t h e a n g e l , b u t in n e i t h e r case d o e s it a p p e a r t h e
f o o d is e a t e n ; i n s t e a d it is a c c e p t e d as a t y p e of sacrificial offering.
19
This reading is seen in the fragmentary Targumim (P and V), which say, "And
they appeared as though they were eating and as though they were drinking."
J u d g 6 : 1 1 - 2 4 r e c o r d s d i e visit of t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d to G i d e o n
at the time w h e n t h e Israelites h a v e b e e n taken over by the Midianites.
J u d g 6:11 says, " N o w t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d c a m e a n d sat u n d e r
t h e o a k at O p h r a h , w h i c h b e l o n g e d to J o a s h the A b i e z r i t e , as his
son G i d e o n w a s b e a t i n g o u t w h e a t in t h e w i n e press, to h i d e it f r o m
t h e M i d i a n i t e s . " G i d e o n is told t h a t h e is to deliver his p e o p l e o u t
of t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n (6:14); t h u s t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e of t h e visitation
s e e m s to b e t h e r e v e l a t i o n of G o d ' s p l a n for G i d e o n . G i d e o n s e e m s
u n a w a r e t h a t d i e p e r s o n s p e a k i n g to h i m is t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d
a n d asks t h e p e r s o n to r e m a i n as h e p r e p a r e s a gift (v. 18). G i d e o n
r e t u r n s w i t h a s u b s t a n t i a l m e a l of a p r e p a r e d kid, b r o t h , a n d u n l e a v e n e d cakes. T h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d tells G i d e o n t o p u t his f o o d
o f f e r i n g o n a rock, w h i c h h e d o e s (v. 20). T h e a n g e l t o u c h e s t h e
o f f e r i n g w i t h his staff; t h e o f f e r i n g is c o n s u m e d b y fire, a n d a t t h e
s a m e m o m e n t the a n g e l v a n i s h e s (v. 21). G i d e o n t h e n d i s c e r n s t h a t
his visitor w a s i n d e e d t h e L o r d a n d f e a r s t h a t h e will die, "Alas,
L o r d G o d ! F o r n o w I h a v e seen t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d f a c e to face.
B u t t h e L o r d said to h i m , ' P e a c e b e to y o u ; d o n o t f e a r , y o u shall
n o t d i e . ' " G i d e o n , like J a c o b in G e n 2 8 a n d 32, t h e n e r e c t s a n a l t a r
at t h e site of his e p i p h a n y .
J o s e p h u s discusses t h e a n g e l o p h a n y [Ant. 5 . 2 1 3 - 2 1 4 ) b u t is silent
o n w h e t h e r o r n o t G i d e o n m a d e a n y o f f e r of f o o d . P h i l o d o e s n o t
m e n t i o n e i t h e r a n g e l o p h a n y f r o m Judges. 2 0 T h e T a r g u m o n J u d g 6
likewise r e c o r d s t h a t t h e a n g e l did n o t e a t b u t t h a t t h e f o o d p r e p a r e d for h i m w a s c o n s u m e d b y fire as h e d i s a p p e a r e d . I n P s . - P h i l o
the consumption
of t h e f o o d a n d w a t e r o c c u r s in r e s p o n s e to a
r e q u e s t f o r a sign b y G i d e o n . M o r e o v e r , o n l y w a t e r is p o u r e d o v e r
a rock. As it is p o u r e d o u t , it d i s a p p e a r s as half b l o o d a n d half fire
(LA.B.
35:6).
In J u d g 1 3 : 3 - 2 1 , t h e A n g e l of the L o r d a p p e a r s to M a n o a h a n d his
wife, a n n o u n c i n g t h e b i r t h of t h e i r son, S a m s o n . M a n o a h asks t h e
a n g e l to r e m a i n w i t h h i m so t h a t h e m i g h t f e e d h i m . O n c e a g a i n ,
t h e issue of h o s p i t a l i t y c o m e s i n t o play. T h e a n g e l says, "If y o u
d e t a i n m e , I will n o t eat of y o u r f o o d ; b u t if y o u m a k e r e a d y a
b u r n t o f f e r i n g , t h e n o f f e r it t o t h e L o r d " (v. 16a). W e also l e a r n t h a t
" M a n o a h did n o t k n o w t h a t h e w a s t h e a n g e l of t h e L o r d " (v. 16b).
20
Additionally, 1Q6 fragment 1 contains part of Judg 6:20-22, only retaining

one readable letter, , where is expected from the Masoretic text (DJD 1:62).
J o s e p h u s , Ant. 5 . 2 8 2 2 8 4 , r e c o r d s :
[282] . . . and though M a n o a h invited him [the angel] to stay and partake of hospitality [], he did not give his consent. However, he
was persuaded at his earnest entreaty to remain while some token of
hospitality [] might be brought to him. [283] So, he killed a kid
and bid his wife to cook it. W h e n all was ready, the angel []
ordered them to set out the loaves and the meat upon the rock, without the vessels. [284] T h a t done, he touched the meat with the rod
which he held and a fire blazing out, it was consumed along with the
bread, while the angel [], borne on the smoke as on a chariot, was plainly seen by them ascending to heaven.
J o s e p h u s v e r y m u c h stresses t h e hospitality of M a n o a h . S i n c e t h e
original tale h a s t h e a n g e l r e f u s i n g , J o s e p h u s says t h a t it w a s t h r o u g h
M a n o a h ' s p e r s u a s i o n t h a t t h e a n g e l d i d a c c e p t a t o k e n of his h o s pitality, c o n s u m i n g it w i t h fire.
I n his retelling of J u d g
14, Ps.-Philo says t h a t M a n o a h a n d his
wife a r e a b l e t o o f f e r b o t h b r e a d a n d gifts to t h e a n g e l , w h o says,

"I will n o t e n t e r y o u r h o u s e w i t h y o u , n o r e a t y o u r b r e a d , n o r t a k e
y o u r gifts" ( L A . B . 42:8). A f t e r o f f e r i n g v a r i o u s sacrifices o n his n e w l y
m a d e altar, M a n o a h puts o u t the m e a t h e h a s cut. T h e angel " r e a c h e d
o u t a n d t o u c h e d t h e m w i t h t h e tip of his staff," a n d fire c o m e s f r o m
t h e rock a n d c o n s u m e s it. A t t h e e n d of the c h a p t e r w e l e a r n t h a t
the a n g e l h a s a n a m e , F a d a h e l .
T h e T a r g u m o n J u d g 13 has little expansion b u t m a k e s n o significant
c h a n g e s w i t h r e g a r d to t h e a n g e l n o t c o n s u m i n g t h e f o o d .
W h i l e t h e offer of hospitality s e e m s to b e t h e c o r r e c t c o u r s e of
a c t i o n in b o t h of t h e s e cases in J u d g e s , in n e i t h e r case did t h e o n e
visited a p p a r e n t l y k n o w t h a t t h e g u e s t w a s t h e A n g e l of t h e L o r d .
T h e offer of f o o d is a c c e p t e d , b u t t h e f o o d is n o t e a t e n a n d is i n s t e a d
c o n s u m e d b y fire as if a t y p e of sacrificial offering.
5.3
77he Book of Tobit
5-12
I n t h e B o o k of T o b i t , t h e a r c h a n g e l R a p h a e l acts as travel
p a n i o n to T o b i a s in c h a p t e r s 5 - 1 2 .
21
R a p h a e l a p p e a r s as a
comman,
a n d n o o n e s e e m s to discern a n y d i f f e r e n c e until, j u s t b e f o r e his

d e p a r t u r e , t h e angel p r o c l a i m s , " '1 a m R a p h a e l , o n e of t h e seven
21
For a discussion of the issues regarding the dating and genre of Tobit, see
section 2.6 above.
h o l y a n g e l s w h o p r e s e n t t h e p r a y e r s of t h e saints a n d e n t e r i n t o t h e
p r e s e n c e of t h e g l o r y of t h e H o l y O n e . ' T h e y w e r e b o t h
alarmed;
a n d t h e y fell u p o n t h e i r faces, for t h e y w e r e a f r a i d " ( 1 2 : 1 5 1 6 ) .

Interestingly, in T o b 6:5, w h e n R a p h a e l a n d T o b i a s a r e e n c a m p e d
o n t h e b a n k s of t h e Tigris, R a p h a e l tells T o b i a s to c a t c h a l a r g e fish,
saving t h e g u t s for a h e a l i n g r e m e d y . O n c e h e h a s d o n e this, t h e y
" r o a s t e d a n d ate [] t h e fish."22 T h i s c u r i o u s p a s s a g e suggests
t h a t p e r h a p s R a p h a e l d i d i n d e e d e a t w i t h his h u m a n
companion.
H o w e v e r , a f t e r t h e revelation of his t r u e identity in 1 2 : 1 5 1 6 , R a p h a e l

t h e n p r o c l a i m s , "All t h e s e d a y s I m e r e l y a p p e a r e d t o y o u a n d d i d
n o t e a t o r d r i n k , b u t y o u w e r e s e e i n g a v i s i o n " (12:19). T h i s is a n
e a r l y a t t e s t a t i o n of t h e i d e a t h a t angels d o n o t c o n s u m e h u m a n f o o d .
T h e parallels of a n a n g e l h e r e a n a r c h a n g e l c o m i n g to a h u m a n
a n d not being recognized, giving a n i m p o r t a n t revelation,
appear-
i n g to eat, t h e n d e p a r t i n g a r e all i m p o r t a n t e v i d e n c e of t h e m o t i f
in t h e l i t e r a t u r e p r i o r t o t h e first c e n t u r y C E .
Hospitality does not
figure
i n t o this c a s e specifically. 2 3 T h e r e is
definitely a n a n g e l , t h e a r c h a n g e l R a p h a e l , w h o s e t r u e n a t u r e is n o t
k n o w n until t h e e n d of t h e tale. I n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e story, h e
a p p e a r s to eat, b u t it is r e v e a l e d l a t e r t h a t h e did n o t .
5.4
Joseph and Aseneth
15~16
I n section 2 . 1 0 a b o v e w e c o n s i d e r e d t h e e v i d e n c e for t h e visitor to

A s e n e t h in c h a p t e r s 1 4 - 1 7 of JA
b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d as a n a n g e l . I n
this s u b s e c t i o n t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e a n g e l a c c e p t s A s e n e t h ' s h o s p i tality a n d also r e q u e s t s a specific f o o d (a h o n e y c o m b ) is a n a l y z e d .

P a r t of t h e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n A s e n e t h a n d t h e a n g e l is as follows:
[15:14] And the m a n said to her, "Speak (up)." A n d Aseneth stretched
out her right h a n d and put it on his knees and said to him, "I beg
you, Lord, sit down a little on this bed, because this bed is pure a n d
undefiled, and a m a n or a w o m a n never sat on it. And I will set a
table before you, and bring you bread and you will eat, a n d bring
22
Similarly, the (S) version of Tobit reads ; and 4Q197 (Aramaic copy of
Tobit) reads . The fact that both of these are singular in form suggests that
only Tobit ate.
23
But in 4:16 Tobit tells his son before his journey to "Give of your bread to
the hungry, and of your clothing to the naked. Give all your surplus to charity,
and do not let your eye begrudge the gift when you made it.,
you from my storeroom old and good wine, the exhalation of which
will go up till heaven, and you will drink from it. [15] And after this
you will go out (on) your way." And the man said to her, "Hurry and
bring (it) quickly."
[16:1] And Aseneth hurried and set a new table before him and went
to provide bread for him. And the man said to her, "Bring me also
a honeycomb." [2] And Aseneth stood still and was distressed, because
she did not have a honeycomb in her storeroom.
H e r hospitality includes rest, g o o d food, a n d wine, followed by a
d e p a r t u r e after having b e e n refreshed. T h e visitor agrees. H e t h e n
requests a h o n e y c o m b . Aseneth is distressed because she does n o t h a v e
o n e in h e r stores, b u t she tells h i m t h a t she will send a b o y to fetch
one. T h e angel assures h e r t h a t t h e r e will be o n e in h e r stores w h e n
she checks, a n d i n d e e d this is the case (v. 8). T h e h o n e y c o m b is n o t
a typical one. It is said to give h o n e y t h a t is "like d e w f r o m h e a v e n
a n d its exhalation like b r e a t h of life" (v. 9). F u r t h e r , the angel says
t h a t it is "full of the spirit of life. A n d the bees of paradise of delight
have m a d e this f r o m the d e w of the roses of life t h a t are in the p a r adise of G o d " (v. 14). T h e angel t h e n eats s o m e of the h o n e y c o m b :
[16:15] And the man stretched out his right hand and broke a small
portion of the comb, and he himself ate and what was left he put
with his hand into Asenetli's mouth, and said to her, "Eat." And she
ate. [16] And the man said to Aseneth, "Behold, you have eaten bread
of life, and drunk a cup of immortality, and been anointed with ointment of incorruptibility."
It is clear t h a t die h o n e y c o m b is divine. T h e angel is said to eat it.
N o m e n t i o n is m a d e of his eating (or not eating) the food that Asenedi
p r e p a r e d , b u t p r e s u m a b l y with the e m p h a s i s o n t h e h o n e y c o m b , the
o t h e r f o o d is ignored. M o s t interesting is the fact t h a t A s e n e t h is
allowed to p a r t a k e of the h o n e y c o m b . By d o i n g so, she h a s " e a t e n
b r e a d of life, a n d d r u n k a c u p of immortality, a n d b e e n a n o i n t e d
with o i n t m e n t of incorruptibility." It is u n i q u e a m o n g the passages
considered in this c h a p t e r t h a t the h u m a n benefits by e a t i n g angelic
food a f t e r offering hospitality a n d h u m a n food to h e r guest.
Lastly, it is interesting to n o t e t h a t Aseneth indicates to h e r guest
t h a t the b e d u p o n w h i c h she has asked h i m to recline is " p u r e a n d
u n d e f i l e d , " with n e i t h e r a m a n n o r w o m a n h a v i n g sat u p o n it. T h i s
seems to reflect the s a m e type of purity c o n c e r n s seen in m u c h of
the evidence analyzed in c h a p t e r 4.
5.5
The Testament of Abraham.
T h e Testament of Abraham
tury GE. T h e
(T. Abr.) likely d a t e s to t h e
first-second
t e x t exists t o d a y in t w o m a i n f o r m s : t h e
cen-
longer,
R e c e n s i o n A ( G r e e k ms., s u p p o r t e d b y a R o m a n i a n version), w h i c h
is likely closer to its original f o r m ; a n d t h e s h o r t e r , R e c e n s i o n
( G r e e k ms., s u p p o r t e d b y a S l a v o n i c a n d o t h e r versions); h o w e v e r ,
t h e precise r e l a t i o n of t h e t w o v e r s i o n s is n o t clear. 2 4 It is i n s t r u c tive to look at t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m b o t h
recensions.
Like o t h e r w r i t i n g s in t h e t e s t a m e n t g e n r e , T. Abr. tells of t h e t i m e

n e a r t h e p a t r i a r c h ' s d e a t h . H o w e v e r , A b r a h a m r e f u s e s to a c c e p t t h a t
t h e t i m e of his d e a t h h a s c o m e . T h i s text is u n u s u a l in t h e testam e n t g e n r e in t h a t it d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a t e s t a m e n t o r m u c h ethical
teaching from Abraham.
G o d first s e n d s t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l () to
Abraham.
M i c h a e l ' s arrival e c h o e s t h e visitation of t h e angels in G e n 18 19,

a n d w i t h i n t h e story it is s u b s e q u e n t l y r e v e a l e d t h a t M i c h a e l
was
i n d e e d o n e of t h e t h r e e visitors to h i m in t h e past at t h e o a k of
M a m r e . T h e T. Abr. s e e m s t o e x p a n d o n the i d e a of A b r a h a m ' s hospitality b y u s i n g G e n
18 as a m o d e l f o r h o w A b r a h a m greets a n y
guests.
I n R e c e n s i o n A , A b r a h a m is said to b e a r i g h t e o u s m a n w h o w a s
v e r y h o s p i t a b l e (1:1). A b r a h a m is in his fields w i t h o t h e r w o r k e r s
w h e n t h e a n g e l M i c h a e l is said t o a p p e a r t o h i m as a n
"honored
soldier, b r i g h t as t h e sun a n d m o s t h a n d s o m e , m o r e t h a n all t h e

sons of m e n " (2:4); M i c h a e l ' s brilliant a p p e a r a n c e s e e m s to signal
his angelic n a t u r e . A b r a h a m g r e e t s M i c h a e l a n d asks h i m to t r a v e l
w i t h h i m across his fields (2:7). T h e y arrive a t A b r a h a m ' s t e n t . W h e n
I s a a c sees t h e f a c e of t h e a n g e l , h e says to S a r a h , " M y l a d y m o t h e r ,
b e h o l d : t h e m a n w h o is sitting w i t h m y f a t h e r A b r a h a m is n o son
of t h e r a c e w h i c h dwells u p o n t h e e a r t h " (3:5). I s a a c t h e n w o r s h i p s
M i c h a e l (v. 6). T h e p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e i r g u e s t a r e extensive, i n c l u d i n g b e a u t i f y i n g t h e g u e s t r o o m w i t h p u r p l e c l o t h a n d silk (4:2).
M i c h a e l t h e n m a k e s a discreet exit a n d a s c e n d s to h e a v e n .
There
h e says to G o d t h a t h e c a n n o t a n n o u n c e t o A b r a h a m his d e a t h
b e c a u s e " I h a v e n o t seen u p o n t h e e a r t h a m a n like h i m m e r c i f u l ,
24
E. P. Sanders, "The Testament of Abraham" in OTP 1:871; HJPAJC Ill.ii:
761-766.
hospitable, righteous, G o d - f e a r i n g , r e f r a i n i n g f r o m every evil d e e d "

(4:6). M i c h a e l is c o m m a n d e d by t h e L o r d , " G o d o w n to m y friend,
A b r a h a m , a n d w h a t e v e r h e should say to y o u , this do, a n d w h a t ever he should eat y o u also eat with h i m " (4:7). M i c h a e l clearly finds
this c o m m a n d p r o b l e m a t i c , saying in 4:9:
Lord, all the heavenly spirits are incorporeal, and they neither eat nor
drink. Now he has set before me a table with an abundance of all
the good things which are earthly and perishable. And now, Lord,
what shall I do? How shall I escape his notice while I am sitting at
one table with him?
T h e L o r d t h e n says (4:10):
Go down to him, and do not be concerned about this. For when you
are seated with him I shall send upon you an all-devouring spirit, and,
from your hands and through your mouth, it will consume everything
which is on the table. Make merry with him in everything.
W i t h this c o m m a n d , M i c h a e l r e t u r n s to A b r a h a m . T h e text does n o t
say t h a t M i c h a e l ate b u t picks u p the story " a f t e r the s u p p e r was
finished" (5:2), so p r e s u m a b l y h e gave the a p p e a r a n c e of eating.
S a r a h later recognizes the angel as o n e of the " t h r e e h e a v e n l y
m e n w h o stayed as guests in o u r tent beside the oak of M a m r e , " a
clear reference to G e n 18 (6:4).
It is clear in this recension of the story t h a t M i c h a e l did n o t eat
any f o o d p r e p a r e d f o r h i m , b u t instead h e gives the a p p e a r a n c e of
eating, while t h e food is c o n s u m e d by a spirit. M i c h a e l does accept
A b r a h a m ' s hospitality.
T h e r e are s o m e significant differences b e t w e e n recensions A a n d
B. I n c h a p t e r 2 of R e c e n s i o n B, w h e n A b r a h a m sees a s t r a n g e r
w h o is actually the angel M i c h a e l , t h o u g h A b r a h a m does n o t k n o w
t h i s h e arises a n d first wishes h i m well on his j o u r n e y . W h e n the
angel replies with kind w o r d s , A b r a h a m t h e n offers h i m hospitality
(rest a n d food). M i c h a e l asks A b r a h a m his n a m e . W h e n h e learns
t h a t h e is A b r a m , r e n a m e d A b r a h a m by the L o r d , M i c h a e l says,
" B e a r with m e , m y f a t h e r , m a n w h o h a s b e e n t a k e n t h o u g h t of by
G o d , because I a m a stranger, a n d I h e a r d a b o u t y o u w h e n y o u
w e n t a p a r t forty stadia a n d took a calf a n d slaughtered it, entertaining angels as guests in y o u r house, so t h a t they m i g h t rest" (v. 10).
M i c h a e l returns to h e a v e n to pray. H e tells G o d t h a t he c a n n o t
deliver the message of A b r a h a m ' s d e a t h to h i m , saying A b r a h a m is
" a righteous m a n , w h o welcomes strangers" (4:10). M i c h a e l is o r d e r e d
to r e t u r n to A b r a h a m , w h e r e h e is to "stay w i t h h i m as a guest.
A n d w h a t e v e r y o u see (him) e a t i n g , y o u also e a t . " T h u s , M i c h a e l is
to a c c e p t gracefully A b r a h a m ' s hospitality a n d a t least give the a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g . C h a p t e r 5 says t h a t u p o n M i c h a e l ' s r e t u r n ,
"they
ate, d r a n k , a n d m a d e m e r r y " (v. 1). It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r M i c h a e l

ate. S i n c e h e is c o m m a n d e d b y G o d to e a t w h a t h e sees A b r a h a m
eat, t h e i m p l i c a t i o n is at least t h a t e a t i n g is n o t a n o r m a l activity
for h i m , b u t t h e t e x t is n o t as explicit as R e c e n s i o n A in s a y i n g t h a t
a spirit c o n s u m e d t h e f o o d f o r h i m .
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , a t 6 : 1 0 S a r a h says, " I d e c l a r e a n d say t h a t this is
o n e of t h e t h r e e m e n w h o stayed as o u r guests at t h e o a k of M a m r e , "
a c l e a r r e f e r e n c e to G e n 18, w h i c h is d i e n q u o t e d (v. 11). A b r a h a m
discloses t h a t h e also k n o w s t h e identity of t h e i r visitor ( w .
12-13).
M i c h a e l d o e s n o t b r i n g A b r a h a m to h e a v e n , so D e a t h is s e n t t o
h i m . E v e n t h o u g h A b r a h a m fears t h e sight of D e a t h (13:4), h e offers
h i m hospitality (13:6).
C l e a r l y , A b r a h a m ' s hospitality lies at t h e h e a r t of t h e n a r r a t i v e in
this r e c e n s i o n . M i c h a e l is told to eat a n d s e e m s to d o so in 5:1. It
is n o t c l e a r , h o w e v e r , since G o d h a s g i v e n h i m leave to e a t , w h e t h e r
this is a c a s e of a n a n g e l a c t u a l l y e a t i n g o r simply a p p e a r i n g to eat.
The
Gen
1 8 - 1 9 narrative clearly influenced the portrayal
of
A b r a h a m in the T. Abr. T h e angel M i c h a e l , w h o c o m e s to A b r a h a m , is

revealed as o n e of t h e angels to h a v e visited h i m a t M a m r e (A-6:4;
B-6:10). A b r a h a m is t h e m o d e l of a h o s p i t a b l e h o s t ( A - l : l ; B - 4 : l l ) .
T h e angel M i c h a e l is struck by A b r a h a m ' s virtue to t h e e x t e n t t h a t h e
c a n n o t c a r r y o u t his d u t y (A-4:6; B-4:12). A f t e r c o n s u l t i n g
God,
M i c h a e l gives t h e a p p e a r a n c e of e a t i n g so as n o t to o f f e n d A b r a h a m ' s
hospitality, b u t t h e f o o d is c o n s u m e d by a spirit, n o t M i c h a e l (A-4:7,
10; B-4:15).
5.6
77le Gospel of Luke
T h e r e a r e s o m e similarities b e t w e e n t h e a n g e l i c visitation in
Gen
1 8 - 1 9 a n d t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e of J e s u s o n t h e E m m a u s r o a d
in L u k e 24. 2 5 I n b o t h cases, divine b e i n g s a p p e a r as s t r a n g e r s t o
25
The idea of a divine being or angel as travel companion is seen in Tob 512.
On this see M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 144-148. See also C. Fletcher-Louis,
Luke-Acts, pp. 6263.
h u m a n s . T h e h u m a n s a r e u n a w a r e of t h e t r u e n a t u r e of t h e s t r a n g e r
a n d ask h i m to a c c e p t t h e i r hospitality. T h e t w o b r e a k b r e a d w i t h
J e s u s (24:30) a n d i m m e d i a t e l y realize w h o h e is. A t t h a t
Jesus d i s a p p e a r s (cf. J u d g 6:21 a n d
moment
13:20). T h e t w o disciples w h o
first see J e s u s o n t h e r o a d r e t u r n t o J e r u s a l e m a n d t h e o t h e r discipies (24:33). O n c e t h e r e , t h e y tell t h e o t h e r s w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d t o

them (24:34-35). T h e n :
[36] As they were saying this, Jesus himself stood a m o n g them. [37]
But they were startled a n d frightened, and supposed that they saw a
spirit, [, D reads ] [38] And he said to them, " W h y
are you troubled, a n d why do questionings rise in your hearts? [39]
See my hands and my feet, that it is I myself; handle me, and see;
for a spirit [] has not flesh [] and bones [] as you
see that I have." [41] A n d while they still disbelieved for joy, and
wondered, he said to them, " H a v e you anything here to eat?" [42]
T h e y gave him a piece of broiled fish, [43] and he took it a n d ate
[] before them. 2 6
L u k e (or t h e a u t h o r of this r e s u r r e c t i o n a c c o u n t ) p r o b a b l y d r e w o n
t h e t r a d i t i o n s m e n t i o n e d , so J e s u s w o u l d t a k e o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s assoc i a t e d with t h e divine visitors. 2 ' H o w e v e r , the text d o e s r e a d ,
n o t , t h o u g h it is g r a n t e d t h a t "spirit" is a t e r m
sometimes
m e a n t to r e f e r to a n y i n c o r p o r e a l o r divine s u p e r n a t u r a l (cf. L u k e
4 : 3 3 , 9:39, 13:11). Is J e s u s m e a n t to b e a n angel? J e s u s offers t w o
p r o o f s of his identity. O n e is t h e e a t i n g of t h e
fishhe
is flesh a n d
b l o o d a n d t h e o t h e r is t h e f u l f i l l m e n t of w o r d s h e s p o k e while alive
( w . 4 4 - 4 8 ) ; it is really t h e s a m e J e s u s . T h e use of e a t i n g as a p r o o f
of his h u m a n n e s s implies t h a t e a t i n g is g e n e r a l l y a h u m a n activity,
n o t o n e in w h i c h i n c o r p o r e a l b e i n g s p a r t a k e . 2 8 T h e p o i n t is t h a t
J e s u s is n o t a n a n g e l o r spirit b u t is m e a n t to b e flesh a n d b l o o d .
26
There is an interesting variant at 24:42: ("and from
a honeycomb"). B. Metzger says this is an "obvious interpolation," inserted as a
justification for honey being used in celebration of the Eucharist and in the baptismal liturgy; A Textual Commmtary on the New Testament (New York: United Bible
Societies, 1994) 161. However, it is interesting that in JA 16 the angel requests a
honeycomb from Aseneth, and it turns out to be divine food.
27
C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts, p. 63, says that Jesus's appearance has the "clear
contours of an angelophany" but notes that Luke may see this as a weak Christology.
28
5.7
The Epistle to the Hebrews and Christian
Hospitality
O n e of t h e clearest allusions to G e n 1 8 - 1 9 in t h e N T c o m e s in H e b
13:2: " D o n o t n e g l e c t t o s h o w hospitality [] to s t r a n g e r s ,
f o r t h e r e b y s o m e h a v e e n t e r t a i n e d angels [] u n a w a r e s . " T h i s
r e m i n d e r o c c u r s at t h e e n d of t h e epistle in a section of e x h o r t a t i v e
s t a t e m e n t s . H . A t t r i d g e n o t e s t h a t t h e " s o m e " () in this verse
m a y refer to a n u m b e r of persons f r o m H e b r e w Bible stories: A b r a h a m
a n d S a r a h ( G e n 18:2-15); L o t ( G e n 19: 1 - 1 4 ) , G i d e o n ( J u d g 6 : 1 1 - 1 8 ) ,
M a n o a h ( J u d g 1 3 : 2 - 2 2 ) , o r T o b i t ( T o b 1 2 : l - 2 0 ) . 2 9 All of t h e passages a r e possible r e f e r e n t s , since t h e issue of h o s p i t a l i t y is involved,
b u t t h e a s p e c t of giving hospitality u n a w a r e s s e e m s t o p o i n t t o w a r d
G e n e s i s o r T o b i t . W h i c h e v e r t e x t o r texts it is, t h e c o m m a n d of t h e
a u t h o r of H e b r e w s s e e m s clear: y o u (first-century a u d i e n c e ) s h o u l d
(in y o u r p r e s e n t c o n t e x t ) n o t neglect hospitality, b e c a u s e s o m e (in
o u r history) h a v e e n t e r t a i n e d a n g e l s (in t h e i r o w n time). It is a n
e x h o r t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t in t h e p r e s e n t , j u s t i f y i n g w h y C h r i s t i a n s s h o u l d
always s h o w hospitality to s t r a n g e r s . H o w seriously o n e is t o take
s u c h a c o m m a n d is n o t clear. It m i g h t b e a n e x a g g e r a t i o n
meant
to stress a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t . H o w e v e r , in light of t h e p a s s a g e s c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e , t h e a u t h o r m a y t a k e seriously t h e possibility of angelic

visitation t o h u m a n s (e.g. G a l 4:14).
T e r t u l l i a n , w r i t i n g in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E , says in c h a p t e r 2 6
of De Oratione, " Y o u will n o t dismiss a b r o t h e r w h o h a s e n t e r e d y o u r
h o u s e w i t h o u t p r a y e r . ' H a v e y o u seen, 5 says S c r i p t u r e , 'a b r o t h e r ?
y o u h a v e seen y o u r L o r d ' ; e s p e c i a l l y ' a s t r a n g e r , ' lest p e r h a p s h e
be ' a n a n g e l ' \angelus\."3
His c o m m e n t is b a s e d o n H e b 13:2, b u t
his e x h o r t a t i o n is t a r g e t e d t o w a r d his p r e s e n t c o m m u n i t y a n d c o u l d
reflect a c o n t i n u i n g belief in a n g e l s visiting h u m a n beings.
T h e c o n g e n i a l r e c e p t i o n of s t r a n g e r s e m b o d i e s t h e ideal t h a t J e s u s
sets o u t in M a t t 2 5 : 3 5 - 3 6 , " F o r I w a s h u n g r y a n d y o u g a v e
me
f o o d , I w a s thirsty a n d y o u g a v e m e d r i n k , I w a s a s t r a n g e r
and
y o u w e l c o m e d m e , 1 w a s n a k e d a n d y o u c l o t h e d m e , I w a s sick a n d
y o u visited m e , I w a s in p r i s o n a n d y o u c a m e t o m e . " T h e s e w o r d s
of t h e M a t t h e a n J e s u s idealize t h e v i r t u e of hospitality. I n giving
29
H. Attridge, Hebrews: A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews (Philadelphia:
Fortress Press, 1989) 386.
30
Translation from the ANF 3:690.
f o o d a n d d r i n k to t h e lowly, d i e r i g h t e o u s a r e a c t u a l l y g i v i n g it t o
the S o n of M a n himself. In M a t t
10:40, J e s u s d e c l a r e s , " H e
who
receives y o u receives m e , a n d h e w h o receives m e receives h i m w h o

sent m e " (cf. M a t t 18:10). 31 As n o t e d a b o v e , it is c l e a r t h a t h o s p i tality c o n t i n u e s in t h e early c h u r c h a n d m a y e v e n h a v e b e e n a fact o r in t h e s p r e a d of t h e gospel. T h e possibility exists t h a t a least a
p a r t i a l f a c t o r in the p u s h for s t r o n g hospitality w a s t h e belief t h a t
divine beings, angels, o r e v e n J e s u s m i g h t visit t h e c o m m u n i t y .
Conclusions
T h e e x a m i n a t i o n of e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r s h o w e d t h a t t h e m o t i f
of a n g e l s visiting h u m a n s o n e a r t h a n d b e i n g o f f e r e d hospitality w a s
p r e s e n t in the l i t e r a t u r e of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d . M u c h of
it s e e m s to b e b a s e d o n t h e G e n 18 n a r r a t i v e a b o u t A b r a h a m b e i n g
h o s p i t a b l e to his t h r e e guests at t h e o a k of M a m r e . T h i s story clearly
i n f l u e n c e d t h e p o r t r a y a l of A b r a h a m in t h e T.
Abr.
I n all t h e cases, hospitality w a s o f f e r e d to t h e angels w h i l e t h e

h o s t w a s u n a w a r e of t h e a n g e l ' s d i v i n e n a t u r e . N o explicit r e a s o n s
w e r e g i v e n s i m p l y a n u n d e r l y i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t angels did n o t
e a t h u m a n f o o d . I n t h e case of JA,
t h e f o o d of t h e a n g e l is a spe-
cial h o n e y c o m b . R e g a r d l e s s of w h e t h e r t h e y a c t u a l l y a t e o r
only
a p p e a r e d t o e a t , t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t hosts s h o u l d d o a n y t h i n g
o t h e r t h a n o f f e r t h e best ( h u m a n ) hospitality to t h e i r guests (angelic
o r otherwise), p a r t i c u l a r l y since t h e y c o u l d n o t a l w a y s b e c e r t a i n of
their guests' true nature.
T h e evidence from the N T showed that G e n
18-19 and
other
H e b r e w Bible passages i n f o r m e d t h e e x h o r t a t i o n in H e b 13:2 b u t also

t h e i d e a of C h r i s t i a n hospitality as a w h o l e ; a n g e l s c o u l d visit, so o n e
n e e d e d to b e r e a d y to offer t h e m t h e p r o p e r w e l c o m e a t a n y t i m e .
E c h o i n g t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of D . G o o d m a n , C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s says
t h a t literal r e a d i n g s of texts such as G e n 18 w e r e d e n i e d f r o m early
o n , t h u s c o n f i r m i n g " t h a t it w a s a s t a n d a r d a s s u m p t i o n t h a t angels
did n o t eat." 3 2 T h i s s e e m s t o b e t h e c a s e f o r t h e S e c o n d
Temple
51
The idea of hospitality may also lie behind the commandment to "Love your
neighbor as yourself" in Matt 5:43, 19:19, 22:39; Mark 12:31, 33; Luke 10:27;
Rom 13:9; Gal 5:14; Jas 2:8; cf. Rom 13:8, 10. See C. Rowland, "Apocalyptic, the
Poor, and the Gospel of Matthew" JTS 45 (1994) 504-518.
82
evidence. Angels did n o t eat h u m a n food, p r e s u m a b l y because eating

is a h u m a n activity t h a t is u n n e c e s s a r y for t h e m . I n L u k e 24, J e s u s
actually goes a b o u t p r o v i n g his c o r p o r e a l n a t u r e by eating. It seems,
then, t h a t o n e factor in distinguishing h u m a n s f r o m angels is w h e t h e r
they n e e d to eat. Angels, even w h e n o n e a r t h , h a v e n o n e e d to eat,
while h u m a n s do. But angels, w h e n offered food, a i m e d n o t to offend
their hosts so gave the a p p e a r a n c e of eating.
" T H E Y M I G H T BE
GIANTS":
HUMAN-ANGEL HYBRID
OFFSPRING
T h i s c h a p t e r investigates t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels
by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p o r t r a y a l s (deriving f r o m G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ) of angels
h a v i n g sexual r e l a t i o n s w i t h h u m a n w o m e n . I n a n u m b e r of texts
t h e s e r e l a t i o n s r e s u l t e d in viable offspring: a n g e l - h u m a n h y b r i d s t h a t
c a m e to b e k n o w n as t h e N e p h i l i m , G i b o r i m , o r giants.
T h e " t a k i n g of wives" in t h e G e n 6 n a r r a t i v e a n d s u b s e q u e n t interp r e t a t i o n s w a s u n d e r s t o o d as a e u p h e m i s m for s e x u a l relations t h a t
led to hybrid offspring. T h e t e r m " h y b r i d " will be u n d e r s t o o d to m e a n ,
" t h e o f f s p r i n g of t w o a n i m a l s [or beings] of d i f f e r e n t species o r varieties." 1 T h i s t e r m r e g u l a r l y h a s t h e c o n n o t a t i o n t h a t t h e t w o entities
involved a r e i n c o n g r u o u s t h a t is, d o n o t r e g u l a r l y o r n a t u r a l l y j o i n .
T h e e v i d e n c e in this c h a p t e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t a u n i o n b e t w e e n angels
a n d h u m a n s w a s n o t c o n s i d e r e d n a t u r a l . T h e y w e r e distinct b e i n g s
(or species) f r o m t h e c r e a t i o n o n w a r d . T h e a n g e l s ' d e s c e n t to e a r t h
w a s a t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r t h a t r e p r e s e n t e d a significant
p r o b l e m . It w a s e v e n c o n s i d e r e d b y s o m e i n t e r p r e t e r s to b e
the
s o u r c e of evil in t h e w o r l d .
6.1
Genesis 6:1-4
in the Hebrew
Bible
P r i o r to t h e s h o r t story of t h e " s o n s of G o d " in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 a r e t h e

c r e a t i o n (chaps. 12), t h e story of A d a m a n d E v e a n d t h e i r e x p u l sion f r o m t h e g a r d e n of E d e n (chaps. 3 - 4 ) , a n d t h e n a list of t h e
g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r A d a m u p to t h e m e n t i o n of N o a h a n d his t h r e e
sons ( c h a p . 5). W i t h s e e m i n g l y n o c o n n e c t i o n to t h e p r e c e d i n g m a t e rial, c h a p t e r 6 a b r u p t l y i n t e r j e c t s this s h o r t tale of t h e " s o n s of G o d "
a n d t h e d a u g h t e r s of m e n :
665. The words in brackets are mine.
[1] W h e n m e n [ ]began to multiply on the face of the ground,

and daughters were b o r n to them,
[2] the sons of G o d [ ]saw that the daughters of m e n
[ ] were fair; and they took to wife [ ] such of
them as they chose.
[3] T h e n the Lord said, " M y spirit shall not abide in m a n for ever,
for he is flesh, but his days shall be a hundred and twenty years."
[4] T h e Nephilim [ ]were on the earth in those days, and also
afterward, when the sons of G o d [ ] came in to the daughters of men [] , a n d they bore children to them, these []
(were) the mighty men [ ]that were of old, the m e n of renown.
I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r this s h o r t a c c o u n t , it is said t h a t t h e L o r d looks
u p o n t h e e a r t h , sees t h a t h u m a n s a r e w i c k e d , a n d r e p e n t s of his e r e a t i o n (6:5). T h i s c o n n e c t i o n with t h e evil of t h e a g e a n d t h e
flood
is c e n t r a l in l a t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T h e flood n a r r a t i v e s follow, w h e n
G o d purifies t h e e a r t h of t h e first, w i c k e d h u m a n s . O n l y t h o s e of
N o a h ' s f a m i l y survive (chaps. 6 9 ) . So, a l r e a d y in t h e H e b r e w Bible
t r a d i t i o n , t h e d e s c e n t to e a r t h a n d t a k i n g of wives b y divine b e i n g s
s e e m s to h a v e p r e c i p i t a t e d a j u d g m e n t u p o n t h e e a r t h .
A brief o u t l i n e of d i e G e n 6 : 1 - 4 n a r r a t i v e will b e h e l p f u l , since
(a) t h e p a s s a g e itself is r a t h e r brief a n d n o t logically well s t r u c t u r e d ,
a n d (b) s u b s e q u e n t t r a d i t i o n s p i c k u p o n p a r t i c u l a r p a r t s of t h e
passage:
1. H u m a n s a r e said to i n c r e a s e in n u m b e r u p o n t h e e a r t h (6:1a).
2. D a u g h t e r s a r e b o r n to t h e h u m a n s (6:1b). T h e " s o n s of G o d "
t h e n see t h a t t h e d a u g h t e r s a r e p l e a s i n g to t h e eye (6:2a), a n d
t h e y " t a k e w i v e s " f r o m a m o n g t h e h u m a n f e m a l e s (6:2b).
3. T h e n t h e L o r d says t h a t his spirit ( )will n o t r e m a i n in h u m a n s
for l o n g e r t h a n 120 y e a r s (6:3). 2 N o a p p a r e n t r a t i o n a l e is given
for t h e s u d d e n l i m i t a t i o n , especially since it is a l r e a d y c l e a r t h a t
h u m a n s a r e m o r t a l ( G e n 3:19), n o r f o r t h e specific
maximum
d u r a t i o n of life (120 years). T h i s verse i n t e r r u p t s t h e story, a n d

it is s o m e t i m e s o m i t t e d in s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
The significance of the term "spirit" here is not entirely clear. It seems to represent the life force (breath) that God gave to humans. However, "spirit" is a term
sometimes used to refer to angels, especially in some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. On
this see A. Sekki, The Meaning of Ruah at Qumran (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1989)
145-171. If the "sons of God" were to be understood as humans, then this might
suggest that God's spirit does not remain in them because of their action. However,
virtually all subsequent interpretations seem to suggest that these beings are angels.
4. T h e N e p h i l i m a r e said to exist f r o m this p o i n t in history o n w a r d

(6:4a). 3 It is i m p l i e d , b u t n o t explicit, t h a t t h e s e N e p h i l i m a r e t h e
offspring of t h e "sons of G o d " a n d t h e d a u g h t e r s of h u m a n s (6:4b).
T h e N e p h i l i m a r e also called " t h e m i g h t y m e n of o l d " ( 4 (
w h o a r e " m e n of r e n o w n ' 5 (
)( c ) .
A t first g l a n c e , G e n 6 : 1 - 4 s e e m s to p r e s e n t t w o distinct aetiologies:

m o r t a l i t y (i.e., a finite life s p a n for h u m a n s ) a n d t h e N e p h i l i m ; h o w ever, n o c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o aetiologies is readily a p p a r ent. G. W e s t e r m a n n
a r g u e s t h a t verses
1-2 and 4 make up
the
original p a s s a g e , while v. 3 is a later, i n t e r p r e t i v e gloss t h a t d i s r u p t s

t h e How of t h e original n a r r a t i v e . 0 T h i s w o u l d m e a n t h a t t h e t h r u s t
of t h e original n a r r a t i v e w a s t h e origin of t h e N e p h i l i m , w h o w e r e
t h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e " s o n s of G o d " a n d h u m a n w o m e n . T h i s e x p i a n a t i o n s e e m s plausible, b u t t h e originality of v. 3 d o e s n o t necessarily h a v e a n y i m p a c t o n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this p a s s a g e w i t h
r e g a r d to t h e a n g e l - h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n v. 4 t h e N e p h i l i m a r e
said to b e t h e n u p o n t h e face of t h e e a r t h , a f t e r t h e sons of G o d
h a d o f f s p r i n g via h u m a n w o m e n , i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e N e p h i l i m
are
t h e s a m e as t h e " m i g h t y m e n of old, t h e m e n of r e n o w n . "

As n o t e d , this s h o r t n a r r a t i v e is o f t e n t a k e n b y m o d e m i n t e r p r e t e r s
to be s e p a r a t e f r o m the larger n a r r a t i v e s c h e m e of Genesis. R . H e n d e l ,
h o w e v e r , h a s o f f e r e d a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this p a s s a g e t h a t seeks to
u n i t e 6 : 1 - 4 w i t h t h e F l o o d n a r r a t i v e t h a t follows it. 6 H e says, " t h e
story of t h e m i n g l i n g of g o d s a n d m o r t a l s a n d t h e p r o c r e a t i o n
t h e d e m i g o d s w a s originally c o n n e c t e d to t h e f l o o d n a r r a t i v e
of
and
f u n c t i o n e d as its m o t i v a t i o n . " 7 D e m o n s t r a t i n g parallels in o t h e r a n c i e n t

c u l t u r e s , H e n d e l suggests t h a t , " T h e P r i m e v a l C y c l e is c h a r a c t e r i s e d
by a series of m y t h o l o g i c a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s of b o u n d a r i e s t h a t result
in a r a n g e of divine r e s p o n s e s w h i c h slowly b u i l d u p t h e
present
o r d e r of t h e c o s m o s . " T h e t a k i n g of h u m a n wives b y t h e " s o n s of

G o d " w a s o n e s u c h t r a n s g r e s s i o n . N o t i n g t h e w o r k of M . D o u g l a s ,
Other occurrences of the Nephilim are at Num 13:33 (cf. Deut 2:10-11); Jos
8:25; Judg 20:46; 2 Ki 25:11; Ps 145:14; Jer 39:9; Jer 52:15; Ezek 32:22, 24. See
DDD, pp. 1163-1168.
4
The term appears 20 times in the Hebrew Bible. The beings in Gen
6:1-4 seem to be different from David's fighters in 2 Sam 23:8-39 = 1 Chr 11:10-47.
5
C. Westermann, Genesis (London: SPCK 1985) 363-383.
6
R. Hendel, "Of Demigods and the Deluge: Toward an Interpretation of 6:1-4"
JBL 106 (1987) 13-26.
7
R. Hendel, "Of Demigods," p. 16.
h e suggests t h a t s u c h a u n i o n w e n t a g a i n s t t h e " c a t e g o r i e s of e r e a t i o n . " 8 T h e s e c a t e g o r i e s w e r e m e a n t t o b e distinct f r o m e a c h o t h e r :

h u m a n a n d divine. T h e f u s i o n of t h e t w o c r e a t e d a n
"imbalance
a n d a c o n f u s i o n in t h e c o s m i c o r d e r , " w h i c h h a d to b e r e d r e s s e d .
R. Hendel
sees t h e Flood
as " t h e n a t u r a l c o n c l u s i o n
of
Gen
6 : 1 4 . . . t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of h u m a n i t y a n d t h e c o n c o m i t a n t a n n i h i l a tion of t h e d i s o r d e r . " 9 E v e n if o n e d o e s n o t a c c e p t his e n t i r e exegesis,

H e n d e l ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t c a t e g o r i e s of p u r i t y a n d c r e a t i o n o r d e r a r e
d i s r u p t e d b y t h e a c t i o n s of t h e " s o n s of G o d " is i l l u m i n a t i n g , since
it c o n n e c t s t h e story w i t h its i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t r a t h e r t h a n seeing
it as a d i s j o i n t e d s e g m e n t . It also s h o w s t h a t t h e m i x i n g of divine
a n d h u m a n c o u l d h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d as p r o b l e m a t i c f r o m t h e
earliest p e r i o d . It a p p a r e n t l y c o n t i n u e d to b e a p r o b l e m for s o m e ,
s u c h as t h e a u t h o r s of Jub.
a n d T.
Naph.
T h u s , this s h o r t n a r r a t i v e in t h e H e b r e w Bible tells of t h e i n t e r m i n g l i n g of h u m a n
( d a u g h t e r s of m e n ) a n d d i v i n e (sons of G o d )
b l o o d , w h i c h s e e m s to h a v e led to u n u s u a l offspring. It a p p e a r s t o
be s o m e w h a t u n c o n n e c t e d to the s u r r o u n d i n g passages, b u t as H e n d e l
suggests, a l r e a d y in this n a r r a t i v e , t h e sin of b o u n d a r y t r a n s g r e s s i o n
c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as l e a d i n g to t h e F l o o d . V i r t u a l l y all s u b s e q u e n t
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of this p a s s a g e will u n d e r s t a n d t h e "sons of G o d " as
angels. T h e earliest of these seems to h a v e b e e n t h e Book of W a t c h e r s .
6.2
1 Enoch 6-11:
The Book of
Watchers
U n t i l t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls, d a t e s f o r 1 E n o c h h a d
b e e n p o s i t e d as early as t h e first c e n t u r y B C E to as late as t h e t h i r d
c e n t u r y C E . D i s c o v e r y of A r a m a i c f r a g m e n t s of all t h e m a j o r sections of 1 E n o c h e x c e p t t h e S i m i l i t u d e s ( c h a p t e r s 3 7 - 7 1 ) h a s led
m o s t s c h o l a r s to believe t h a t 1 E n o c h 1 - 3 6 a n d 7 2 - 1 0 8 a r e a t least
first c e n t u r y B C E in origin a n d p r o b a b l y as old as t h e t h i r d c e n tury BCE.10
A few scholars h a v e suggested t h a t 1 E n o c h m a y even b e old e n o u g h
to h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e B o o k of G e n e s i s itself, b u t this i d e a h a s n o t
M. Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966) esp. 53-54; R. Hendel, "Of Demigods," p. 23.
R. Hendel, "Of Demigods," p. 23.
10
G. Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11" JBL 96 (1977)
389-391. G. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 2001) 14-15.
w o n m u c h scholarly support. 1 1 T h e n a r r a t i v e in 1 E n o c h is m u c h m o r e
e x p a n s i v e t h a n in G e n e s i s a n d clarifies s o m e a m b i g u i t i e s . T h e r e f o r e ,
t h e p r i o r i t y of t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e will b e a s s u m e d . It will b e seen
t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n s in 1 E n o c h , h o w e v e r , did i n f l u e n c e m a n y , if n o t
all, s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e fallen a n g e l n a r r a t i v e .
T h e t e r m " W a t c h e r s " ( )c a m e to b e a p p l i e d to t h e divine b e i n g s
(angels) w h o left t h e i r p l a c e in h e a v e n . 1 2 I n the H e b r e w Bible t h e
t e r m only a p p e a r s in t h e B o o k of D a n i e l as r e f e r r i n g t o h e a v e n l y
b e i n g s (4:13, 17, 23); it a p p e a r s in Jub.
Apoc.,
3:15, 5:1, C D 2:18, t h e Gen.
a n d several o t h e r late S e c o n d T e m p l e writings. T h e t e r m is
n o t exclusive to t h e fallen angels, since 1 En. 20:1 applies it to t h e

f o u r a r c h a n g e l s . J . Collins n o t e s t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e W a t c h e r s
o v e r l a p s t h a t of t h e angels b u t t h a t t h e W a t c h e r s w e r e likely c o n c e i v e d of as a distinct class of a n g e l i c beings. 1 3
T h e m o s t r e l e v a n t section of t h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s is c h a p t e r s
6 ^ 1 5 , w h e r e t h e n a r r a t i v e of G e n 6 is discussed a n d e x p a n d e d u p o n .
T h e r e s e e m to b e t w o s t r a n d s of t r a d i t i o n w i t h i n t h e passage: t h e
S h e m a z i a h a n d t h e Azazel. 1 4 C h a p t e r 6 says:
[1] 111 those days, when the children of m a n h a d multiplied, it happened that there were b o r n unto them handsome and beautiful daughters. [2] And the angels, the children of heaven, saw them and desired
them; and they said to one another, " C o m e , let us choose wives for
ourselves from among the daughters of m a n arid beget us children."
[3] And Semyaz, being their leader, said unto them, "I fear that perhaps you will not consent that this deed should be done, and I alone
will become (responsible) for this great sin." [4] But they all responded
to him, "Let us swear an oath and bind everyone a m o n g us by a
curse not to abandon this suggestion but to do the deed." T h e n they
all swore together and b o u n d one another by (the curse). 15
11
J. MiUk, The Booh of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4 (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1976) 31, 124-5. M. Barker, The Last Prophet: The Book of Enoch
and Its Influence of Christianity (London: SPCK, 1988), but see M. Barker, The Older
Testament(London: SPCK," 1987) 12-16.
J . Collins, "Watchers" in DDD, pp. 1681-1685. See also J . Fitzmyer, The Genes
Apocryphon of Qumran Cave I: A Commentary, 2nd ed., Biblica et Orientalia 18a (Rome:
Biblical Institute Press, 1971) 80-81.
13
J. Collins, "Watchers" p. 1684.
14
D. Dimant, "I Enoch 6-11: A Methodological Perspective" SBLSP (1978)
323-339; G. Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11," pp. 383-405;
HJPAJC IIIi:255.
15
Then the names of these angels are given: "And they were altogether two
hundred; and they descended into Ardos, which is the summit of Hermon. And
they called the mount Armon, for they swore and bound one another by a curse.
1 En. 6 a p p e a r s to e x p a n d u p o n t h e c o r e n a r r a t i v e f r o m G e n 6. (1)
H u m a n s m u l t i p l y o n t h e e a r t h ( G e n 6:1). (2) D i v i n e b e i n g s see t h e
b e a u t y of t h e d a u g h t e r s of t h e h u m a n s a n d d e s c e n d to t h e
earth
( G e n 6:2a). A t this p o i n t t h e n a r r a t i v e is e x p a n d e d to i n c l u d e a l o n g
discussion b e t w e e n S e m y a z a n d his c o c o n s p i r a t o r s . A s t h e
leader,
S e m y a z d o e s n o t t r u s t t h a t his c o m p a n i o n s will follow t h r o u g h o n

t h e i r p l a n to g o to t h e h u m a n w o m e n , b e c a u s e it is a g r e a t sin, so
t h e y all s w e a r a n o a t h . W e a r e told t h e n u m b e r of angels, t w o h u n d r e d , a n d w e a r e also told fifteen n a m e s of v a r i o u s l e a d e r s a m o n g
t h e angels. O n c e b o u n d b y a n o a t h , t h e y d e s c e n d a n d t a k e wives
( G e n 6:2b).
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e in p a s s i n g t h a t 1 E n o c h d o e s n o t s e e m t o
m a k e r e f e r e n c e to G e n 6:3, w h e r e G o d limits t h e life s p a n of h u m a n s .
As w a s n o t e d , W e s t e r m a n n
suggested t h a t this verse m a y n o t
be
original. T h a t 1 E n o c h d o e s n o t reflect G e n 6:3 d o e s n o t p r o v e o r

e v e n suggest t h a t t h e verse w a s n o t a l r e a d y p r e s e n t , since it possible t h a t t h e a u t h o r of 1 E n o c h h a d p a r t i c u l a r m o t i v a t i o n s f o r o m i t ting r e f e r e n c e to t h e verse.
A f t e r t h e n a m e s of t h e l e a d i n g a n g e l s a r e g i v e n ( w . 7 8 ) , c h a p ter 7 continues:
[1] And they took wives unto themselves, and everyone (respectively)
chose one w o m a n for himself, and they began to go unto them. And
they taught them magical medicine, incantations, the cutting of roots,
and taught t h e m (about) plants. [2] A n d the w o m e n became pregnant
and gave birth to great giants whose heights were three hundred cubits.
[3] These (giants) consumed the produce of all the people until the
people detested feeding them. [4] So the giants turned against (the
people) in order to eat them. [5] A n d they began to sin against birds,
wild beasts, reptiles, and fish. [6] And their flesh was devoured the
one by the other, and they drank blood. And then the earth brought
an accusation against the oppressors. 16
T h e angels t h e n t e a c h h u m a n b e i n g s a b o u t m e d i c i n e , h e r b a l i s m , a n d
m a g i c . T h e w o m e n b e c o m e p r e g n a n t a n d h a v e offspring. 1 E n o c h
is explicit t h a t t h e s e o f f s p r i n g w e r e g i a n t s w h o w e r e 3 0 0 c u b i t s h i g h
(cf. G e n 6:4). T h e s e h y b r i d c r e a t u r e s b r i n g sin i n t o t h e w o r l d , esped a i l y c a n n i b a l i s m , a n d t h e e a r t h is said to a c c u s e t h e m .
And their names are as follows: Semyaz, the leader of Arakeb, Ramael, Tamel, Rarnel,
Danel, Baraqyal, Asel, Baratel, Ananel, Sasomaspweel, Kestarel, Turel, Yamayol,
and Arazyal. These are their chiefs of tens and others with them" (1 En. 6:6-8).
16
Translation of all 1 En. passages taken from E. Isaac, OTP 1:15-16.
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of c h a p t e r 8, Azazel 1 7 is said to t e a c h h u m a n s
[1] (the art of) making swords and knives, and shields, and breastplates;
and he showed to their chosen ones bracelets, decorations (shadowing
of the eye) with antimony, ornamentation, the beautifying of the eyelids, all kinds of precious stones, and all coloring tinctures and alchemy.
T h e list c o n t i n u e s , w i t h o t h e r s t e a c h i n g i n c a n t a t i o n s a n d astrology,
until t h e p e o p l e c r i e d a n d t h e i r voice r e a c h e d h e a v e n (v. 4). A n g e l s
t e a c h i n g h u m a n s m a n y skills, m o s t of w h i c h lead o n l y to d e s t r u c t i o n
( w e a p o n s , a r m o r ) o r d a n g e r o u s arts (seduction, astrology), is a n e l a b o r a t i o n u p o n t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e . It m a y b e a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e
i d e a in G e n 6:5, " T h e L o r d saw t h a t the wickedness of m a n w a s g r e a t
in t h e e a r t h , a n d t h a t e v e r y i m a g i n a t i o n of the t h o u g h t s of his h e a r t
w a s o n l y evil c o n t i n u a l l y . " R o w l a n d p o i n t s o u t t h e i r o n y of t h e
angelic r e v e l a t i o n a p p e a r i n g in a n a p o c a l y p t i c text: " O n e c a n o n l y
a s s u m e t h a t t h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n E n o c h a n d t h e angels is
t h e fact t h a t m a n receives t h e h e a v e n l y m y s t e r i e s b y m e a n s of revelation, w h e r e a s angels a r e guilty of e x p o s i n g t h e h e a v e n l y m y s t e r i e s
to m a n w i t h o u t G o d ' s p e r m i s s i o n . ' " 8 So, e v e n in die case of t h e angels
revealing knowledge, it seems d i a t divine p a r a m e t e r s w e r e transgressed.
In chapter 9 the archangels (Michael, Surafel, a n d Gabriel) are
o b s e r v i n g t h e e a r t h . T h e y b e s e e c h G o d to d o s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e
evil t h a t is u p o n t h e e a r t h , saying:
[6] You see what Azazel has done; how he has taught all (forms o f )
oppression u p o n the earth. A n d they revealed eternal secrets which
are performed in heaven (and which) m a n learned. [7] (Moreover)
Semyaz, to whom you have given power to rule over his companions,
co-operating, they went in unto the daughters of the people of the
earth; [8] and they lay together with themwith those w o m e n a n d
defiled themselves, and revealed to them every (kind o f ) sin. [9] As
for the women, they gave birth to giants to the degree that the whole
earth was filled with blood.
G o d d e c i d e s t h a t a d e l u g e will be sent to p u r i f y t h e w o r l d , a n d N o a h
is w a r n e d (10:13). G o d t h e n s e n d s R a p h a e l to b i n d A z a z e l a n d cast
h i m i n t o d a r k n e s s (10:5). R a p h a e l is said t o m a k e a h o l e i n t h e d e s e r t
t h a t w a s in D u d a e l a n d cast h i m t h e r e . T h i s is i n t e r e s t i n g i n light
of L e v 16, in w h i c h t h e g o a t t h a t is o f f e r e d f o r A z a z e l is sent o u t
17
For other texts re: Azazel see: Lev 16:8, 10, 26; 1 En. 8:1, 9:6, 10:4-8, 13:1,
54:5-6, 55:4, 69:2; Apoc. Abr. 13:6-14, 14:4-6, 20:6-7.
18
C. Rowland, The Open Heaven (New York: Crossroads, 1982) 93-94.
i n t o t h e d e s e r t o n t h e D a y of A t o n e m e n t . G a b r i e l is sent " t o p r o c e e d a g a i n s t t h e b a s t a r d s a n d r e p r o b a t e s a n d a g a i n s t t h e c h i l d r e n of
a d u l t e r y . . . a n d expel t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e W a t c h e r s f r o m a m o n g t h e
p e o p l e " (10:9). Lastly, M i c h a e l is sent to " M a k e k n o w n to S e m y a z a
a n d the others w h o are with h i m , w h o fornicated with the w o m e n ,
t h a t t h e y will die t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e m in t h e i r d e f i l e m e n t " (10:11).
Interestingly, in 1 En. 1 2 - 1 3 , E n o c h is called u p o n by the W a t c h e r s
to i n t e r c e d e o n t h e i r b e h a l f . T h i s i r o n i c twist h a s a h u m a n in h e a v e n
p l e a d i n g o n b e h a l f of angels w h o a r e o n t h e e a r t h . T h e a n g e l s h a v e
t r a n s g r e s s e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s a n d left
tiieir
natural position,
while
E n o c h h a s b e e n c h o s e n by G o d a n d b r o u g h t u p i n t o t h e i r a b o d e .
A n u m b e r of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d f o r t h e
present
state of t h e text. B o t h G . N i c k e l s b u r g a n d P. H a n s o n h a v e a t t e m p t e d
t o link t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e t r a d i t i o n of t h e fallen W a t c h e r s w i t h
Graeco-Roman
myths.19 In particular, Hesiod's
Tlieogony 1 8 5
and
H o m e r ' s Odyssey 7.59 b o t h m e n t i o n t h a t b l o o d f r o m h e a v e n m i n g l e d

w i t h t h e e a r t h to c r e a t e giants. T h e s e parallels a r e interesting, b u t t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this n a r r a t i v e h a s b e e n p u s h e d f u r t h e r by M . B a r k e r
a n d especially D . Suter. 2 0 1). S u t e r locates in 1 E n o c h a c o n c e r n f o r
p u r i t y in t h e priestly b l o o d l i n e , w h i c h h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a
m y t h a b o u t angels w h o p r o c r e a t e w i t h w o m e n a n d m i x b l o o d . T h i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is p a r t i c u l a r l y i l l u m i n a t i n g f o r t h e p r e s e n t discussion.
It is also in k e e p i n g w i t h H e n d e l ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 , in
w h i c h t h e m i x i n g of t h e t w o t y p e s of b e i n g s w a s a l r e a d y a f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m a n d c a u s e of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n in t h e F l o o d . H e r e t h e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e sin of t h e a n g e l s is t o g o t o e a r t h a n d c o p ulate w i t h h u m a n w o m e n is m o r e explicit. A n a d d i t i o n a l sin is t o
t e a c h h u m a n s v a r i o u s types of h i d d e n k n o w l e d g e .
T h u s , t h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s is a n early t r a d i t i o n , b u t it d o e s still
s e e m to d e p e n d u p o n t h e c o r e n a r r a t i v e in G e n 6. V i r t u a l l y all s u b s e q u e n t i n t e r p r e t e r s of t h e W a t c h e r s n a r r a t i v e likely h a d s o m e a w a r e -
19
G. Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11," pp. 383-405;

P. Hanson, "Rebellion in Heaven, Azazel, and Euhermeristic Heroes in 1 Enoch 6-11"
JBL 96 (1977) 195-233. See also J . Coffins, "Methodological Issues in the Study
of I Enoch: Reflections on the Articles of P. Hanson and G. Nickelsburg" SBLSP
(1978) 315-322, with responses in the same volume by Hanson (pp. 307-309) and
Nickelsburg (pp. 311-314).
20
M. Barker, The Older Testament (London: SPCK, 1987) 8-80; D. Suter, "Fallen
Angel, Fallen Priest: The Problem of Family Purity in 1 Enoch 6-16" HUCA 50
(1979) 115-135.
ness of t h e k i n d s of i d e a s t h a t d e v e l o p e d in 1 E n o c h . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
it is m a d e explicit t h a t t h e d i v i n e b e i n g s w h o c a m e t o e a r t h w e r e
angels, e v e n n a m e d angels. O n e of t h e i r t r a n s g r e s s i o n s w a s t o h a v e
relations w i t h h u m a n w o m e n a n d s p a w n g i a n t h y b r i d offspring, b u t
a n o t h e r w a s to t e a c h h u m a n s m a n y secrets. As J . K l a w a n s
points
o u t , " T h e w a t c h e r s e n g a g e in sexually defiling b e h a v i o r w h i c h leads

to t h e i r p e r m a n e n t d e g r a d a t i o n a n d t h e i r exile f r o m H e a v e n . " 2 1
6.3
The
Septuagint
It is i m p o r t a n t to see h o w t h e key H e b r e w t e r m s ( ; ;
a n d ) of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 w e r e t r a n s l a t e d in t h e L X X to g a i n insight
i n t o t h o s e i n t e r p r e t e r s ' i d e a s a b o u t a n g e l s in t h e S e c o n d
Temple
p e r i o d . " S o n s of G o d " ( ) is a r a r e t e r m in t h e
Hebrew
S c r i p t u r e s ; besides its t w o o c c u r r e n c e s in G e n 6, it a p p e a r s only in

Job
1:6, 2:1, a n d 38:7 (all t h r e e a r e ;) Ps 29:1 ( , (
8 2 : 6 ("gods, a n d sons of t h e M o s t H i g h " ( ;)) a n d D a n

3:25 ( ) . T h e t h r e e cases in J o b a n d o n e in D a n i e l a r e r e n d e r e d w i t h , w h i l e t h e o t h e r s a r e r e n d e r e d literally. 111 e a c h
c a s e , t h e " s o n s of G o d " s e e m s to r e f e r to divine beings. 2 2
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , in t h e t w o o c c u r r e n c e s in G e n 6:2 a n d 4 t h e text
s e e m s to h a v e m a i n t a i n e d this t e r m , using to t r a n s l a t e
it directly. 2 3 O n e version ( C o d e x A) h a s oi at v. 2,
b u t , as P. A l e x a n d e r p o i n t s o u t , this is n o t likely to h a v e b e e n t h e
original r e a d i n g . 2 4 T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this a r e n o t entirely clear. It
c o u l d m e a n t h a t t h e translators w e r e n o t a w a r e of the line of tradition,
s u c h as in 1 E n o c h , t h a t w a s i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e "sons of G o d " as angels.
C o n v e r s e l y , it m a y r e p r e s e n t a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t s u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a d o n . T h i r d l y , it m a y r e p r e s e n t s o m e a m b i v a l e n c e t o w a r d t h e question,
21
J. Klawans, Sin and Impurity in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2000) 57.
22
B. Byrne, "Sans of God""Seed of Abraham": A Study of the Idea of Sonship of God
of All Christians in Paul against the Jewish Background (Rome: Pontifical Institute, 1979)
10-23, provides a good survey of the range of meaning for "son of God" as angelic
beings. See also "Son of God" in ABD 6:129, and S. Parker, "Sons of (the) G0d(s)"
in DDD, pp. 1499-1510.
23
Symmachus translates "sons of the powerful ones []"; Theodotion
"sons of God"; and Aquila "sons of gods []."
24
P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis of 'Sons of God' in Genesis
6" JJS 23 (1972) 60-71.
so t h a t a literal t r a n s l a t i o n w a s a d o p t e d . T h e q u e s t i o n is likely n o t
a n s w e r a b l e , b u t a t least o n e v a r i a n t of t h e L X X d o e s d e m o n s t r a t e t h e
r e a d i n g , so s u c h a r e a d i n g w a s a t least possible.
T h e L X X t r a n s l a t e s b o t h t h e t e r m a n d as , 2 5 d e m o n s t r a t i n g t w o i n t e r p r e t i v e m o v e s . First, t h e N e p h i l i m a n d
t h e G i b o r i m a r e e q u a t e d . A l t h o u g h this is t h e likely i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
it is n o t explicit in t h e H e b r e w . S e c o n d , t h e s e b e i n g s w e r e u n d e r s t o o d as " g i a n t s . " N u m
1 3 : 3 2 - 3 3 echoes the same idea
regarding
t h e N e p h i l i m , a g a i n t r a n s l a t i n g t h e i r n a m e s as " g i a n t s " a n d s t a t i n g
t h a t t h e y a r e h u m a n s of e n o r m o u s s t a t u r e :
[32] So they brought to the people of Israel an evil report of the land
which they h a d spied out, saying, " T h e land, through which we have
gone, to spy it out, is a land that devours its inhabitants; and all the
people that we saw in it are men of great stature. [33] And there we
saw the Nephilim [] (the sons of Anak, who come from the
Nephilim); a n d we seemed to ourselves like grasshoppers, a n d so we
seemed to them."
A n o t h e r text hints t h a t gigantic features belong to
h y b r i d s . JA
angel-human
2 2 : 7 ~ 8 states of (die h e a v e n l y ) J a c o b :
[7] And Aseneth saw him a n d was amazed at his beauty, because
J a c o b was exceedingly beautiful to look at, and his old age (was) like
the youth of a handsome (young) man, a n d his head was all white as
snow, and the hairs of his head were all exceedingly close and thick
like those of an Ethiopian, and his b e a r d (was) white reaching down
to his breast, and his eyes (were) flashing and darting (flashes of) lightning, and his sinews and his shoulders a n d his arms were like those
of an angel, and his thighs and calves a n d his feet like (those) of a
giant. [8] And J a c o b was like a m a n who had wrestled with God. 2 6
T h e parallels h e r e a r e i n t r i g u i n g . B o t h t h e b e i n g s in G e n 6:1 4 a n d
J a c o b in this text a r e h y b r i d s , b e i n g b o t h h u m a n a n d divine (in JA
explicitly said to b e " a n g e l i c , " a n d in t h e L X X version of G e n
this is at least a possible reading). I n b o t h cases, g i g a n t i s m is p a r t

of t h e i r h y b r i d n a t u r e . 2 7
25
On the Greek background to this term, see DDD, pp. 649-653.

C. Burchard, OTP 2:238.
27
In the Book of Elchasai as recorded in fragments in Hippolytus, Ref. 9.13.2-3
(third century CE), an angel is said to have gigantic features: "It had been communicated by an angel, whose height was 24 schoinoi, which is 96 miles, his breath
four schoinoi, and from shoulder to shoulder six schoinoi, and the tracks of his feet
in length 3.5 schoinoi, which is 14 miles, and in breadth 1.5 schoinoi, and in height
half a schoinos (translation: J. Irmscher in E. Hennecke, New Testament Apocrypha
[London: Lutterworth Press, 1965] 747-748).
26
T h u s , t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e L X X is u n c l e a r as to w h e t h e r t h e
" s o n s of G o d " a r e u n d e r s t o o d specifically as angels in t h e earliest
versions. T h e L X X a u t h o r s o p t e d for a literal t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e t e r m .
T h e L X X ' s c h o i c e t o m a i n t a i n s o n s of G o d ( ) is i n t e r p r e t a t i v e l y a m b i g u o u s , b u t at least o n e v a r i a n t d o e s s h o w oi
. T h e N e p h i l i m a n d G i b o r i m a r e e q u a t e d b y t h e i r c o m m o n
r e n d e r i n g as " g i a n t s " (). T h i s s e e m s t o suggest a n
ongoing
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e o f f s p r i n g as g i a n t s (1 En. a n d L X X ) in t h e e a r l y
p a r t of t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d .
6.4
The Dead Sea Scrolls
A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e n o f r a g m e n t s of G e n 6:14 a m o n g t h e e x t a n t
D e a d S e a Scrolls, a n u m b e r of texts t a k e t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n f r o m t h e
G e n 6 n a r r a t i v e : t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n (Gen. Apoc), t h e B o o k of
Giants, and some fragments.28
M o s t scholars date the Genesis A p o c r y p h o n ( 1 Q a p G e n a r =
1Q20)
to t h e e n d of t h e first c e n t u r y B C E o r early first c e n t u r y C E . 2 9 T h e

g e n r e of t h e G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o n is still a m a t t e r of scholarly debate. 3 0
It s e e m s to b e a r e w r i t t e n version of G e n 5 1 5
T h a t t h e text s e e m s
to k n o w G e n 6 a n d especially 1 E n o c h is clear. T h e first e x t a n t colu m n , c o l u m n 2, c o n t a i n s a discussion b e t w e e n L a m e c h a n d his wife

B a t e n o s h (cf. Jub.
4:28). T h e first 18 lines state:
[1] Behold, I thought then within my heart that conception was (due)
to the Watchers [ ]a n d the Holy O n e s . . . and to the Giants
[]
[2] and my heart was troubled within m e because of this child.
[3] T h e n I, Lamech, approached Bathenosh [my] wife in haste a n d
said to her,
[4] [ . . . ] by the Most High, the Great Lord, the King of all the universe and Ruler of
[5] [. . .]the Sons of Heaven [], until you tell m e all things
truthfully . . .
[6] You will and without lies let me know whether this
28
4Q252 col. 1:2-3, however, reflects Gen 6:3 closely, stating, "And God said:
'My spirit will not reside in man for ever. Their days shall be fixed at one hundred and twenty years until the end of the waters of the flood.' " The complete
form of this text may well have included the whole of the Gen 6:1-4 narrative,
though it cannot be known for certain.
29
N. Avigad and Y. Yadin, A Genesis Apocryphon (Jerusalem: Magnus Press, 1956) 38.
50
See HJPAJC IIIi:318-25.
[7] by the King of the all the universe that you are speaking to me
frankly and without lies
[8] T h e n Batenosh, my bride, spoke to me veiy harshly, she wept
[9] saying. " O h my brother, my Lord, r e m e m b e r my pleasure!
[10] [. . .] the time of love, the gasping of my breath in my breast. I
[. . .] will tell you everything accurately
[11] [ . . . ] and then within m e my heart was very upset
[121 W h e n Batenosh, my wife, realized that my countenance h a d
altered
[13] then she suppressed her anger, speaking to m e and saying to me,
" O my lord
[14] my pleasure. I swear to you by the Holy Great O n e , the King
of [the heavens] . . .
[15] that this seed is yours and that [this] conception is f r o m you.
This fruit was planted by you . . .
[16] a n d by n o s t r a n g e r or W a t c h e r [ ]or Son of H e a v e n
[ ] . . .
[17] [Why] is your countenance thus changed and dismayed, and why
is your spirit thus distressed . . .
[18] I speak to you truthfully."
L a m e c h is c o n c e r n e d t h a t his child ( N o a h ) m a y b e the o f f s p r i n g of
t h e W a t c h e r s (). I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e y a r e j u x t a p o s e d w i t h
"Holy
O n e s " in e a c h o c c u r r e n c e j u s t as in t h e B o o k of D a n i e l (4:10, 14,

20). T w o o t h e r tides u s e d in t h e f r a g m e n t a r e n o t e w o r t h y . " S o n s of
H e a v e n 5 ' is a n o t i i e r t h a t seems to refer to t h e s a m e beings as W a t c h e r s
a n d H o l y O n e s , a n d c o n n e c t s t h e b e i n g s m o r e closely w i t h t h e divine
t h a n t h e h u m a n . T h e N e p h i l i m a r e also m e n t i o n e d (v. 1), a n d t h e r e
m a y b e s o m e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e y a r e e q u i v a l e n t to t h e
Watchers
( H o l y O n e s ) , b u t this is n o t c e r t a i n d u e to t h e f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e
of t h e text.
T h e m o s t i n t r i g u i n g a s p e c t of Gen. Apoc. is t h a t B a t h e n o s h
must
c o n v i n c e h e r h u s b a n d , L a m e c h , t h a t she is p r e g n a n t t h r o u g h
him
a n d n o t a n y s u p e r h u m a n b e i n g . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n of t h e story is t h a t
s o m e t h i n g a b o u t N o a h ' s a p p e a r a n c e a t b i r t h h a s led L a m e c h
to
believe h e is a b n o r m a l , p e r h a p s s u p e r h u m a n , a n d to ask w h e t h e r
t h e c h i l d is his o w n . T h i s e x p a n s i o n is v e r y m u c h like t h a t seen in
1 En. 106. 3 1 B a t h e n o s h ' s p r o t e s t s a r e explicit, r e m i n d i n g L a m e c h of
h e r p l e a s u r e in t h e i r s e x u a l u n i o n . S h e d e n i e s t h a t a n y o n e b u t h i m
h a s f a t h e r e d t h e i r s o n , s a y i n g it w a s b y n o " s t r a n g e r , o r W a t c h e r
o r son of H e a v e n . "
81
For the discussion of 1 En. 106 on Noah as angebe, see 3.4 above.
Gen. Apoc. i n d i c a t e s t h a t , f o r a t least o n e a u t h o r , a b i r t h t h a t h a d

b e e n c o n c e i v e d b y t h e m i x i n g of h u m a n a n d divine stock w a s possible. If Gen. Apoc. picks u p o n t r a d i t i o n s in 1 E n o c h , t h e n w e c a n
see t h e t r a d i t i o n r e c o r d e d in m o r e t h a n o n e text. T h e a u t h o r d i d
n o t c h o o s e to use t h e t e r m f o r a n g e l ( ) , as in L X X (A) a n d
1 E n o c h ; h o w e v e r , t h e r e is c e r t a i n l y m e n t i o n of b e i n g s w h o a r e f r o m
h e a v e n (of divine origin), w h o s e e m to b e distinct f r o m h u m a n beings
b u t w h o a r e still a b l e to a c t b o t h in the h e a v e n s a n d o n e a r t h . T h i s
m a y o n l y reflect t h e a u t h o r ' s i d e a s a b o u t e v e n t s in t h e a n t e d i l u v i a n
p a s t , b u t it gives us a g l i m p s e i n t o h o w t h e a u t h o r m i g h t h a v e p e r c e i v e d t h e a c t i o n s of h e a v e n l y b e i n g s i n his o w n t i m e .
A B o o k of G i a n t s t h a t c i r c u l a t e d a m o n g t h e M a n i c h e a n s ( M a n i ,
t h i r d c e n t u r y C E ) h a s b e e n k n o w n to s c h o l a r s f o r s o m e time. 3 2 M o r e
recendy, a Book of G i a n t s f r o m Q u m r a n h a s b e e n identified ( 1 Q 2 3 - 2 4 ,
4 Q 5 3 0 - 5 3 1 , a n d 6 Q 8 , a n d possibly others). 3 3 D a t e s f o r t h e Q u m r a n
B o o k of G i a n t s v a r y b u t likely lie s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e late t h i r d
a n d m i d d l e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E , so it is a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e f o r
this p e r i o d . 3 4 T h e
Manichean
r e l a t i o n of t h e Q u m r a n B o o k of G i a n t s to t h e
o n e is u n c l e a r , especially b e c a u s e of t h e
fragmentary
n a t u r e of m o s t of t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e . T h e M a n i c h e a n text m a y
d e p e n d o n t h e Q u m r a n text in s o m e w a y , b u t t h e r e is n o w a y t o
b e c e r t a i n . T h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e is t h u s t a k e n o n its o w n a n d is
n o t s u p p l e m e n t e d b y t h e M a n i c h e a n texts. 3 5
T h e Q u m r a n f r a g m e n t s r e p r e s e n t a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 : 1 - 4
similar t o 1 E n o c h . T h e m e r e f a c t t h a t a n e n t i r e b o o k w a s d e d i c a t e d to s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e g i a n t s i n d i c a t e s t h e i m p a c t t h e G e n
6 p a s s a g e h a d o n a t least o n e a u t h o r a n d
community.
T h e f r a g m e n t a r y n a t u r e of t h e e x t a n t Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e
makes
a n y a s s e s s m e n t of t h e p u r p o s e o r g e n r e of t h e B o o k of G i a n t s at
32
For the Manichean text, see W. Henning, "The Book of Giants" BSOAS 11
(1943-1946) 52-74.
33
J. Milik, The Book of Enoch, pp. 298-339, first identified 13 fragments as belonging to a Qumran Book of Giants. L. Stuckenbruck has put out a critical edition
of all the fragments of the Book of Giants from among the Dead Sea Scrolls: The
Book of Giants from Qumran (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997). I have based my translations on the text given in the latter.
34
L. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants, p. 31.
35
J. Reeves, Jewish Lore in Manichean Cosmogony: Studies in the Book of Giants Traditions
(Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1992) 207-209, suggests that Jewish traditions did exert a determinative force on Mani's cosmology. Reeves includes in
"Jewish influence" Gen 6, 1 En., and other works. He does not necessarily see any
direct influence (contra J. Mlik, Enoch, pp. 298-339).
Q u m r a n difficult, if n o t impossible. T a k e n t o g e t h e r , t h e f r a g m e n t s
s h o w a n interest in t h e giants, n a m i n g t h e m (two h a v e B a b y l o n i a n
n a m e s ) , a n d in E n o c h as a n i n t e r p r e t e r of d r e a m s , suggesting a story
similar to 1 E n o c h b u t o n e t h a t e l a b o r a t e s u p o n the o f f s p r i n g giants.
W h a t p u r p o s e s u c h a text w o u l d h a v e s e r v e d r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n .
T h r e e f r a g m e n t s a r e of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e v a r i o u s
key
w o r d s (e.g., N e p h i l i m , etc.) a p p e a r in t h e text: 4 Q 2 0 3 f r a g m e n t s 7

a n d 8, a n d 4 Q 5 3 1 f r a g m e n t 5.
4 Q 2 0 3 f r a g m e n t 7 is s h o r t b u t refers t o A z a z e l , G i b o r i m ,
and
p r o b a b l y t h e W a t c h e r s (which is r e s t o r e d f r o m a n initial a n d a
final
s e e m i n g l y w i t h s p a c e for ( 36 .(
[6] us [ b u t . . .]h Aza[z]e1 and made h [ i m . . .]

[7] the giants [ ]and the Wa[tellers]. All [their] c0[mpa11i0ns] will
rise up [against. . .]
T h i s f r a g m e n t is t o o s h o r t to b e c e r t a i n of its l a r g e r c o n t e x t , b u t
the m e n t i o n of A z a z e l , t h e G i b o r i m , a n d the W a t c h e r s s e e m s to situ a t e it w i t h i n t h e s c o p e of G e n 6, 1 E n o c h a n d t h e i r
interprta-
tions. T h i s m a k e s sense g i v e n t h a t t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t of t h e B o o k of
G i a n t s is t h e h y b r i d offspring, giants.
T h e n e x t f r a g m e n t ( 4 Q 2 0 3 f r a g m e n t 8) is m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l , b u t
its e v i d e n c e is still p a r t i a l . It states:
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
T h e boo[k . . .]
vacat
A copy of the s[ec0]nd tablet of the 1[etter . . . ]
in a writing by the h a n d of Enoch, the scribe of righteousness
[...]
[5] and the Holy O n e to Sheinihazah and to all (his) c o m p a n i o n s . . .]

[6] "Let it be known to you t h [ a t . . .]/[. . . ]
[7] your deeds a n d those of (your) wives [. . . ]
[8] [. . . ] those [. . . ] son[s and] the wives of [. ..]
[9] through your fornication on the earth, for it has [. . .]
[10] accusing you regarding the deeds of your sons [ . . .]
[11] the corruption which you have committed on it [. . .]
[12] until the coming of Raphael. Behold d e s t r u c t i o n . . .]
[13] those who are in the deserts and those who are in the seas. And
the interpretation of [ . . .]
[14] evil upon you. So, now, set loose what you hold mh[.. ]
[15] and pray. [. . .]
36
L. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants, p. 78.
It is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t this p a s s a g e m e n t i o n s E n o c h as a scribe of righteousness, since in 1 En. 12:4, E n o c h is called u p o n b y t h e W a t c h e r s

to i n t e r c e d e o n t h e i r b e h a l f . T h i s m a y suggest a similar c o n t e x t f o r
diis f r a g m e n t . T w o angels a r e n a m e d explicitly in this text, S h e m i h a z a h
(1 En.) a n d R a p h a e l ( T o b i t , 1 Q M , 1 En., Apoc. Mos.). T h i s very m u c h
e c h o e s 1 En.
11, w h e r e t h e a r c h a n g e l s i n t e r c e d e o n b e h a l f of
h u m a n s a n d a r e g i v e n tasks by G o d . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n of " f o r n i c a t i o n
o n t h e e a r t h " a n d " c o r r u p t i o n " s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t this is t h e case.
O n e o t h e r f r a g m e n t ( 4 Q 5 3 1 f r a g m e n t 5) m e n t i o n s t h e giants:
.] they defiled themselves [.. .]
[1]
.] Giants [ ]and Nephilim [] ]j . . . ]
[]
.] they begat. Behold k[. . .].
[3]
.] in its blood, and by means of mh[. . . 1
W
.] because it was not enough for them and for [.
[5]
.] and they d e m a n d e d much to eat ml[ ]
[6]
[7] vacat
[. . .] [. . .] the Nephilim [ ]destroyed it [. . .]
H e r e t h e N e p h i l i m a r e m e n t i o n e d a l o n g w i t h the G i b o r i m . T h e y s e e m
to b e linked w i t h d e f i l e m e n t a n d t h e c o r r u p t i o n of t h e e a r t h , if w e
a s s u m e a c o n t e x t similar to t h a t of 1 E n o c h a n d t h e texts a l r e a d y
discussed.
O v e r a l l , t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e B o o k of G i a n t s is q u i t e limited,
b u t it d o e s s h o w t h a t a t least o n e c o m m u n i t y w a s greatly e x p a n d ing u p o n t h e t r a d i t i o n s of G e n 6 a n d
1 Enoch. T h e r e the
term
" a n g e l ( " ) d o e s n o t explicitly o c c u r , b u t s o m e n a m e d angels a r e

m e n t i o n e d . C e r t a i n l y , t h e i d e a of divine b e i n g s a n d h u m a n s c o p u lating was picked u p a n d
expanded.
T h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t ( C D ) w a s first k n o w n to s c h o l a r s f r o m
t h e m a n u s c r i p t s f o u n d in t h e C a i r o G e n i z a h a t t h e e n d of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . M a n y f r a g m e n t s of C D w e r e p r e s e n t a t
Qiimran.
4 Q 2 6 7 f r a g m e n t 2 a n d 4 Q 2 7 0 f r a g m e n t 1 discuss the W a t c h e r s w h o
fell f r o m h e a v e n . 3 7 T h e y a r e listed in a section t h a t discusses s i n n e r s
a n d r i g h t e o u s figures f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible. T h e W a t c h e r s b e g i n a
list of figures f r o m t h e H e b r e w Bible w h o s u f f e r e d specifically b e c a u s e
t h e y did n o t k e e p t h e p r e c e p t s of G o d . C D says of t h e W a t c h e r s :
37
Both fragments are largely reconstructed from the Genizah manuscripts. Cf.
DJB XVIII.
[16] . . . For many

[17] have failed due to them; mighty warriors [ ] have stumbled due to them, from the earliest times and until today, walking in
the stubbornness
[18] of their hearts, the Watchers [ ]of the heavens fell; on account
of it they were caught, for they did not follow the precepts of God.
[19] And their sons, whose height was like that of cedars and whose
bodies were like mountains when they fell. (4Q267 frag. 2)
N o t a b l y , h e r e t h e W a t c h e r s fall b e c a u s e t h e y fail to follow t h e p r e c e p t s of G o d , p r e s u m a b l y to m a i n t a i n t h e i r c o r r e c t p l a c e in t h e cosm o s . Also, t h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e W a t c h e r s a r e said t o b e of e n o r m o u s
s t a t u r e , tall as c e d a r s a n d w i t h b o d i e s like m o u n t a i n s . F u r t h e r , t h e
W a t c h e r s a r e sinful in t h e i r a c t i o n s a g a i n s t G o d .
Lastly, f r a g m e n t s 4 Q 1 8 0 a n d 4 Q 1 8 1 , also k n o w n as " T h e A g e s
of C r e a t i o n , " d a t e to t h e first c e n t u r y C E . 3 8 T h e y d o n o t p r o v i d e
m u c h a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n b u t s e e m t o m a k e r e f e r e n c e to
the
1 E n o c h t r a d i t i o n . 4 Q J 8 0 says:
[7] [And] the interpretation concerning Azazel [ ]and the angels
[ ]who
[8] they bore to them giants []. And concerning Azazel [ . . .
[10] judgments a n d j u d g m e n t of the congregation . . .
A l t h o u g h t h e text is f r a g m e n t a r y , it a d d s to o u r overall collection of
e x t a n t texts t h a t s p e c u l a t e a b o u t the e v e n t s d e s c r i b e d in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 .
It also m e n t i o n s A z a z e l (discussed a b o v e ) a n d s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t
angels a n d h u m a n s h a d viable offspring. S i m i l a r to line 8 of 4 H 8 0 ,
4 Q 1 8 1 f r a g m e n t 2 line 2 says, ". . . m a n a n d b o r e to t h e m g i a n t s
[]. "
T o s u m u p , t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e D e a d S e a Scrolls is q u i t e v a r ied. Gen. Apoc. is a r e w o r k i n g of G e n e s i s . Its u n i q u e
interpretation
h a s L a m e c h c o n c e r n e d t h a t his son, N o a h , is n o t his o w n b u t t h e

son of t h e h e a v e n l y W a t c h e r s d u e to his f a n t a s t i c a p p e a r a n c e a t his
b i r t h . F r a g m e n t s f r o m w h a t h a s b e e n identified as a Q i i m r a n B o o k
of G i a n t s s h o w t h a t t h e h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g w a s a s u b j e c t w o r t h y of its
o w n text. T h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t a n d o t h e r f r a g m e n t s s h o w t h a t
the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 a n d 1 E n o c h w a s a l r e a d y q u i t e p e r v a sive in t h e l i t e r a t u r e f r o m Q u m r a n . All of this suggests t h a t 1 E n o c h
38
J. Allegro, DJD V (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968) 77-79.
w a s v e r y i n f l u e n t i a l a t Q i i m r a n , a n d it a d d s to t h e p i c t u r e of h o w
w i d e s p r e a d t h e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e G e n e s i s n a r r a t i v e o n t h e f a l l e n
W a t c h e r s h a d b e c o m e b y t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d .
6.5
The Book of Jubilees
T h e B o o k of J u b i l e e s (Jub.) is a t y p e of Biblical m i d r a s h o n t h e B o o k
of Genesis. 3 9 I t d a t e s to t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E a n d w a s f o u n d
a m o n g t h e w o r k s a t Q u m r a n , so it s e e m s likely t h a t t h e a u t h o r of
J u b i l e e s w o u l d h a v e k n o w n t r a d i t i o n s s e e n in 1 E n o c h . T h r e e passages a r e of interest. First, Jub.
4 : 1 5 says:
[15] And in the second week of the tenth jubilee, Mahalalel took for
himself a wife, Dinah, the daughter of Barakiel, the daughter of his
father's brother, as a wife. And she bore a son for him in the third
week of the sixth year. And he called him J a r e d because in his days
the angels of the Lord, who were called Watchers, came down upon
the earth in order to teach the sons of man, a n d perform j u d g m e n t
and uprightness upon the earth. 40
T h i s p a s s a g e says t h a t W a t c h e r s a r e " a n g e l s of t h e L o r d . "
The
W a t c h e r s a r e said t o h a v e c o m e to t h e e a r t h to t e a c h m e n a n d to
e x e c u t e j u d g m e n t . T h e t e a c h i n g a s p e c t of t h e i r visit to e a r t h p a r a l lels p a r t of t h e t r a d i t i o n in 1 En. 7 - 8 t h a t is n o t in t h e G e n e s i s passage. M o r e o v e r , as in 1 En. 20, t h e a r c h a n g e l s c a n a p p a r e n t l y also
b e r e f e r r e d t o as W a t c h e r s , since t h e y also " p e r f o r m j u d g m e n t a n d
u p r i g h t n e s s u p o n t h e e a r t h . " I n 4 : 1 6 t h e b i r t h of E n o c h is r e c o u n t e d .
Jub.
4 : 2 2 say t h a t E n o c h
[22] . . . wrote eveiything, and bore witness to the Watchers, the ones
who sinned with the daughters of m e n because they began to mingle
themselves with the daughters of men so they might be polluted. And
Enoch bore witness against them.
T h i s m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e i n t e r m i n g l i n g of t h e h e a v e n l y W a t c h e r s
w i t h h u m a n k i n d is a t r a n s g r e s s i o n (= sin) t h a t l e a d s to pollution. I n
this p a s s a g e , it is n o t explicit t h a t this m i n g l i n g n e e d e v e n p r o d u c e
offspring, b u t t h a t t h e i r u n i o n d i d i n d e e d p r o v e v i a b l e is m a d e c l e a r
39
For a discussion of the date and genre of Jubilees see 2.1a above; see also
HJPAJC 3i:309.
40
Translations by O. Wintermute, OTP 2:62 and 64.
in c h a p t e r 5. J u b i l e e s s e e m s to b e a w a r e of 1 En.
1 2 1 6 , in w h i c h
E n o c h , w h o is in the heavens, actually intercedes o n behalf of the fallen

o n e s (1 En.
Jub.
1 2 - 1 3 ) b u t says t h a t h e " b o r e witness a g a i n s t t h e m . "
5 : 1 - 2 is t h e p o i n t at w h i c h G e n 6 : 1 - 4 is r e c o u n t e d . 4 1
The
p a s s a g e says:
[1] And w h e n the children of men began to multiply on the surface
of the earth and daughters were born to them, the angels of the Lord
saw in a certain year of that jubilee that they were good to look at.
And they took wives for themselves from all those w h o m they chose.
And they bore children for them; and they were the giants. [2] And
injustice increased upon the earth, and all flesh corrupted its way; m a n
and cattle and beasts and birds and everything which walks on the
earth. And they all corrupted their way and their ordinances, and they
began to eat one another. And injustice grew upon the earth and every
imagination of the thoughts of all mankind was thus continually evil.
Jub. 5 : 1 2 c o n t a i n s t h r e e of t h e f o u r m a i n c o m p o n e n t s of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ,
lacking o n l y t h e m e n t i o n of t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e h u m a n life s p a n .
E a c h of t h e o t h e r a s p e c t s h u m a n p r o l i f e r a t i o n , angelic lust,
and
u l t i m a t e l y c o r r u p t i o n i s p r e s e n t . J u b i l e e s d o e s n o t a p p e a r to e x p a n d
u p o n t h e t r a d i t i o n , b u t it is explicit t h a t a n g e l s l o o k e d u p o n
the
h u m a n f e m a l e s a n d t o o k t h e m as wives. M o r e o v e r , it m a k e s c l e a r
t h a t t h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e u n i o n b e t w e e n t h e divine b e i n g s a n d h u m a n
f e m a l e s w e r e giants. A c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n is also m a d e b e t w e e n
the
arrival of t h e g i a n t s o n t h e e a r t h a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g of injustice in
the w o r l d . I n v. 4 G o d says, " I will w i p e o u t m a n a n d all
flesh
w h i c h I h a v e c r e a t e d f r o m u p o n t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h . " N o a h is
s p a r e d (v. 5). V e r s e 6 says of G o d , " A n d a g a i n s t his angels w h o m
h e h a d sent to t h e e a r t h h e w a s v e r y a n g r y . " T h e a n g e l t h e n says,
" A n d h e told us to b i n d t h e m in t h e d e p t h s of t h e e a r t h , " a n d t h e y
a r e b o u n d ( w . 6, 10). T h e o f f s p r i n g , n e v e r r e f e r r e d t o as giants, a r e
said to kill o n e a n o t h e r b e c a u s e G o d s e n d s o u t his s w o r d
among
t h e m ( w . 7, 9). G o d t h e n s p e a k s o u t a g a i n s t h u m a n i t y , saying (cf.

G e n 6:3) t h a t " M y spirit will n o t a b i d e in m a n f o r e v e r ; f o r t h e y a r e
flesh,
a n d t h e i r d a y s will b e o n e h u n d r e d t w e n t y y e a r s " (v. 9).
J . v a n R u i t e n h a s e x a m i n e d t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G e n 6 : 1 - 1 2 in
Jub. 5 : 1 - 1 9 in detail. 4 2 H e sees J u b i l e e s as b o t h utilizing G e n
6:1-4
41
Jub. 5:1-2 is also evinced in a small fragment from Qumran (11Q12 fragment
5). The text itself is fragmentary and adds little to the discussion of angels, so it
has not been given separate consideration.
42
J . van Ruiten, "The Interpretation of Genesis 6:1-12 in Jubilees 5:1-19" in
a n d also a d a p t i n g it as n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e a d a p t a t i o n s , h e says, s e e m
" n o t to b e c a u s e d by exegetical p r o b l e m s , b u t b y c u r r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e text." 4 3 H e is q u i t e c o r r e c t . I n p a r t i c u l a r , J u b i l e e s s e e m s
to b e well a w a r e of t h e story f r o m t h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s (1
En.)
a n d uses this m a t e r i a l freely as well as b e i n g b a s e d in t h e G e n e s i s

n a r r a t i v e , especially r e g a r d i n g t h e i d e a of t h e a n g e l s b e i n g sent by
G o d t o the w o r l d to t e a c h m a n b u t t u r n i n g a w a y f r o m G o d .
J u b i l e e s is t h e r e f o r e i n t e r e s t i n g f o r a n u m b e r of r e a s o n s . First, it
was present at Q u m r a n
a n d is r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h
both
1 Enoch and the L X X . Jubilees demonstrates dependence on both

G e n 6 a n d 1 E n o c h , w h i l e m a k i n g its o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d a d a p tations. T h e b e i n g s w h o c o m e to e a r t h a r e a n g e l s of G o d , c a l l e d
W a t c h e r s . T h e y a c t u a l l y s e e m to h a v e originally b e e n sent b y G o d ,
b u t s u b s e q u e n t l y , b e c a u s e t h e y c o p u l a t e d w i t h h u m a n females, t u r n e d
a w a y f r o m G o d a n d p o l l u t e d t h e m s e l v e s . T h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e angels
a n d h u m a n s a r e r e f e r r e d to as giants. T h e i r p o l l u t i o n l e a d s to t h e i r
b e i n g b o u n d a n d cast a w a y to a w a i t final j u d g m e n t . T h e g i a n t s a r e
c o m p e l l e d b y G o d to d e s t r o y o n e a n o t h e r , w h i l e h u m a n i t y , e x c e p t
for N o a h , is d e s t r o y e d b y t h e F l o o d .
6.6
In book
1 of t h e Antiquities,
Josephus
and. Philo
J o s e p h u s e x p o u n d s t h e G e n e s i s story.
L e a d i n g u p to discussion of N o a h a n d t h e F l o o d , J o s e p h u s d e s c r i b e s
h o w t h e seven g e n e r a t i o n s a f t e r S e t h slowly t u r n e d a w a y f r o m G o d .
U l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e is a m i n g l i n g w i t h angels:
[73] For m a n y angels of G o d [ ] consorted with women
and sired sons who were licentious [] a n d disdainful of every
virtue, such confidence had they in their strength; in fact the deeds
that tradition ascribes to them resemble the audacious exploits told by
the Greeks [] of the giants [],
J o s e p h u s says t h a t t h e beings w h o c o n s o r t e d w i t h w o m e n w e r e angels
of G o d . H e s e e m s to reflect a t r a d i t i o n in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e t y p e of
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in 1 E n o c h a n d s o m e of t h e D e a d S e a Scroll e v i d e n c e ,
w h e r e t h e h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g of angels a n d h u m a n s w e r e violent a n d
Studies in the Book ofJubilees, ed. M. Albani, J. Frey, and A. Longe (Tbingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 1997) 59-75.
43
J . van Ruiten, "The Interpretation of Genesis 6:1-12 in Jubilees 5:1-19," p. 74.
i g n o r a n t of v i r t u e . M o r e o v e r , J o s e p h u s n o t e s t h a t a c c o r d i n g to t r a dition t h e a c t i o n s of t h e s e a n g e l s r e s e m b l e t h o s e of t h e g i a n t s in
G r e e k l e g e n d . H e m a k e s this i n t e r p r e t a t i v e m o v e in o r d e r to m a k e
the story m o r e accessible to his G r a e c o - R o m a n a u d i e n c e , w h o w e r e
likely to b e a w a r e of t h e m y t h s r e g a r d i n g t h e giants. 4 4 J o s e p h u s t h e n
j u x t a p o s e s N o a h w i t h t h e ( u n r i g h t e o u s ) h y b r i d sons. N o a h tries t o
get t h e m t o c h a n g e t h e i r ways, b u t , realizing h e will b e u n s u c c e s s ful, h e takes his f a m i l y a n d leaves t h e a r e a (74). N o a h a n d his f a m ily a r e s p a r e d f r o m t h e F l o o d , while t h e h y b r i d sons a n d all of w i c k e d
h u m a n i t y a r e w i p e d o u t (76).
P h i l o h a s m u c h m o r e to say r e g a r d i n g G e n 6. H e d e v o t e s
an
e n t i r e treatise to t h e g i a n t s (Gig.), w h i l e also d e a l i n g w i t h the passage in Questions and Solutions on Genesis (QG ). T h e treatise " O n t h e
G i a n t s " is a n e x t e n d e d discussion of G e n 6 : 1 - 4 . H o w e v e r , t h e title
is s o m e w h a t m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of its c o n t e n t . T h e treatise is d i v i d e d
by m o d e r n s c h o l a r s i n t o 61 c h a p t e r s . O f these, t h e vast m a j o r i t y
( c h a p t e r s 1 9 - 5 7 ) a r e d e v o t e d t o a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of G o d ' s
nature
a n d t h e u n w o r t h i n e s s of flesh. H i s l o n g allegory is a digression f r o m

a n y t h i n g really r e l a t e d to t h e giants. I n t h e o t h e r
material118
a n d 5 8 6 1 t h e r e a r e t w o p a s s a g e s r e l e v a n t t o t h e p r e s e n t discussion. As seen in his o t h e r writings, P h i l o uses allegory to i n t e r p r e t

angels. I n c h a p t e r 6 h e says t h a t w h a t M o s e s ( T o r a h ) calls angels,
the p h i l o s o p h e r s (Greeks) call d e m o n s .
[6] "And w h e n the angels of G o d saw the daughters of m e n that they
were fair, they took to themselves wives from all, those whom they
chose" (Gen 6:2). It is Moses' custom to give the n a m e angels to those
whom other philosophers call demons [], souls that is, which
fly a n d hover in the air.
T h e discussion goes o n to e x p l a i n t h a t s u c h c r e a t u r e s a r e n o t m y t h
(9-11). Ultimately, Philo explains t h a t souls (), d e m o n s (),
a n d a n g e l s () a r e d i f f e r e n t n a m e s f o r t h e s a m e
underlying
p h e n o m e n o n , saying, " S o if y o u realize t h a t souls a n d d e m o n s a n d

angels a r e b u t d i f f e r e n t n a m e s for t h e s a m e o n e u n d e r l y i n g o b j e c t ,
44
The relationship with the giants of Greek mythology seems to be reflected in
Sib. Or. 2:227-232, which says: "Then Uriel, the great angel, will break the gigantic bolts, of unyielding and unbreakable steel, of the gates of Hades, not forged of
metal; he will throw them wide open and will lead the mournful forms to judgement, especially those of ancient phantoms, Titans and the Giants and such as the Flood
destroyed"' (translation by J. J. Coffins, in OTP 1:350-51). Also, one Greek ms. of
1 En. 9:9 reads where most read .
you will cast f r o m y o u t h a t most grievous b u r d e n , the fear of d e m o n s

or superstition" (16). M o r e o v e r , Philo says that:
[16] T h e common usage of men is to give the name of demon to bad
and good demons alike, and the name of soul to good and bad souls.
And so, too, you also will not go wrong if you reckon as angels, not
only those who are worthy of the name, who are as ambassadors backward and forwards between man and God and are rendered sacred
and inviolate by reason of glorious and blameless ministry, but also
those who are unholy and unworthy of the title.
T h e t e r m s "angels," " d e m o n s , " a n d "spirits" refer to the s a m e beings
for Philo. T h e t e r m "angels" c a n a p p l y to b o t h g o o d a n d evil angels.
T h i s interpretative m o v e m a y well stem f r o m the r e a d i n g in
his source text. T h e n o r m a l lot of angels is to be p u r e , w o r s h i p p i n g
God.
A f t e r his long exposition o n G o d ' s spirit, Philo e m p h a s i z e s t h a t
the m e n t i o n of giants in the T o r a h (by Moses) is n o t m y t h b u t c a n
be e x p l a i n e d as a n allegory of die origins of various types of m e n .
[58] "Now the giants were on the earth in those days." Some may
think that the Lawgiver is alluding to the myths of the poets about
the giants, but indeed myth-making is a thing most alien to him, and
his mind is set on following in the steps of truth and nothing but
truth. . . . So, then, it is no myth at all of giants that he sets before
us; rather he wishes to show you that some men are earth-born, some
heaven-born, and some G o d - b o r n . . .
First, Philo denies t h a t the story is m y t h akin to the G r e e k writers
a b o u t the giants. His exegesis of G e n 6:4 is a n allegory explaining
t h a t t h e r e are t h r e e types of m e n : earthly, heavenly, a n d Godly. T h e
giants are considered earthlylustful a n d hedonistic. T h e e x e m p l a r
of these is N i m r o d (Gen 10:8), whose n a m e is said to m e a n "deserter."
A b r a m , t u r n e d A b r a h a m , is said to b e the p a r a d i g m of the heavenly
m a n w h o cultivates die m i n d a n d is totally focused on G o d . T h i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a l t h o u g h a n allegory, seems to h a r k back to 1 E n o c h ,
in w h i c h the angels a r e p u n i s h e d for their violence a n d indiscretion.
I n the QG 1:92 Philo discusses G e n 6:4 in detail:
Why were the giants born from angels and women? T h e poets relate
that the giants were earth-born, children of the earth. But he (Moses)
uses this name improperly [] and frequently when he
wishes to indicate excessive size of the body, after the likeness of Haik.
And he relates that their creation was a mixture of two things, of
angels and of mortal women. But the substance [] of angels is
spiritual []; however, it often happens that they imitate the

forms of m e n a n d for immediate putposes, as in respect of knowing
w o m e n for the sake of begetting giants. But if children become zealous emulators of maternal depravity, they will draw away f r o m paternal virtue and depart from it through contempt and arrogance toward
the better they are condemned as guilty of wilful wrongdoing. But
sometimes he calls the angels "sons of G o d " because they are made
incorporeal through no mortal m a n but are spirits without body. But
rather does that exhorter, Moses give to good and excellent m e n the
n a m e "sons of G o d , " while wicked and evil men, he calls "bodies." 45
Philo is explicit tiiat the giants a r e the offspring of h u m a n s a n d angels. 4 5
H e r e h e says t h a t t h e n a t u r e () of angels is spiritual (),
distinct f r o m e a r t h l y , w h i c h is in k e e p i n g w i t h his u s u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a n g e l s as spiritual b e i n g s a n d e v e n h e a v e n l y . P h i l o says
t h a t G e n e s i s d e s c r i b e s t h e g i a n t s as t h e o f f s p r i n g of h u m a n f e m a l e s
a n d angels, t h o u g h a n g e l s a r e a b l e to t a k e o n v a r i o u s f o r m s as n e c essary (). H e e q u a t e s d e p r a v i t y w i t h t h e f e m i n i n e a n d
virtue
w i t h t h e m a s c u l i n e . H e d o e s n o t explicitly m e n t i o n t h e g i a n t s as
d e p r a v e d , b u t it s e e m s logical to i n f e r t h a t P h i l o is saying t h e g i a n t s ,
w h o s e only h u m a n c o m p o n e n t w a s f e m a l e , fell into d e p r a v i t y b e c a u s e
t h e y i n c l i n e d t o w a r d t h e f e m i n i n e . 4 7 W h a t is c l e a r is t h a t t h e g i a n t s
w e r e t h e o f f s p r i n g of h u m a n s (earthly) a n d a n g e l s (spiritual) a n d t h a t
t h e y w e r e a s o u r c e of c o r r u p t i o n in t h e w o r l d . P h i l o also n o t e s t h a t
M o s e s (the T o r a h ) s o m e t i m e s uses t h e t e r m " s o n s of G o d " to r e f e r
to angels. T h u s , P h i l o s e e m s to b e a w a r e of b o t h " s o n s of G o d "
a n d " a n g e l s " as t e r m s f o r t h e b e i n g s w h o c a m e d o w n t o e a r t h t o
t a k e h u m a n wives.
T h e e v i d e n c e of J o s e p h u s a n d P h i l o tells us a n u m b e r of things.
First-century Hellenized J e w s were dealing with the G e n 6 passage.
I n t h e i r c o n t e x t , it s e e m s t h a t s o m e c o n n e c t i o n w a s m a d e b e t w e e n
the g i a n t s of G e n e s i s a n d g i a n t s in G r e e k m y t h s . T h e y b o t h u n d e r stood t h e "sons of G o d " as angels. T h a t angels c o p u l a t e d with w o m e n
d o e s n o t s e e m to h a v e p r e s e n t e d a n y p r o b l e m . W h e r e t h e r e is m o r e
45
English translation from F. Colson, Philo Supplement I (Cambridge, MA: Harvard,
1958) 60-61.
46
Philo also says that the beings were angels in Deus 1:1, "'And after this,' says
Moses, 'when angels of God [ ] went in unto the daughters of
men [] and they bore children to them.' "
47
On the issue of how Philo sees the female gender, see D. Sly, Philo's Perception
of Women (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1990) 91-110.
discussion is o v e r t h e n a t u r e of t h e offspring. T h e g i a n t s a r e u n d e r stood f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s as d e p r a v e d a n d c o r r u p t . T h i s t y p e of interp r e t a t i o n d o e s n o t c o m e f r o m G e n e s i s b u t a p p e a r s to d e r i v e f r o m

texts like 1 E n o c h .
6.7
Other Second Temple
Interpretations
T h r e e o t h e r texts t h a t likely d a t e t o o r n e a r t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e

p e r i o d a r e w o r t h y of d i s c u s s i o n : T h e t e s t a m e n t s of R e u b e n
Naphtali, and 2 Baruch.
48
and
T h e T e s t a m e n t of R e u b e n likely d a t e s
f r o m s o m e t i m e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E . 4 9 T h e t e s t a m e n t s p u r p o r t to b e s p e e c h e s b y e a c h of t h e twelve s o n s of J a c o b j u s t b e f o r e
t h e i r d e a t h . R e u b e n is t h e eldest son ( G e n 35:23). His s p e e c h largely
w a r n s a g a i n s t t h e vices of t h e flesh, b u t in p a r t i c u l a r R e u b e n w a r n s
of t h e d a n g e r s of w o m e n , b a s e d u p o n his o w n failing w i t h B i l h a h
( G e n 35:22). R e u b e n w a r n s his kin, " D o n o t d e v o t e y o u r a t t e n t i o n
to a w o m a n ' s looks, n o r live w i t h a w o m a n w h o is a l r e a d y m a r r i e d ,
n o r b e c o m e involved in t h e affairs widi w o m e n . " I n c h a p t e r 5 R e u b e n
says, " O r d e r y o u r wives a n d y o u r d a u g h t e r s n o t t o a d o r n t h e i r h e a d s
a n d t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e s so as to deceive m e n ' s s o u n d m i n d s . " H e t h e n
says in v. 6:
[6] For it was thus that they [women] charmed the Watchers, who
were there before the Hood. As they continued looking at the women,
they were filled with desire for them and perpetrated the act in their
minds. They were transformed into h u m a n males, and while the women
were cohabiting with their husbands they appeared to them. Since the
women's minds were filled with lust for these apparitions, they gave
birth to giants. For the W'atchers were disclosed to them as being as
high as the heavens.
T h i s line of t r a d i t i o n is u n i q u e in suggesting t h e r e w a s n o i n t e r c o u r s e
b e t w e e n t h e angels a n d h u m a n s . B l a m e f o r t h e fall of t h e angels is
placed squarely on the w o m e n w h o c h a r m e d the Watchers.30
The
48
Pseudo-Philo, L.A.B. 3:1-3 also discusses Gen 6:1-4, though there is very littie variation from the Genesis narrative.
49
II. Kee, "Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs" in OTP 1:777. Although there
may be some Christian interpolations, it seems that the main body of the text dates
from the second century BCE.
50
Some later interpreters share the idea that the women are culpable: Justin
Martyr (see below) and Pirqe R. El. 22:15.
angels lusted a f t e r t h e w o m e n a n d so c h a n g e d t h e i r f o r m i n t o h u m a n
m a l e s . T h e w o m e n , u p o n s e e i n g t h e m , lusted a f t e r t h e m a n d t h u s
g a v e b i r t h to t h e giants.
A s h o r t n o t e in T. Naph.
3 : 5 also m e n t i o n s the W a t c h e r s , saying,
"Likewise t h e W a t c h e r s d e p a r t e d f r o m n a t u r e ' s o r d e r ; t h e L o r d p r o n o u n c e d a c u r s e o n t h e m at t h e F l o o d . O n t h e i r a c c o u n t h e o r d e r e d
t h a t the e a r t h b e w i t h o u t d w e l l e r o r p r o d u c e . " 5 1 T h i s i n t e r e s t i n g passage r e i n f o r c e s t h e i d e a t h a t t h e fall of t h e angels w a s a t r a n s g r e s sion of t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r .
L a s d y , 2 B a r u c h , w h i c h exists t o d a y in a S y r i a c c o p y b u t
likely c o m e f r o m a G r e e k original, 5 2 is w i d e l y a c c e p t e d , b a s e d
has
on
i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e ( 3 2 : 2 4 , w h e r e t w o d e s t r u c t i o n s of t h e T e m p l e a r e
m e n t i o n e d ) , to b e p o s t - 7 0 C E . T h e w o r k s e e m s to s h a r e a close relat i o n s h i p w i t h 4 E z r a a n d also t h e L.A.B.
of P s e u d o - P h i l o . 2 B a r u c h
m a y possibly b e c i t e d in Ep. Bam. 61:7. T h u s , m o s t s c h o l a r s a c c e p t

a d a t e a r o u n d 100 C E for this a p o c a l y p s e . 5 3
T h e w o r k p r e s e n t s itself as a w r i t i n g b y B a r u c h of his revelations
d e a l i n g w i t h t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e First J e r u s a l e m T e m p l e (c. 5 8 7
B C E ) , b u t , as n o t e d , t h e a u t h o r is p r o b a b l y in f a c t c o m i n g to grips
with t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e . C h a p t e r 5 6 is p a r t of
the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a vision of d a r k c l o u d s a n d w a t e r s t h a t B a r u c h
h a s r e c e i v e d in c h a p t e r 53. H u m a n s a r e fallen a n d a r e a d a n g e r n o t
only to themselves, b u t to t h e angels. V e r s e s 1 0 1 5
state:
[10] For he who was a danger to himself [humankind] was also a

danger to the angels. [11] For they possessed a freedom in that time
in which they were created. [12] And some of them came down a n d
mingled themselves with women. [13] At that time they who acted
like this were tormented in chains. [14] But the rest of the multitude
of angels, who have no number, restrained themselves. [15] A n d those
living on earth perished together through the waters of the flood.
T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is like t h a t of t h e T e s t a m e n t of R e u b e n in t h a t
h u m a n s a r e c u l p a b l e f o r t h e a n g e l i c sin. It is also like 1 E n o c h a n d
o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s t h a t r e c o r d t h a t t h e angels w h o d i d sin w e r e p u n ished f o r t h e i r t r a n s g r e s s i o n . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t a n y o f f s p r i n g
were destroyed in the Flood.
By t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d , t h e m y t h a b o u t t h e s o n s of
51
52
53
H. Kee, OTP 1:812.

A. Klijn, OTP 1:615-616.
HJPAJC IIIii:752-753; OTP 1:616-617.
G o d a n d t h e g i a n t s m a i n t a i n e d in G e n 6 : 1 - 4 h a d b e e n
elaborated
u p o n c o n s i d e r a b l y . T h e i d e n t i t y of t h e " s o n s of G o d " as angels s e e m s

to h a v e b e e n widely r e c o g n i z e d . T h a t t h e s e a n g e l s d i d w r o n g
by
t r a n s g r e s s i n g divine b o u n d a r i e s a n d c o p u l a t i n g w i t h w o m e n is also
widely a c c e p t e d , as e v i n c e d in t h e s e texts.
6.8
Early
Christian
Writings
In t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e G e n 6 n a r r a t i v e c o n n e c t
t h e a n g e l s ' sin (their t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n h u m a n
a n d divine) w i t h evil in t h e w o r l d . O n e r e c e n t article h a s p o s i t e d a
c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p o r t r a y a l of t h e disciples in t h e G o s p e l of
M a r k a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n s r e l a t i n g to t h e W a t c h e r s . 5 4 R . S t r e l a n suggests t h a t " B y d e p i c t i n g t h e disciples in a guise r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e
l e g e n d a r y fallen W a t c h e r s , M a r k u r g e s w a t c h f u l n e s s a n d holiness in
C h r i s t i a n discipleship." 5 5 H i s assertion d o e s s e e m to p r e s s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s o m e t e r m s in M a r k , s u c h as t h e call to w a t c h f u l n e s s
in M a r k 13:37, b u t his i n t r i g u i n g suggestion s h o w s t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e
of t h e W a t c h e r s n a r r a t i v e c o u l d h a v e b e e n q u i t e p e r v a s i v e in t h e
t h i n k i n g of a n c i e n t a u t h o r s .
T h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e W a t c h e r s n a r r a t i v e is m o r e explicit in t h e
Epistle of J u d e . I n J u d e 5 1 0 , a n u m b e r of evildoers f r o m the H e b r e w
Bible a r e listed. First a m o n g t h e m , t h e a n g e l s () " t h a t d i d
n o t k e e p t h e i r o w n p o s i t i o n b u t left t h e i r p r o p e r d w e l l i n g h a v e b e e n
kept by h i m in e t e r n a l c h a i n s in t h e n e t h e r g l o o m until t h e j u d g m e n t of t h e g r e a t d a y " (v. 6). T h e a n g e l s a r e f o l l o w e d in this list
by t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h , " w h i c h likewise a c t e d
i m m o r a l l y a n d i n d u l g e d in u n n a t u r a l lust [
]." T h e link b e t w e e n
t h e t w o (angels a n d i n h a b i t a n t s of S o d o m a n d G o m o r r a h ) is t h a t
t h e y h a v e b e e n sexually i m p r o p e r (= pollution). It s e e m s highly p r o b a b l e , especially given t h e r e f e r e n c e to E n o c h as a s o u r c e in v. 15,
t h a t J u d e 6 is d e p e n d e n t o n 1 E n o c h as its s o u r c e f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n
of t h e a n g e l s w h o left t h e i r p l a c e a n d w e r e t h e n b o u n d until a final
judgment.56
54
R. Strelan, "The Fallen Watchers and the Disciples in Mark" JSP 20 (1999)
73-92.
55
R. Strelan, "The Fallen Watchers," p. 92.
56
R. Bauckham, 2 Peter, Jude (Waco, TX: Word, 1983) 43-55.
2 P e t e r 2:4 also m e n t i o n s t h e s a m e t r a d i t i o n . It s e e m s to d e p e n d
at least partially o n J u d e . 5 7 2 P e t 2:4 (cf. 1 P e t 3 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) states, " G o d
did n o t s p a r e t h e angels w h e n t h e y s i n n e d , b u t cast t h e m i n t o hell
a n d c o m m i t t e d t h e m to pits of n e t h e r g l o o m to b e k e p t until t h e
j u d g m e n t . " T h i s reflects t h e t r a d i t i o n seen in b o t h 1 E n o c h a n d in
J u b i l e e s a b o u t the p u n i s h m e n t of t h e fallen W a t c h e r s .
Lastly, o n e of t h e early apologists discusses this t r a d i t i o n . J u s t i n
M a r t y r ( s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E ) discusses G e n 6 o n t w o
occasions. 5 8
J u s t i n a p p e a r s to m a i n t a i n t h e t y p e of a n g e l t r a d i t i o n w e saw in
1 E n o c h , especially i n his r e f e r e n c e to t h e angels b r i n g i n g h i d d e n
k n o w l e d g e to h u m a n i t y . I n his s e c o n d A p o l o g y h e writes:
[5] But the angels transgressed this appointment, and were captivated
by love of women, and bore children who are those that are called
demons []; a n d besides, they aftetwards subdued the h u m a n
race to themselves, partly by magical writings, and partly by fears and
the punishments they occasioned, a n d partly by teaching them to offer
sacrifices, and incense, and libations, of which things they stood in
need after they were enslaved by lustful passions; and a m o n g m e n they
sowed murders, wars, adulteries, intemperate deeds, and all wickedness. Whence also the poets and mythologists, not knowing that it was
the angels a n d those demons who had been begotten by them that
did these things to men, a n d women, a n d cities, and nations, which
they related, ascribed them to G o d himself, and to those who were
accounted to be his very offspring, a n d to the offspring of those who
were called his brother, Neptune and Pluto, and to the children again
of these their offspring. For whatever n a m e each of the angels h a d
given to himself and his children, by that n a m e they called them.
J u s t i n places b l a m e u p o n t h e h u m a n f e m a l e s (cf. T. Reu).
H e cer-
tainly m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e lustful b e i n g s w e r e angels, t h a t t h e y w e r e

a b l e t o c o p u l a t e w i t h w o m e n , a n d t h a t o n c e t h e y h a d d o n e so, t h e y
r e v e a l e d secret k n o w l e d g e to h u m a n s , w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y leads to sin
a n d evil in t h e w o r l d (cf. 1 En).
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , J u s t i n d o e s n o t say
explicitly t h a t t h e offspring w e r e giants b u t instead calls t h e m d e m o n s .

T h i s m a y reflect a v a l u e j u d g m e n t o n t h e h y b r i d o f f s p r i n g as e x e m plifying t h e sin of t h e a n g e l s w i t h h u m a n w o m e n . J u s t i n s e e m s t o
d e p e n d o n a n u m b e r of t r a d i t i o n s , c e r t a i n l y G e n 6 a n d
a n d perhaps others.
57
58
R. Bauckharn, 2 Peter, Jude, pp. 245-257.

See also First Apology 5.
1 Enoch
J . V a n d e r K a m h a s s u r v e y e d t h e e v i d e n c e f o r C h r i s t i a n use of t h e
W a t c h e r s m y t h in C h r i s t i a n i t y t h r o u g h t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y C E . 5 9 H i s
survey s h o w s t h a t t h e m y t h , w h e t h e r directly o r indirectly
depen-
d e n t u p o n E n o c h , w a s w i d e s p r e a d in C h r i s t i a n circles: " C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
o n e m a y say t h a t C h r i s t i a n e m p l o y m e n t of t h e W a t c h e r m y t h is
attested t h r o u g h o u t the R o m a n
6.9
world."60
Later Jewish
Interpretations
T h e p r e d o m i n a n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e " s o n s of G o d " f r o m G e n 6:2

a n d 4 in the late S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d w a s t h a t t h e b e i n g s w e r e
angels. N o dissenting voice is h e a r d until R . S i m e o n b. Y o h a i in
Gen. Rah. 2 6 : 5 states, " R . S i m e o n b. Y o h a i called t h e m t h e s o n s of
t h e j u d g e s [ ;]R . S i m e o n b. Y o h a i c u r s e d all w h o called t h e m
'sons of G o d ' . " 6 1 T h i s s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t h e first of a n u m b e r of
r e a c t i o n s a g a i n s t b o t h t h e literal r e a d i n g of " s o n s of G o d " a n d also
a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e m as angels. 6 2
Tg. Onq. a n d
Tg. Ps.-J
call t h e b e i n g s of G e n 6:2 " s o n s of t h e
g r e a t o n e s [ ] . " Tg. Neo. r e f e r s to t h e b e i n g s as " t h e sons

of t h e j u d g e s [ ] , " w h i l e t h e m a r g i n a l n o t e s t o Tg. Neo. h a v e
. Tg. Onq. a n d Tg. Neo. a t G e n 6:4 call t h e b e i n g s G i b o r i m ,
b u t interestingly, Tg. Ps.J.
m e n t i o n s t h e angels S h a m a h a z i a n d Azazel
(cf. 1 En. 6 1 1 ) as h a v i n g fallen f r o m h e a v e n . 6 3 R e g a r d i n g t h e evid e n c e f r o m t h e T a r g u m i m , P. A l e x a n d e r c o n c l u d e s :

0. and JV. represent an exegesis which originated with the rabbis shortly
after the Second Jewish W a r a n exegesis which reflects the general
59
J. VanderKam, "Early Christian Uses of the Enochic Angel Story" in The
Jewish Apocalyptic Heritage in Early Christianity, ed. J . VanderKam and W. Adler
(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996) 60-88.
60
J. VanderKam, "Early Christian Uses of the Enochic Angel Story," p. 87.
61
Translation from J. Neuesner, Genesis Rabbah: The Judaic Commentary to the Book
of Genesis, A New American Translation, Brown Judaic Studies 104-106 (Atlanta, GA:
Scholars Press, 1985) 1:282.
62
P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis of 'Sons of God' in Genesis
6" JJS 23 (1972) 60-71. See also J. Bowker, The Targums and Rabbinic Literature: An
Introduction to Jewish Interpretati0?1s of Scripture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1969) 151-160.
63
P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis," p. 70 calls it "rather puzzling." It seems that Ps.J. is at least aware of traditions like those in 1 En. Alexander
suggests that Ps.-J. was changed in light of Tg. Onq.
struggle to wean Jews from beliefs out of keeping with the essence of
T o r a h Judaism. Ps-J. (in its original form) and Nmg. represent the old
Palestinian T a r g u m , current before the Second Jewish W a r , which the
0. tradition was intended to replace. 64
T h i s suggests t h a t t h e r e w a s a n o n g o i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e b e i n g s
of G e n 6:2 a n d 4 as angels. S o m e of t h e r a b b i n i c t r a d i t i o n
seems
to w o r k to dispel s u c h a r e a d i n g , b u t e v e n so, t h a t t r a d i t i o n
Neo. m a r g i n a l n o t e s a n d Tg. Ps.-J.)
(Tg.
reflects a n a n g e l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
Conclusions
T h e story of divine " s o n s of G o d " w h o c o m e to e a r t h to t a k e h u m a n
wives in G e n 6 : 1 4 is a n e n i g m a t i c tale t h a t w a s f o u n d a t i o n a l f o r
a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t of s u b s e q u e n t l i t e r a t u r e in the S e c o n d T e m p l e
p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d . F r o m early o n , e n t i r e w o r k s w e r e d e d i c a t e d t o
e x p o u n d i n g this tale. T h e B o o k of W a t c h e r s (1 En.
136 )seems to
h a v e b e e n a n early i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t m a d e c l e a r t h a t t h e b e i n g s
w e r e a n g e l s a n d t h e i r o f f s p r i n g giants. T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w a s a p p a r ently i n f l u e n t i a l t h r o u g h o u t t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d a n d b e y o n d .
T h e e v i d e n c e of t h e L X X w a s a m b i g u o u s , b u t at least o n e version
contained the term "angel." T h e evidence from Q u m r a n
showed
t h a t t h e story w a s c o m m o n a m o n g t h e e x t a n t texts. T h e f r a g m e n t s
of a B o o k of G i a n t s also s h o w t h a t t h e r e w a s significant s p e c u l a t i o n
a b o u t the h y b r i d offspring. M o r e o v e r , o t h e r f r a g m e n t s m a d e r e f e r e n c e
to t h e W a t c h e r s . C o p i e s of b o t h 1 E n o c h a n d J u b i l e e s w e r e f o u n d
at Q u m r a n , s h o w i n g t h a t t h e story w a s f o u n d in a w i d e v a r i e t y of
texts. J u b i l e e s a p p e a r s to be d e p e n d e n t u p o n G e n 6 as a c o r e n a r r a t i v e
b u t w a s likely i n f l u e n c e d b y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s s u c h
as in 1 E n o c h . O t h e r w o r k s , s u c h as t h e T e s t a m e n t of R e u b e n a n d
2 B a r u c h , s h o w e d j u s t h o w w i d e s p r e a d die tale w a s in S e c o n d T e m p l e
J u d a i s m . J o s e p h u s said t h e beings w e r e angels a n d t h a t t h e i r offspring,
the giants, w e r e n o t v i r t u o u s a n d e v e n violent. P h i l o h a d m o r e t o
say, d e d i c a t i n g a n e n t i r e treatise to t h e giants, a l t h o u g h m u c h of it
w a s n o t specifically a b o u t t h e W a t c h e r s ' story. E v i d e n c e f r o m t h e
N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d early Christianity showed that the
continued
64
to b e w i d e s p r e a d .
Later Jewish
narrative
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s in
P. Alexander, "The Targumim and Early Exegesis," p. 71.
the
T a r g u m i m a n d t h e r a b b i n i c w r i t i n g s d o w n p l a y e d t h e role t h e angels
p l a y e d , b u t e v i d e n c e of t h e a n g e l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n still a p p e a r s . 6 5
F r o m early in t h e t r a d i t i o n , p e r h a p s w i t h i n G e n 6 itself, t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m w i t h t h e " s o n s of G o d " (angels) c o m i n g to e a r t h
a n d t a k i n g h u m a n wives is t h e i r t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e b o u n d a r y set
at c r e a t i o n . T h e i r u n i o n w i t h h u m a n w o m e n c r e a t e s a h y b r i d , i n t e r p r e t e d as " g i a n t s , " t h a t w e r e n o t m e a n t to exist. 6 6 It s e e m s , t h e n ,
t h a t h u m a n s a n d angels w e r e distinct beings. P r o b l e m s only a r o s e
w h e n angels t r a n s g r e s s e d p r e d e t e r m i n e d b o u n d a r i e s a n d m a t e d w i t h
h u m a n w o m e n . 5 M a n y i n t e r p r e t e r s u n d e r s t o o d this as the v e r y source
of evil in t h e w o r l d . V i r t u a l l y all t o o k it as t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e F l o o d
a n d r e - c r e a t i o n of t h e w o r l d .
65
This would fit well with M. Mach's suggestion that the rabbis downplayed
angel beliefs (Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 330-332). It may also represent one of the precursor's to the rivalry identified between humans and angels in P. Schfer, Rivalitt,
pp. 75-218.
66
There is a need for further study of the issues of gender and sexuality in relation to angel betiefs. Much has been made of the idea that angels were celibate
(from the passages in the gospels [Matt 22:23-33, Mark 12:18-27, Luke 20:34-40]).
However, the gospels are the only texts that mention such an idea in extant Second
Temple literature. The large body of literature examined in this chapter suggests
that at least one group of angels was not believed to have been celibate. Also, in
the vast majority of cases where the physical appearance of angels is described,
they appear as men or young males. The only women described as angelomorphic
were the daughters of Job in T. Job, and perhaps Aseneth in JA.
67
P. Alexander, "The Demonology of the Dead Sea Scrolls" in The Dead Sea
Scrolls after 50 rears, ed. P. Flint and J . VanderKam (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1999) 2:350.
CHAPTER SEVEN
CONCLUSION:
LIMPING T O W A R D A BETTER UNDERSTANDING
T h e a i m of this b o o k h a s b e e n to a d d to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e
diverse a n g e l beliefs of the late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n
p e r i o d b y investigating t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels
as d e m o n s t r a t e d in t h e e x t a n t l i t e r a t u r e . T h i s final c h a p t e r seeks to
s u m m a r i z e t h e c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t c a n b e d r a w n f r o m this investigation a n d to c o n s i d e r t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s for c u r r e n t s c h o l a r s h i p in t h e a r e a s of c o s m o l o g y , C h r i s t o l o g y , a n d e a r l y
J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n mysticism.
T h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s a r e o f f e r e d w i t h full a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h e
a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s discussed m a y well r e p r e s e n t o n l y a small p o r t i o n
of t h e diverse beliefs a b o u t angels f r o m t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d ,
since the beliefs f o r w h i c h w r i t t e n r e c o r d s r e m a i n likely r e p r e s e n t
only a f r a c t i o n of all t h e beliefs t h a t existed in t h e J e w i s h a n d e a r l y
C h r i s t i a n c o s m o l o g y . F u r t h e r m o r e , in m a k i n g a n y kind of s u m m a r y
it is i m p o r t a n t n o t to o v e r s y n t h e s i z e d i s p a r a t e u n i t s of e v i d e n c e . T h e
e v i d e n c e c o n s i d e r e d a b o v e c o m e s f r o m a w i d e r a n g e of d a t e s , p r o v e n a n c e s , a n d social situations, so it is h a n d l e d w i t h d u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n
for its variety.
7.1
The Relationship
between Humans
and Angels
T h r e e m a i n issues a r e i n v o l v e d in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e
relationship
b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. First, t h e s e m a n t i c r a n g e of t h e t e r m s
for a n g e l ( a n d ) allows f o r r e f e r e n c e t o e i t h e r angelic
o r h u m a n m e s s e n g e r s . T h i s r a n g e of m e a n i n g d o e s n o t necessarily
imply any
fluidity
between angels and h u m a n s , however.
Terms
d e r i v e m e a n i n g f r o m t h e i r c o n t e x t . T h e r e a r e few, if a n y , o c c a s i o n s
w h e n the context does n o t supply a clear m e a n i n g for "angel." A n d ,
w h e r e t h e r e is c o n f u s i o n , it likely r e p r e s e n t s m o r e of a
modern
h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r o b l e m t h a n a n y u n d e r s t o o d fluidity in t h e c a t e g o r y
(e.g., M a i 3:1).
N e x t , as n o t e d a b o v e , the physical m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a h e a v e n l y
entity in h u m a n f o r m does n o t necessarily imply its e q u a t i o n with
a h u m a n being. T h e f o r m t h a t angels a s s u m e in their initial a p p e a r a n c e to h u m a n s is often a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c (e.g., G e n 18, J o s h 5,
et al), b u t this seems to be for the benefit of the seer, since b r i g h t
light, fear, a n d even fear of d e a t h are often associated with angelophanies. By taking on a h u m a n f o r m , angels c a n deliver their news
w i t h o u t h i n d r a n c e . O f t e n o n c e they d o so, they again assume a n
angelic f o r m a n d r e t u r n to h e a v e n (e.g., J u d g 6 a n d 13).
P e r h a p s the most interesting a n d challenging material is the a p p e a r ances of h u m a n s as angels. T h e vast m a j o r i t y of the material involves
discussion of righteous individuals. M a n y of the individuals e x a m ined a r e in fact described in a n g e l o m o r p h i c terms; t h a t is, they are
described in ways often associated with angels. Nevertheless, t h e r e
does n o t s e e m to b e good reason to suppose t h a t they w e r e c o n sidered a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h u m a n beings. T h e i r a n g e l o m o r p h i c
description is a n a l o g o u s to the w a y in w h i c h G o d c a n be described
in a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c t e r m s w i t h o u t b e i n g h u m a n . E x a m p l e s in this
g r o u p include N o a h , S t e p h e n , a n d T a x o .
S o m e cases, h o w e v e r , are m o r e a m b i g u o u s , such as Melchizedek,
J o h n the Baptist, a n d Paul. T h e s e individuals are p o r t r a y e d in angelom o r p h i c terms, a n d it seems that some type of identification is implied.
Ultimately, h o w e v e r , it r e m a i n s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r they w e r e m e a n t to
be u n d e r s t o o d as a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n h u m a n . I n the cases of A d a m
a n d Moses, however, their " t h e o m o r p h i c " i m a g e seems to be stressed.
F o r the sake of precision in m o d e r n discourse, it m a y b e w o r t h w h i l e
to stress this t h e o m o r p h i c c h a r a c t e r over their a n g e l o m o r p h i c c h a r acter. O n l y in the cases of Seth(el), E n o c h , a n d J a c o b / I s r a e l does it
seem clear t h a t h u m a n s h a v e t r a n s f o r m e d into angels. Yet in these
cases the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is usually u n d e r s t o o d as h a v i n g o c c u r r e d in
the heavenly sphere.
T h i r d , in those instances w h e n the interaction b e t w e e n h u m a n s
a n d angels is particularly close or intimate, t h e r e still does n o t s e e m
to be a n y indication t h a t separation b e t w e e n angels a n d h u m a n s is
n o t m a i n t a i n e d . T e x t s involving issues of living in c o m m u n i t i e s , eating together, a n d even p r o c r e a t i n g w e r e e x a m i n e d . In a n u m b e r of
the cases of a n g e l - h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s , purity issues arose (e.g., W a r
Scroll, 1 C o r , Hist. Recli.). If the h u m a n m e m b e r s did n o t m a i n t a i n
a h e i g h t e n e d level of purity, t h e n angels could n o t be p r e s e n t in the
c o m m u n i t y . T h i s suggests that indeed there was a qualitative difference
b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels.
I n t h e c a s e of hospitality a n d f o o d , h u m a n s o f t e n o f f e r e d h o s p i tality, i n c l u d i n g a m e a l , to a n g e l i c guests (especially G e n 1 8 1 9
) ,
it w a s r e g u l a r l y t h e case t h a t t h e y w e r e u n a w a r e of t h e t r u e n a t u r e
of t h e s t r a n g e r s . It s e e m s a c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g in t h e
Second
T e m p l e p e r i o d t h a t a n g e l s did n o t e a t h u m a n f o o d . T h i s f a c t s h o w s
a n o t h e r w a y in w h i c h a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s w e r e t h o u g h t to differ.
T h e issue of h u m a n s a n d angels c o p u l a t i n g offers p e r h a p s t h e m o s t
i n t r i g u i n g m a t e r i a l . T r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e c r e a t e d o r d e r b y s o m e angels
( G e n 6 : 1 - 4 ) w a s s e e n as e x t r e m e l y p r o b l e m a t i c a n d w a s u n d e r s t o o d
by a n u m b e r of i n t e r p r e t e r s as d i e v e r y origin of evil i n t h e w o r l d
(7 En.). T h e u n i o n of a n g e l s a n d h u m a n s b r o u g h t f o r t h h y b r i d g i a n t s
w h o w e r e usually u n d e r s t o o d t o h a v e b e e n d e s t r o y e d in t h e F l o o d .
T h a t angels w e r e n o t believed to h a v e sex o r p r o c r e a t e h i g h l i g h t s a
significant d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n h u m a n s o n e a r t h , w h o m u s t p r o c r e ate f o r survival of t h e species, a n d a n g e l s in h e a v e n , w h o d o n o t .
T o s u m u p briefly, m y investigation s h o w s t h a t in t h e l i t e r a t u r e
f r o m this p e r i o d t h e r e w a s a w i d e r a n g e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t h o w
angels l o o k e d a n d h o w t h e y i n t e r a c t e d w i t h h u m a n s . A significant
set of t h e s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s f o c u s e d o n a n g e l s l o o k i n g like h u m a n s
a n d , w h e n t h e y did, h a v i n g i n t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e m . D e s p i t e
this similarity of appearance a n d closeness of interaction, t h e r e d o e s n o t
s e e m to b e a n y r e a s o n to s u p p o s e t h a t t h e r e w a s a n y b l u r r i n g of
categories between angels a n d h u m a n s . W h e n there was an a p p a r e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m the h u m a n to t h e angelic ( E n o c h = M e t a t r o n
o r J a c o b - I s r a e l ) , it w a s a o n e - t i m e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t
occurred
b e y o n d t h e e a r t h l y s p h e r e . I n s o m e sense, t h e e v i d e n c e f o r h u m a n s
a c h i e v i n g a n g e l i c status is t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t p r o v e s t h e rule. O n l y
h u m a n s of e x c e p t i o n a l r i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d w h o h a d a special relat i o n s h i p w i t h G o d a p p e a r t o h a v e h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to b e c o m e
angels; n o o t h e r h u m a n s e n j o y e d s u c h a special status.
7.2
Cosmology and Angelology
T h i s s t u d y in s o m e sense also r e p r e s e n t s a n a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d
t h e g e n e r a l c o s m o l o g i c a l o u t l o o k of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e
and
early C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e a n d , m o r e specifically, t h e p l a c e of angels,

a n d to a lesser e x t e n t h u m a n s , in d i a t cosmos. 1 A n g e l s a r e like G o d
1
This is not to suggest that there was a single cosmology (especially across late
Second Temple Judaism and early Christianity), but instead these conclusions aim
to discuss what can be gleaned broadly from the material.
but
in t h a t t h e y reside in h e a v e n a n d a r e i n c o r p o r e a l , h a v i n g n o n e e d
f o r f o o d o r p r o c r e a t i o n . H o w e v e r , a n g e l s a r e like h u m a n s in t h a t
t h e y a r e c r e a t e d b y G o d a n d c a n a t t i m e s dwell o n e a r t h , e v e n taki n g o n h u m a n f o r m . A d d i t i o n a l l y , angels travel b e t w e e n t w o s e p a rate s p h e r e s t h e heavenly a n d the earthly.
I n r e s p o n s e to the w o r k of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s o n i d e n t i f y i n g a n a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y tradition in late S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m , J . O ' N e i l l
states, " t h e s e c l a i m s t o o n t o l o g i c a l i d e n t i t y a r e s i m p l y
misunder-
s t a n d i n g s of t h e J e w i s h e v i d e n c e , " a d d i n g , " t h e r e is a c l e a r a n d c o n sistently m a i n t a i n e d d i f f e r e n c e in kind b e t w e e n G o d a n d a n g e l s a n d

h u m a n beings."2 M y
findings
strongly support O'Neill's
assertion.
R a t h e r t h a n t h i n k of t h e c a t e g o r i e s as " o p e n a n d fluid" as F l e t c h e r L o u i s does, it is p e r h a p s m o r e v a l u a b l e t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e m as fixed b u t n o t absolute. It is n o t a b s o l u t e b e c a u s e

w e see t h a t a n g e l s r e g u l a r l y c o m e to e a r t h a n d t a k e o n h u m a n f o r m ,
a n d o n s o m e v e r y r a r e occasions, h u m a n s c a n a s c e n d t o h e a v e n a n d
e v e n b e c o m e like angels. Angels a n d h u m a n s are very different beings,
b u t this does n o t m e a n t h a t they n e v e r i n t e r a c t e d m a n y
texts
d e s c r i b e h o w t h e y did i n t e r a c t . H o w e v e r , in l a r g e p a r t t h e y r e m a i n e d
separate from one another.
O n t h e n o t i o n of s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n earthly a n d h e a v e n l y denizens,
M . H i m m e l f a r b writes:
It is not only what G o d reveals to the visionary that is important, but
the veiy fact that G o d is willing to bring a h u m a n being near him.
U n d e r certain circumstances, according to the apocalypses, h u m a n
beings can cross the boundary and join the angels. 3
E l s e w h e r e she w r i t e s r e g a r d i n g !1er analysis of a s c e n t s in v a r i o u s
apocalypses, " I n d e e d it t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n h u m a n s
a n d angels a r e n o t v e r y clear. O n e g r o u p of a p o c a l y p s e s offers g r e a t
h e r o e s of t h e p a s t as e x a m p l e s of h o w close h u m a n b e i n g s c a n c o m e
to G o d . " 4 It n e e d n o t b e t h e c a s e t h a t " t h e b o u n d a r i e s
2
between
J. O'Neill, Review of G. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts in JTS 50 (1999) 225-230.

M. Himmelfarb, "Revelation and Rapture: The Transformation of the Visionary
in the Ascent Apocalypses" in Mysteries and Revelations: Apocalyptic Studies since the
Uppsala Colloquium, ed. J . Collins and J. Charlesworth (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 1991) 90.
4
M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven in Jewish and Christian Apocalypses (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1993) 70. For similar ideas about the importance of key individuals, see J. Charlesworth, "The Portrayal of the Righteous as an Angel in Ideal
Figures in Ancient Judaism. (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1980) 135-151, and J. Fossum,
The Name of God and the Angel of the Lord: Samaritan and Jewish Concepts of Intermediation
and the Origin of Gnosticism (Tbingen: J . C. B. Mhr, 1985) 333.
8
h u m a n s a n d a n g e l s a r e n o t v e r y c l e a r . " It n e e d only b e t h e c a s e (as

t h e e v i d e n c e b e a r s out) t h a t t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e t w o largely
s e p a r a t e r e a l m s (earthly a n d h e a v e n l y ) b e a b l e to b e crossed. D e s p i t e
this c r i t i q u e , I v e r y m u c h a g r e e w i t h h e r a s s e s s m e n t t h a t t h e " g r e a t
h e r o e s " of t h e p a s t o f f e r e d e x a m p l e s to t h o s e w h o w o u l d seek to
c o m m u n e w i t h G o d . S o m e h u m a n s did a c h i e v e a n g e l i c status b u t
o n l y in h e a v e n , w h e n t h e y w e r e a l r e a d y n e a r to G o d . H i m m e r l f a r b
also sees a n o t h e r s t r e a m of t r a d i t i o n in t h e a p o c a l y p s e s t h a t , "if o r d i nary h u m a n beings are righteous, after death they can take
tiieir
p l a c e in t h e h e a v e n l y h i e r a r c h y . " 5 A g a i n , e v e n if this is p a r t of t h e
t r a d i t i o n of a p o c a l y p s e s , h u m a n s a r e n o t a t t a i n i n g a n
"angelomor-
p h i c " life o n e a r t h . S u c h s t a t u s is a t t a i n e d in h e a v e n , w h e n h u m a n s
a r e in close p r o x i m i t y t o G o d .
7.3
Christology and Angelology
N e x t , w e c o n s i d e r d i e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this s t u d y f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of early C h r i s t o l o g y . C . G i e s c h e n h a s , I believe, o f f e r e d a p e r s u a sive c a s e f o r s e e i n g a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s of late S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m
as i n f l u e n c i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of early C h r i s t i a n t y . 6 N e v e r t h e l e s s , I
w o u l d o f f e r s o m e c r i t i q u e h e r e of o n e a s p e c t of his case. In his section o n " a n g e l n o m e n c l a t u r e " G i e s c h e n states:
Because angels often appear in the form of men, the distinction between
what is anthropomorphic and what is angelomorphic is difficult to
maintain. W h a t one person may interpret as an anthropomorphism,
another could see as a concrete description of an angelomorphic figure.7
W h i l e s o m e texts m a y b e difficult to i n t e r p r e t f o r t h e m o d e r n r e a d e r
(e.g., M a i 3:1), a n c i e n t a u t h o r s w e r e n o t a p p a r e n t l y in a n y
way
ambiguous in their presentations or their understandings. Moreover,

t h a t l a t e r i n t e r p r e t e r s c o u l d exploit t h e a m b i g u i t y in a t e r m d o e s n o t
m e a n a n a m b i g u i t y w a s originally i n t e n d e d . R e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e c o n t e x t in w h i c h t h e a n g e l t r a d i t i o n a p p e a r s is t h e key
to a v o i d i n g s u c h c o n f u s i o n .
Gieschen offered categories u n d e r which h u m a n s might be u n d e r stood as " a n g e l o m o r p h i c . " 8 T h e s e categories were: Patriarchs, Prophets,
5
M. Himmelfarb, Ascent to Heaven, p. 71.

C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology: Antecedents and Early Evidence (Leiden: E. J.
Brill, 1997).
7
8
6
Priests, K i n g s , Apostles, a n d Elect O n e s . I n d i v i d u a l s in t h e s e roles

o f t e n e n j o y e d a privileged status relative t o G o d a n d in s o m e senses
f u n c t i o n e d as m e d i a t o r s b e t w e e n h u m a n i t y a n d G o d . E v e n t h o u g h
w e m a y c a t e g o r i z e t h e m a t e r i a l in this w a y t o d a y , a n c i e n t a u t h o r s
did n o t a p p a r e n t l y think in these t e r m s . T h e results of m y r e s e a r c h
indicate t h a t t h e r e was n o t a c o h e r e n t idea of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n ity" in late S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m . A t best, s u c h ideas m a y h a v e
a p p l i e d to a select f e w individuals.
G i e s c h e n states t h a t these c a t e g o r i e s " p u s h t h e r e a d e r to a b r o a d e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h a t a n a n g e l w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e in first c e n tury J u d a i s m a n d Christianity."9 I would argue that without synthesizing t h e m a t e r i a l into these categories, t h e evidence d o e s n o t s u p p o r t
t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e w a s in t h e first c e n t u r y a c o h e r e n t
angelomor-
p h i c h u m a n i t y c o n c e p t t h a t in t u r n c o u l d h a v e b e e n a b u i l d i n g block
for early C h r i s t o l o g y .
C . F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s o f f e r e d t h e f o l l o w i n g in his s u m m a r y
of
Jewish angelomorphic traditions:

W e submit that an approach to the data . . . which does not impose a
rigid dualism, but rather accepts the openness and fluidity of h u m a n ,
angelic and Divine categories, allows for simplicity of interpretation,
a n d does most justice to the texts' own worldviews(s). Accordingly our
label 'angelomorphic', has proved heuristically invaluable. 10
W h i l e t h e t e r m " a n g e l o m o r p h i c " m a y b e heuristically v a l u a b l e in
m a k i n g sense of a n g e l t r a d i t i o n s r e l a t e d to C h r i s t o l o g y , it s h o u l d n o t
be t a k e n to i m p l y a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of h u m a n s a n d angels. " A n g e l o m o r p h i c " m u s t b e e m p l o y e d w i t h c a u t i o n to discussions of h u m a n ity in g e n e r a l . A rigid d u a l i s m is n o t b e i n g " i m p o s e d " u p o n
the
e v i d e n c e b u t is p r e s e n t in t h e e v i d e n c e . I n s t e a d of s e e i n g " f l u i d i t y "
between categories, we should recognize that the evidence
shows
t h e r e w a s s o m e possibility of c r o s s i n g t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n
the
e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y s p h e r e , especially b y a n g e l s a n d o n r a r e o c c a sions by v e r y r i g h t e o u s h u m a n s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , F l e t c h e r - L o u i s h a s d r a w n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e rich
v a r i e t y of a n g e l beliefs f r o m t h e p e r i o d , especially in the
Qiimran
l i t e r a t u r e . I n his m o r e r e c e n t b o o k , All the Glory of Adam,
Fletcher-
L o u i s sees t h e T e m p l e as t h e locus "in w h i c h o r d i n a r y s p a c e a n d

9
G. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, p. 183.

C. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology, and Soteriology, WUNT 2.94
(Tubingen: J . C. B. Mhr, 1997) 211.
10
time, a n d therefore h u m a n ontology, are transcended," adding that

the worshipping c o m m u n i t y would "experience a transfer f r o m earth
to h e a v e n , f r o m h u m a n i t y to divinity a n d f r o m m o r t a l i t y to i m m o r a l ity." 1 1 W h i l e it m a y b e t r u e t h a t J e w s u n d e r s t o o d t h e T e m p l e as a
special l o c a t i o n , it is n o t c l e a r f r o m F l e t c h e r - L o u i s ' s analysis w h e t h e r
h e envisions s u c h a c h a n g e as t e m p o r a r y o r p e r m a n e n t a n d in w h a t
w a y s p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d . T h i s leaves us with t h e q u e s tion of w h e t h e r o r n o t w e s h o u l d see this as a case of " a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y " o r simply a " m y s t i c a l " e x p e r i e n c e of t h e T e m p l e o r
liturgical s p a c e . I a m i n c l i n e d to t h i n k t h a t t h e T e m p l e w a s a special locus w h e r e
first-century
J e w s believed t h a t t h e y c o u l d c o m m u n e
w i t h G o d , b u t I a m less i n c l i n e d to believe t h a t t h e y
envisioned
t h e m s e l v e s as t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n g e l s (or a n g e l i c h u m a n s ) o n e a r t h
d u e to t h e e x p e r i e n c e .
T h u s , t h e assertion of F l e t c h e r - L o u i s a n d G i e s c h e n t h a t t h e r e w a s
a n identifiable " a n g e l o m o r p h i c h u m a n i t y " t r a d i t i o n in late
Second
T e m p l e J u d a i s m is significantly w e a k e n e d , t h o u g h n o t a l t o g e t h e r p r e e l u d e d , b y t h e results of m y investigation.

A l t h o u g h m y analysis u n d e r m i n e s t h e case for a n y
"angelomor-
p h i c h u m a n i t y " c o n c e p t b e i n g p r e v a l e n t in the late S e c o n d T e m p l e

p e r i o d , it d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t a n g e l o m o r p h i c categories did n o t i n f o r m
early C h r i s t o l o g i e s i t s h o u l d b e c l e a r t h a t t h e y did. As C . R o w l a n d
h a s persuasively a r g u e d , t h e i m a g e r y o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n g e l o p h a n i e s w a s a p p r o p r i a t e d i n t o early C h r i s t o l o g y . 1 2 I m a g e r y is a m o r e
solid f o u n d a t i o n a n d is t h e n likely t h e m o r e fruitful r o u t e f o r f u t u r e
studies of t h e a n g e l o m o r p h i c b a c k g r o u n d of e a r l y C h r i s t o l o g i e s . T h e
r e c e n t w o r k of R . B a u c k h a r n s e e m s to signal, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e scholarly d e b a t e is f a r f r o m over.
I n his b o o k , God Crucified, R . B a u c k h a r n a r g u e s t h a t in t h e cosm o l o g y of t h e late S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d early C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d t h e r e
w a s G o d a n d e v e r y t h i n g else. 1 3 H e states, "Jewish m o n o t h e i s m clearly
11
C. Fletcher-Louis, All the Glory of Adam: Liturgical Anthropology in the Dead Sea
Scrolls (Leiden: E. J . Brill, 2002) 476.
12
C. Rowland, "A Man Clothed in Linen: Daniel 10:6ff. and Jewish Angelology"
JVT 24 (1985) 99-110.
13
R. Bauckharn, God Crucified: Monothsm and Christology in the New Testament (Grand
Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998). These ideas are also developed in his article, "The
Throne of God and the Worship of Jesus" in The Jetvish Roots of Christological
Monotheism: Papersfromthe St. Andrews Conference on the Historical Origins of the Worship
ofJesus, ed. C. Newman, J. Davila, and G. Lewis (Leiden: E . J . Brill, 1999) 43-69.
d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e o n e G o d a n d all o t h e r r e a l i t y . ' " 4 B a u c k h a m stresses

t h e i d e a of t h e " d i v i n e i d e n t i t y " o v e r t h e i d e a of " d i v i n e n a t u r e " as
the p a r a d i g m t h a t
first-century
J e w s would have used for recogniz-
ing G o d . S o J e w s w o u l d n o t b e c o n c e r n e d so m u c h for w h a t G o d
is b u t w h o G o d is. F o l l o w i n g f r o m this, B a u c k h a m a r g u e s t h a t J e w i s h
m o n o t h e i s m c o u l d n o t a c c o m m o d a t e a n y type of s e m i d i v i n e b e i n g ,
viceroy, subordinate
d e i t y , o r t h e like. I n c o n t r a s t t o
Gieschen,
F l e t c h e r - L o u i s , a n d m o s t n o t a b l y H u r t a d o , B a u c k h a m believes t h a t
J e w i s h i n t e r m e d i a r y figures s u c h as p r i n c i p a l angels a n d exalted p a t r i a r c h s t h e r e f o r e did n o t p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t role in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of early C h r i s t o l o g y . 1 5
B a u c k h a m a r g u e s t h a t J e s u s w a s t h e n s u b s u m e d i n t o the u n i q u e
divine i d e n t i t y a m o v e t h a t h e d e s c r i b e s as a " r a d i c a l l y novel develo p m e n t , a l m o s t u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n J e w i s h t h e o l o g y . " 1 6 H e also says
t h a t t h e decisive step of i n c l u d i n g J e s u s in t h e divine i d e n t i t y t h r o u g h
exegesis of t h e H e b r e w S c r i p t u r e s w a s " a s t e p w h i c h , w h e n e v e r it
w e r e t a k e n , h a d to b e t a k e n s i m p l y f o r its o w n sake a n d de novo."17
W h a t r e m a i n s u n c l e a r f r o m B a u c k h a m ' s discussion, h o w e v e r , is why
the early C h r i s t i a n s w o u l d m a k e s u c h a novel a n d
unprecedented
identification. If G o d w a s truly u n i q u e , t h e n w h y d i d t h e y ever d e c i d e

to i n c l u d e J e s u s in t h a t identity?
It seems m o r e plausible to m e to suggest t h a t t h e significant a m o u n t
of l i t e r a t u r e t h a t talks a b o u t i n t e r m e d i a r i e s w o u l d h a v e i n f l u e n c e d
early C h r i s t o l o g y o n s o m e level. T h i s is n o t to say t h a t all C h r i s t i a n s
u s e d this line of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o r t h a t it w a s m a i n t a i n e d in t h e t r a dition. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it s e e m s t h a t angels, especially in t h e i r f u n c tion as m e d i a t o r s b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h , c o u l d h a v e
provided
a n d d i d p r o v i d e t h e earliest C h r i s t i a n s w i t h a n e x a m p l e b y w h i c h
J e s u s a h u m a n b e i n g c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as a s u p e r h u m a n
or
heavenly being.
14
R. Bauckham, God Crucified, p. 4.

R. Bauckham, God Crucified, pp. 4-5, 1622. Contra C. Fletcher-Louis, LukeActs; C. Gieschen, Angelomorphic Christology, and L. Hurtado, One God, One Lord. This
also goes against the work of others such as C. Rowland and J. Fossum. Just prior
to completing the edits to my page proofs, I learned of the release of L. Hurtado's
new book Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2003). I was not able, therefore, to take it into account in this monograph. I am encouraged, though, to see that his discussion on pp. 27-78 has points
of contact with my own work.
16
17
15
CONCLUSION: LIMPING T O W A R D A BETTER UNDERSTANDING
235
B a u c k h a m says t h a t a "strict J e w i s h m o n o t h e i s m " c o u l d n o t a c c o m m o d a t e i n t e r m e d i a r y figures. H o w e v e r , t o say t h a t a strict m o n o t h e ism c o u l d n o t a c c o m m o d a t e s u c h i n t e r m e d i a r y figures is ver) different
f r o m saying that these
figures
did n o t exist in J e w i s h
cosmology;
clearly t h e y d i d . T o i g n o r e this fact is to miss a n i m p o r t a n t p i e c e

of t h e overall p i c t u r e . T h e d a n g e r h e r e lies in n o t seeing a develo p m e n t of C h r i s t o l o g y b a s e d u p o n a c o n f l u e n c e of traditions. It s e e m s
u n n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l a u s i b l e to suggest t h a t J e s u s w a s i m m e d i a t e l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e divine i d e n t i t y as p a r t of a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d
move
in J e w i s h t h e o l o g y . W h a t s e e m s m o r e p l a u s i b l e to m e is t h a t a variety of t r a d i t i o n s i n f l u e n c e d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t J e s u s
a n d t h a t i n t e r m e d i a r y figures s u c h as angels, w h o e n j o y e d a u n i q u e
r e l a t i o n s h i p to b o t h h u m a n s a n d G o d , w e r e a logical s t a r t i n g p o i n t
for t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s as t h e y p o n d e r e d t h e significance a n d i d e n tity of J e s u s . T o suggest t h a t angelological s u p p o s i t i o n s h a d n o t h i n g
to d o w i t h t h e i r earliest s p e c u l a t i o n s a n d t h a t t h e early
Christian
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of J e s u s w i t h G o d w a s n o v e l a n d u n p r e c e d e n t e d s e e m s
s o m e w h a t d i s i n g e n u o u s . 1 8 S o w e close h e r e w i t h a w o r d of c a u t i o n
from C. Rowland:
So recognition of the existence of traditions of this kind [Jewish angelological beliefs] should cause us to pause before we suppose that the
Christological developments of early Christianity necessarily indicate
an inventiveness and unique creativity which cannot be paralleled in
early Judaism. 1 9
7.4
Early Jewish
and Christian Mysticism
and Angelology
Lastly, m y i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s p o t e n t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s for t h e s t u d y of
early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n mysticism. S e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t
traditions
discussed in this s t u d y w o u l d h a v e i n f l u e n c e d these mystics. A l t h o u g h

t h e e a r t h l y a n d h e a v e n l y r e a l m s a n d b e i n g s w e r e largely c o n c e i v e d
18
One final note regarding the above critique of Bauckham: his monograph and
article are only steps in a direction that he will expound more fully in a forthcoming study, so my comments are only in response to his initial work. Scholars
who believe in the importance of angel categories for the development of early
Christology will certainly need to engage with his fuller study once it is available.
In his article, "The Throne of God" (p. 49), Bauckham notes that his more complete study is provisionally entitled 'Jesus and the Identity of God: Jewish Monotheism
and New Testament Christology."
19
C. Rowland, Christian Origins, 2nd ed. (London: SPCK, 2002) 36.
as separate, the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e m w a s n o t seen as absolute.

T h i s m e a n t t h a t the possibility existed for the mystic to r e a c h b e y o n d
the earthly r e a l m to the heavenly. T h e goal of the J e w i s h mystics
was to see G o d e n t h r o n e d . T h e only beings regularly able to cross
b e t w e e n the two realms a n d also constantly p r e s e n t in the t h r o n e
r o o m besides G o d w e r e the angels, so traditions a n d speculation
a b o u t t h e m w o u l d likely h a v e b e e n very i m p o r t a n t to a n y o n e trying to get to the t h r o n e r o o m .
T h a t s o m e righteous h u m a n s h a d a s c e n d e d to h e a v e n (e.g., E n o c h ,
Isaiah) m e a n t drat there was a m o d e l for others to follow. Additionally,
some h u m a n beings w e r e t h o u g h t to h a v e t r a n s f o r m e d into angels
in the afterlife (especially E n o c h ) ; such a c o n v i c t i o n w o u l d h a v e
e m b o l d e n e d mystics to believe they m i g h t attain t h e s a m e status.
T h e s e n o t a b l e exceptions stood o u t p r o m i n e n t l y as m o d e l s for the
early J e w i s h a n d Christian mystics.
I n s u m , I find t h a t the evidence s u p p o r t s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the
literature of the period t h a t sees the a u t h o r s as envisioning G o d ,
angels, a n d h u m a n s as beings t h a t for the m o s t p a r t existed in sepa r a t e spheres, the earthly a n d heavenly. Angels m e d i a t e d b e t w e e n
these two realms a n d , t h o u g h they often appeared as h u m a n beings
a n d regularly interacted with t h e m , they w e r e nevertheless distinct f r o m
t h e m . A select few righteous h u m a n s did t r a n s f o r m into angels in
h e a v e n . T h e s e exceptional cases acted as a n i m p o r t a n t m o d e l for
early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n mystics as t h e y sought to c o m m u n e with
G o d in the divine t h r o n e r o o m .
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MODERN AUTHOR
INDEX
Blackburn, B. 241
Abegg, M. 240
Blanc, C. 237
Ackroyd, P. 240
Adler, W. 223 n. 59
Bohak, G. 77, 77 n. 110; 78 n. 113
Alexander, P. iii, 18 n. 37; 43
Boling, R. 57 n. 57; 58 n. 60; 241
nn. 12-14; 92 n. 27; 179 n. 4; 205,
Borgen, P. 239, 241
205 n. 24; 223, 223 nn. 6 2 2 2 4 ;63 Bosker, B. 242
n. 64; 225 n. 67; 237, 240
Bowker, B. 223 n. 62
Alexander, T. 240
Brock, S. 130 n. 145; 237, 242
Allegro, J. 40 n. 5; 212 n. 38; 237
Brooke, G. 242
Allison. D. 115 n. 91; 151 n. 22; 240
Broshi, M. 237
Andersen, D. 48 n. 29; 87, 87 n. 8; 92
Brown, F. 239
Andersen, G. 149 n. 10
Brown, P. 242
Archambault, G. 237
Brown, R. 67 nn. 85, 87; 69 n. 89,
Arndt, W. 17 n. 70; 239
121 n. 116, 242
Ashton, J . 16 n. 68; 57 n. 58; 240
Brownlee, W. 242
Atkinson, K. M. T. 240
Brueggeman, W. 242
Attridge. H. 193, 193 n. 29; 237,
Bhner, J. 110 n. 81; 137 n. 169
240
Burch, V. 136 n. 164; 242
Burchard, C. 77 nn. 106, 109; 78
Aune, D. 20 n. 94; 75 n. 101; 76
n. 112, 102 n. 60; 109, 206 n. 26,
n. 103; 134 n. 156; 136, 136
237
n. 161; 240
Avenary, H. 240
Burkett, D. 64 n. 75
Burney, C. F. 242
Byrne,' B. 205 n. 22; 242
Babcock, W. 240
Bakker, A. 241
Bamberger, B. 241
Cadbuiy, H. 72 n. 95; 168 n. 80; 242
Bamfylde, G. 241
Cameron, R. 90 nn. 20-21; 237
Barker, M. 10, 10 n. 35; 11 n. 36;
Carlston, C. 242
75 n. 101; 123 n. 124; 201 n. 11;
Carr, W. 20 n. 93; 242
204, 204 n. 20; 241
Carre 11, P. 12, 12 nn. 4 6 1 3 ;47
Barrera, J. 241
nn. 48-49; 63, 145 n. 3; 242
Barton, G. 19 n. 88; 241
Charles, R. H. 2, 86 n. 6; 136
Bauckham, R. 76 n. 102; 156 n. 43;
n. 165; 237
157, 157 nn. 45-46; 221 n. 56; 222
Charlesworth, J. xiii, 2, 4, 5, 5
n. 57; 233, 233 n. 13; 234, 234
nn. 9-10; 7, 16, 51 n. 42; 85, 85
nn. 14-17; 235, 235 n. 18; 241
n. 1; 90, 90 n. 22; 91 n. 24; 140,
Baumgarten, J . 150 n. 16; 241
140 n. 174; 149 nn. 13-14; 154
Bayer, B. 241
n. 33; 161 n. 53; 165 n. 66; 172,
Beall, T. 241
172 n. 91; 173, 173 n. 93; 230
Becking, B. xiii
nn. 3-4; 237, 239, 242
Beeston, A. 241
Chesnutt, R. 77 n. 9; 242
Benoit, P. 241
Chester, A. xi, 12 n. 44; 242
Coffins, j . 64, 64 nn. 76-78; 91
Betz. H. 15, 15 n. 63; 20 n. 94
n. 24; 131 n. 149; 136 n. 162;
Bianchi, U. 241
154 n. 33; 156 n. 43; 161, 161 n. 54;
Billerbeck, P. 240
172 n. 91; 201, 201 nn. 12-13; 204
Black, M. 86 n. 3; 136 n. 165; 172
n. 19; 216 n. 44; 230 n. 3; 242
n. 92
Colson, F. 99 nn. 48-50; 173 n. 96;

218 n. 45; 237
Conzelmann, H. 243
Cook, S. 57 n. 58; 242
Cooke, G. 243
Cummins, S. 122, 122 nn. 120-121
Danby, H. 237
Danilou 4 . 8; 5, 243
Daube, D. 21, 21 . 97; 22, 22
. 98; 135, 135 . 158; 243
Davidson, M. 10, 10 nn. 31-32; 16,
145 . 3; 148 . 9; 151 . 25; 156
. 39; 166, 166 . 69-71; 243
Davies, . 155 . 38
Davies, W. 115 . 91; 155
Davila, J . 15 . 66; 96 . 40; 97
. 43; 124 . 127; 126 . 130; 150,
150 . 20; 233 . 13; 237, 243
Davis. . 243
Davis, P. G. 12 . 44; 13, 13 . 52;
243
Day, . 18 . 79; 243
De Lacey, D. 248
Delco r, M. 96 n. 40; 244
DeConick, A. xii, 116 n. 100; 174
n. 101; 177 n. 104; 243
De Jonge, M. 96 n. 40; 243
Dewey, A. 90 nn. 20-21
Dey, I,. 244
Dimant. D. 106 n. 73; 156 n. 42; 161
n. 56; 164 n. 64; 201 n. 15; 244
Dix, G. 244
Donaldson, J. 238
Douglas, M. 199, 200 n. 8; 244
Duhaime, J . 244
Dunn, J. 114, 114 n. 87; 121 n. 118;
171 n. 89; 244
Dupont-Somrner, A. 244
Elior, R. 244
Elliger, . 237
Elliot, J. 70 . 91; 237
Emerton, J . 244
Endres, J." 244
Eshel, E. 237
Eshel, H.
Eslinger, L. 47 n. 28
Evans, C. 239-240, 244
Falk, D.
Fee, 168
Fishbane,
161 n.
244
n. 77; 169 n. 84; 244
M. 47 n. 28; 136 n. 162;
54; 244
Fitzmyer, J . 15 n. 64; 96 n. 40; 168,

168 n. 80; 169, 169 nn. 81, 83; 201
n. 12; 244
Fletcher-Louis, C. 6 n. 14; 12, 12
n. 43; 14, 14 nn. 57-61; 15, 15
n. 62; 16, 21 n. 97; 28, 28 nn. 6;7
64 n. 79; 68, 68 n. 88, 78, 78
nn. 113-114; 79, 79 nn. 115-116;
85 n. 1; 89, 89 nn. 16-18; 92, 92
n. 28; 96, 96 nn. 3 8 1 0 4 ;39
n. 63; 105 n. 67; 106, 106 nn. 70,
73; 107, 107 n. 75; 110 n. 81; 115
n. 94; 116 n. 103; 120, 120 nn. 112,
114-115; 127, 127 n. 137; 128, 128
nn. 138-139; 129, 129 n. 143; 134
nn. 156-157; 140, 140 n. 175; 141
n. 176; 147, 147 nn. 6-7; 151, 151
nn. 26-28; 153, 154 nn. 33-34; 158
n. 49; 162 n. 59; 165 n. 67; 166,
166 nn. 69, 73; 167 n. 74; 173, 173
n. 94; 174, 174 n. 100; 175, 175
n. 102; 176, 176 n. 103; 177, 177
nn. 106-107; 191 n. 25; 192 n. 27;
194, 194 n. 32; 230, 230 n. 2; 232,
232 n. 10; 87, 233, 233 n. 11;
234, 234 n. 15; 244
Forsyth, N. 245
Fossum, J. xii, 6, 6 nn. 15-16; 17
n. 75, 87 n. 10; 88 n. 11; 90 n. 19;
105 nn. 67-68; 115 n. 93; 117
n. 104; 146 n. 5; 230 n. 4; 234
n. 15; 245
Francis, F. xi, 171 n. 88; 245
Freedman, H. 48, 48 n. 29; 237
Fuglseth, K. 239
Gammie, J. 20, 20 nn. 90, 92; 245
Garcia Martinez, F. 19 n. 83; 126
n. 130; 165 n. 66; 237, 245
Garrett, S. 245
Gaston, L. 245
Gertner, M. 47 n. 28; 245
Gieschen, C. xii, 4 n. 8; 6 n. 14; 12,
12 n. 43; 13, 13 n. 51; 14, 14
nn. 53-56; 15, 15 n. 65; 16, 28
nn. 4-5; 31 n. 10; 53 n. 48; 85
n. 1; 87 n. 10; 88, 88 n. 11; 89, 89
nn. 16; 18; 94 n. 32; 97, 97 n. 44;
104 n. 63; 105 n. 67; 108, 112, 112
n. 85; 114 n. 88; 123, 123 n. 124;
124, 140 n. 175; 162 n. 59; 166,
166 n. 72; 231, 231 nn. 6-8; 232,
232 n. 9; 233, 234, 234 n. 15; 24-5
Gingrich, F. 17 n. 70
Ginzburg, L. 237, 245

Hurtado, L. 9 n. 24; 11, 11 n. 42,
Glasson, T. 245
12, 12 n. 43; 85 n. 1; 104 n. 63;
Glornbitza, O. 120, 120 n. 111; 245
106 n. 70; 234, 234 n. 15; 247
Gnuse, R. 245
Hyatt, J. 162 n. 57; 247
Goddard, A. 122, 122 nn. 120-121;
245
Inowlocki, S. 247
Goodenough, E. 42, 42 n. 9; 100
Irvin, D. 247
n. 52; 105 n. 68; 245
Gooder, P. 123 n. 125; 245
Jervell, J. 85 n. 2, 87 n. 7; 247
Goodman, D. 180, 180 nn. 9 , 1 8 1 ;10Johnson, A. 38 n. 2; 57 n. 58; 247
181 n. 12; 182, 182 nn. 15-16; 192 Johnson, L. 73, 73 n. 98; 247
n. 28; 194, 246
Joynes, C. 112 n. 85; 123 n. 123
Goodman, M. xi, 148 n. 8
Jung, L. 247
Goodrick, E. 239
Gray, S. 246
Kasher. R. 247
Grossfield, B. 43 n. 12; 237
Keck, D. 247
Gruenwald, I. 246, 248
Kilgallen, J . 247
Guillaumont, A. 237
Kittel, G. 239
Gundry, R. 12 n. 46; 246
Klawans, J . 205, 205 n. 21; 247
Gunkel, H. 45, 45 nn. 19-20, 22;
Klein, M. 238
46, 50, 50 n. 36; 246
Knibb, M. 86 n. 5: 130 n. 147; 136
Gunther, J. 246
nn. 163-165; 137 n. 167
Knight, J. 136 nn. 164-165; 247
Haenchen, E. 22 n. 99; 72 n. 95;
Kobelski, P. 96 n. 40; 247
119 . 110; 246
Koenig, J. 179 n. 1; 180 n. 6; 247
Hall, R. 136 nn. 164-165; 246
Koester. C. 247
Halperin, D. 246
Kohlenberger, J. 239
Hamilton, V. 18 n. 79; 246
Kovacs, J . 247
Hanhart, K. 246
Kraeling, E. 247
Hannah, D. 13, 13 nn. 50-51; 15
Kraemer, R. 77, 77 n. I l l ; 102
n. 66; 19 n. 84; 29, 29 n. 8; 31, 31
n. 59, 247
n. 10; 94 n. 32; 124 n. 127; 145
Kuhn, . . 247
n. 3
Kuhn, H. W. 247
Hanson, P. D. xii, 204, 204 n. 19; 246
Kuhn, H. 147 . 6; 162, 162 nn. 58;
Harrington, D. 109 nn. 78-79; 238
60, 247
Hatch, E. 239
Kuhn, . 239
Hay, D. M. 246
Hayward, R. 43 n. 14; 246
Lake, . 72 . 95; 79 . 118; 238
Heidt, W. G. 17 n. 72; 246
Lane Fox, R. 134 . 155; 248
Hendel, R. 199, 199 nn. 6-7; 200.
Lang, J. 248
;9
200 nn. 8 2 0 4
Langton, . 248
Hennecke, E. 206 n. 27; 237
Larson, . 238
Himmelfarb, M. 6, 6 nn. 17-18; 91
Lesses, R. 20 . 94; 248
n. 24; 137 nn. 168-169; 138 n. 170; Levene, . 238
146 n. 4; 230, 230 n. 3; 231 n. 5
Levenson. J. 248
Holladay, C. 52 nn. 45-46; 105 n. 68;
Levey, S.' 238
237, 246
Levinson, J . 90 n. 19; 248
Hooker, M. 168 nn. 77-78; 169, 169
Liddel 17 n. 70
nn. 82-83; 170 n. 85; 246
Lieu, J. 248
Horbury, W. 11, 11 nn. 39-41; 16,
Lincoln, A. 248
108 n. 76, 246
Lindars, B. 248
Horst, P. 246
Longenecker, R. 248
Horton, F. 96 n. 40; 246
Lunt, H. 51 nn. 40-41; 52 n. 44; 238
Huggins, R. 95, 95 n. 37; 247
Lust, J. 238
Neusner, J. 50 n. 39; 99 n. 46; 100

MacDonald, J. 238
Mach, M. 4 . 4; 7, 7 nn. 1 9 , 8
;21 n. 52; 181 n. 12; 250
Newsom, C. 9, 9 nn. 27-28; 10
8 . 23; 9, 9 . 26; 16, 16 . 68;
n. 29; 16 n. 68; 27, 27 n. 3; 57
17, 20 . 90; 68 . 88; 131 . 150;
n. 57; 106 n. 73; 120 n. 112; 149,
140, 145 . 2-3; 147
149 nn. 11-14; 150, 150 nn. 16-18,
. 6; 191 . 25; 225 . 65; 248
21; 151, 151 nn. 23-24; 152, 152
Maher, . 43 . 14
n. 31; 154 n. 34; 250
Maier, J. 248
Malherbe, . 121 . 117; 180 . 5; 248 Nickelsburg, G. 86 . 3; 94 . 33;
131 . 149; 135, 135 . 159; 172
Mann, C. 248
. 91; 200 . 10; 201 . 14; 204,
Manson, T. 126, 126 . 131; 248
204 . 19; 250
Mara, M. 70 . 92
Nitzan, . 250
Marcus, J. 248
Nogueira, P. 115 . 94; 250
Martin, D. 248
N11, S. 250
Martin, L. 248
Nolland, J. 250
Martin, T. 179 n. 2; 248
Martyn, L. 125 n. 128; 248
Mayr-Harting, H. 249
O'Neill 14, 15 . 62; 16, 16 . 67;
McKenzie, J. 249
230, 230 . 2; 250
McNamara, M. 43 n. 13; 238
Odeberg, . 250
McNeil, B. 172, 172 n. 91; 173, 173
Olyan, S. 7 . 22; 18, 19 . 82; 250
n. 95; 174, 174 nn. 98-99; 249
Osborne, . 250
Mearns, C. 86 n. 5; 249
Osiek, C. 79 . 117; 80, 80 . 119;
Meeks, W. 103, 103 n. 62; 105
81, 81 . 121; 138, 138 . 171; 250
n. 68; 171 n. 88; 181 n. 12; 249
Otzen, . 250
Meier, S. 27, 27 n. 2; 57 n. 57; 249
Owen, . 250
Mendels, D. 249
Metzger, . 192 . 26
Pageis, . 18 . 79; 251
Migne, J. 53 . 48; 238
Pate, C. 171 . 89; 251
Milik. J. 86, 86 nn. 3-4; 94 n. 31;
Pohl, C. 180 . 5; 251
201 n. 11; 209 nn. 33, 35; 238
Propp, W. 251
Miller, P. D. 249
Miller, P. J. 55 n. 52; 249
Quimron, . 251
Miller, W. 249
Mitchell, S. 20 n. 93; 249
Rahlts, . 238
Molina ri, A. 118 11. 107; 238
Rainbow, P. 12 . 44; 251
Moore, C. 249
Redpath, . 239
Moore, G. 249
Reeves, J. 95, 95 nn. 36-37; 209
Morray-Jones, C. 10, 10 nn. 33-34;
n. 35; 251
124, 124 n. 126; 154, 249
Rengstorf, K. 239
Moses, A. 249
Reventlow, H. 251
Moulton, J. 72 n. 95; 249
Riches, J . 251
Moxnes, H. 249
Riddle, D. 180 n. 8; 251
Mullen, E. 17 n. 73; 249
Roberts, A. 238
Munoa, P. 88 n. 14; 249
Robinson, J. 31 n. 9; 53 n. 49; 118
Murphy, F. 109 n. 79; 249
n. 108; 251
Murray, R. 249
Robinson, S. 251
Musurillo, H. 238
Rowland, C. xi, 5, 5 nn. 11, 13; 6, 43
Myers, C. 249
n. 11; 60 n. 65; 61 n. 67; 63, 63
n. 73; 64, 64 n. 78; 73 n. 97; 82,
Nanos, M. 250
82 n. 123; 87 n. 7; 91 n. 26; 115,
Nebe, G. 250
115 n. 94; 156 n. 43; 164, 164 n. 65;
Nelson, R. 55 n. 52; 250
171, 171 n. 88; 203, 234 n. 15; 251
Rudolph, W. 237
Ruiten, J. 214, 214 . 42; 215 . 43;
251
Russell, D. 252
Saldarini, . 238
Salvesen, A. xi
Schfer, P. 3, 3 nn. 1-2; 4, 4
nn. 3-4; 16 n. 68; 181, 181 n. 14;
225 n. 65; 252
Schams, C. 252
Schiffman, L. 10 n. 28; 145 n. 3;
150 nn. 16; 18, 252
Scholem, G. 252
Schuller, E. 160 n. 52
Schrer, E. xiii, 252
Scott 239
Segal, A. 4, 4 nn. 6 6 1,6;7n. 67;
158, 158 n. 48; 252
Segert, S. 252
Seim, T. 134, 134 n. 156; 252
Sekki, A. 198 n. 2; 252
Sheppard, A. 20 n. 93; 252
Shinan, A. 252
Silberman, L. 252
Skarsaune, O. 53 n. 50; 252
Skarsten, R. 239
Sly, D. 218 n. 47; 252
Smith, M. 115 n. 93; 161, 161
n. 53; 252
Smith, J . 99, 100, 100 nn. 52-53, 55;
101, 101 n. 57; 238
Smith, R. 20 n. 94; 253
Stegeman, H. 149 n. 14; 155 11. 36;
156 n. 42; 162 n. 57; 164 n. 64;
253
Stein, R. 115 . 92; 253
Stem, M. 127 n. 136
Steudel, A. 253
Strack, H. 240
Strelan, R. 221, 221 nn. 54-55; 253
Strugnell, J . 149, 149 nn. 10, 15
Stuckenbruck, L. 12, 12 11. 45; 20
nn. 93-94; 75 n. 101; 76 nn. 103;
105; 128, 128 n. 140; 165 n. 66; 209
nn. 33-34; 210 n. 36; 253
Sullivan, K. v, xii, 253
Suter, D. 204, 204 n. 20; 253
Talbert, C. 253
Thackeray, H. 49 n. 34
Thompson 240
Thrall, M. 253
Topham, M. 253
Trigg, J . 253
Tromp, J . 106, 106 nn. 70-71; 126,
126 nn. 133-135
Ulrich xii, 239
Urbach, . 253
Valantasis, R. 116 . 101; 117, 117
. 106; 253
van der Horst, P. xiii, 130, 130 . 147
van der Toorn, . xiii
Van der Woude, A. 96 n. 40; 253
VanderKam. j . 18 n. 80; 145 n. 3;
155 n. 36; 223, 223 nn. 59-60;
225 n. 67; 253
Vermes, G. 50 . 39; 99 . 46; 148
. 8; 156 . 40; 253
Viviano, . 135, 135 . 160; 254
von Rad, G. 45, 45 . 21; 254
Walls, . 254
Walters, S. 254
Webb, R. 239
Weber, R. 239
Wenham, G. 254
Westermann, C. 199, 199 . 5; 202,
254
Wevers, J. 239
Whiston, W. 239
Whitaker, G. 237
Wiebe, R. 239
Wolff, H. 48 . 29; 254
Wolfson, . 42, 42 . 10; 254
Yadin, Y. 9 . 28; 19 . 88; 96
. 40; 149 . 11; 155, 155 . 35;
156, 207 . 29; 254
Yarbro Coffins, . 64 . 75; 136
. 162; 254
Yoder-Neufeld, . 254
Yonge, C. 239
Zimmerli, W.
60 . 66; 254
SUBJECT
Abraham 37-39, 39 n. 3; 40-42, 42

n. 7; 43-44, 52 n. 44; 54, 54 n. 51;
58, 81, 81 n. 122; 82, 88, 88
nn. 12-14; 96, 100, 103, 121,
124-125, 132, 138, 179, 181-184,
189, 189 n. 24; 190-191, 193-194,
205 n. 22; 217, 242, 249
Adam 5, 6, 18 n. 78; 19, 8 5 8 9
nn. 15, 18; 90, 90 n. 19; 91, 96
n. 38; 136 n. 165; 139
Afterlife 131-133, 133 n. 153;
134-136, 138-139, 176-177, 236
Angel of God 6, 15, 17-18, 32-33,
46-52, 54, 57-61, 66-67, 74, 100,
108, 108 n. 77; 109, 111, 121, 123,
124, 245
Angel of the Lord 6 n. 15; 17
nn. 74-75; 30, 46, 32, 38 n. 2; 50
n. 35; 56, 56 nn. 54-55; 57, 58, 58
n. 59; 59-60, 62, 66 n. 83; 69,
71-72, 87 n. 10; 72 n. 93; 90 n. 19;
109, 109 n. 80; 114, 181, 184-186,
230 n. 4
Angelology 4, 4 n. 8; 5, 5 n. 11; 6,
7, 7 nn. 20, 22; 8, 12, 12 n. 46; 15
n. 64; 17 n. 72; 18 n. 80; 20
nn. 90, 92; 42, 63 n. 73; 145 n. 3;
150-152, 168 n. 80; 169 n. 81; 229,
231, 233 n. 12; 235, 241-242,
244-247, 251-252
Angelomorphic 4 n. 8; 5 6 ,6 n. 14;
9, 11-12, 12 nn. 43, 46; 13, 13
n. 65; 16, 21 n. 96; 27-28, 28
nn. 4-5; 29, 31, 31 n. 10; 32, 34,
78-79, 85 n. 1; 87, 88 n. 11; 89,
89 n. 16; 90, 94, 94 n. 32; 96-97,
97 n. 44; 104 n. 63; 105 n. 67;
106-107, 108 n. 76; 109, 112, 112
n. 85; 114, 114 n. 88; 115-116,
118, 119 n. 109; 121, 123, 123
n. 124; 124, 127, 129-131, 140,
140 n. 175; 141, 154, 162 n. 59;
166 n. 72; 173-174, 177, 225
n. 66; 228, 230-231, 231 nn. 6;9
232-233, 234 n. 15; 245-246
INDEX
Angelophany 34, 56, 69, 78, 83, 127,

185, 192 n. 27
Angels, minister 85 n. 2; 181
Angelus 2, 106-107, l l l n . 83; 193
Anthropomorphic 17-18, 27-30, 32,
34, 37, 65-66, 81, 83, 228, 231
Angelikos Bios 134 11. 155
,89 vii, 6 n. 17; 12 nn.
Apocalypse
45-46; 13, 20 n. 94; 31, 33, 52
n. 44; 74-75, 75 n. 101; 81, 81
n. 122; 87, 90, 91 n. 24; 115,
123-124, 126 n. 132; 128 n. 140;
136 n. 162; 138 n. 170; 145 n. 3;
146 n. 4; 150, 156 n. 43; 171, 220,
230-231, 242, 246-247, 253
Appearance vii, 22, 25, 27, 27 n. 1;
29-32, 34, 41-42, 54, 58, 6062,
62 n. 71; 63, 67, 67 n. 85; 68-69,
69 n. 90; 71, 73, 8 2 9 4,94,83
n. 33; 96-97, 103, 107, 109,
111-112, 115, 118-119, 119 n. 109;
120-121, 121 n. 117; 126, 131,
139, 145, 183-184, 189-191, 192
n. 27; 195, 208, 212, 219, 225
n. 66; 228-229, 251
Archangel 13, 19, 21, 50 n. 39;
51-52, 56, 61-62, 65-66, 80, 88
n. 11; 98-99, 99 n. 46; 100, 100
n. 56; 105, 126, 152, 159, 186-187,
201, 203, 211, 213, 244, 253
Azazel 40, 201, 203, 203 n. 17; 204
n. 19; 210, 212, 223
n.
Blessed Ones 172-173, 178
Brightness 60, 70-71, 131
Christology ix, 1, 4, 4 n. 8; 5, 6
n. 14; 9-12, 12 nn. 43-46; 13, 13
nn. 50-52; 14, 14 nn. 53-56;
15-16, 20 n. 93; 28 n. 4; 29, 75
n. 101; 85 n. 1; 106 n. 73; 114,
114 n. 87; 115 n. 94; 128 n. 140;
136 n. 164; 145 n. 3; 192 n. 27;
227, 231-232, 232 n. 10; 233,
233 n. 13; 234-235, 241-247,
249-251, 253
Clothing 28, 70, 82, 92, 170 n. 87;

187 n. 23
Communities viii, 1, 7, 9, 15 n. 61;
23, 145-148, 162, 167, 171 n. 89;
174-175, 178, 228, 251
Congregation 2, 119, 158, 161-164,
168-169, 175, 212, 252
Copulation 139
Corporeal 132, 195
Cosmology ix, 1, 64 n. 75; 209 n. 35;
227, 229, 229 n. 1; 233, 235, 254
Creation 40, 129, 212, 248
Creation 19, 40-41, 80, 85, 85 n. 2;
86-87, 89, 91, 129, 168, 197-200,
212, 217, 225, 248
151, 161, 164, 173, 175-178, 190,

217-218, 229-232, 235-236
Eeating 23, 50 n. 37; 55, 145,
179-181, 183-184, 184 n. 19; 188,
190-192, 195, 228
Elohim 11, 97
Enoch 5-6, 10, 10 n. 31; 61, 64,
85-86, 86 nn. 3-5, 87; 87 n. 8;
90-91, 91 n. 26; 92, 92 n. 27;
93-94, 94 n. 33; 9 6 , 1 2 4,103,98
132, 137, 139, 145, 148 n. 9; 200,
200 n. 10; 201, 201 nn. 11, 14;
202, 203-204, 204 nn. 1 9 , 2 0 5 ;20
207, 209, 209 n. 35; 210-215, 217,
219-224, 228-229, 236-238,
240-241, 243, 246-247, 249-251, 253
Epiphany 119, 185
Eschatology 64 n. 75
Essenes 148, 148 n. 8; 155 n. 36;
167, 172 n. 92; 173, 175-176, 239,
241, 249, 253
Evil spirits 165
Exalted Patriarchs 12, 31, 234
Daughter of Job viii, 129-130, 140,

170 n. 87; 225 n. 66
David xii, 108-109, 109 n. 80; 139,
199 n. 4; 240
Dead Sea Scrolls 1-2, 9, 9 n. 26; 10,
10 n. 28; 17 n. 71; 18 nn. 78, 80;
30, 37, 40, 48 n. 31; 96 n. 38; 106
n. 73; 145 n. 3; 147 n. 6; 148, 148
n. 8; 149, 149 nn. 1 3 1 5 0,150;14Fallen Angels 201, 247
n. 18; 154, 155 n. 36; 156 nn. 40,
Falling to the Ground 30, 32-34, 79,
43; 161 n. 53; 165 n. 66; 167, 171
127
n. 89; 173, 175, 198 n. 2; 200, 207,
Fear xii, 30, 32-34, 5 8 , 6 7 5 9 ,
209 n. 33; 212, 225 n. 67; 233
67 n. 85; 69, 79, 83, 102-104, 108
n. 11; 237-241, 243-244, 248-254
n. 77; 115 n. 91; 172, 185,
Demons xiii, 19 n. 88; 21, 165,
190-191, 201, 217, 222, 228
Fiery Appearance 30
216-217, 222, 240-241, 247
Divine 6, 8-9, 11-12, 12 n. 44; 13,
13 n. 52; 14-15, 17, 17 n. 73; 20,
Gabriel 19, 19 nn. 85, 89; 21, 32,
21, 27, 33-35, 37-38, 41, 41 n. 6;
42, 61-63, 65, 67, 159, 203-204,
42, 42 n. 8; 46, 48-50, 52, 54-57,
245, 250
59-60, 63, 64 n. 79; 67-68, 71,
Garments 80, 82, 115, 129-130
75-76, 82-83, 85-86, 89-90, 93,
Gender 130, 130 n. 148; 134 n. 156;
98, 101 n. 58; 102-103, 103 n. 62;
218 n. 47; 225 n. 66; 252
104-105, 107-108, 110-111, 114,
Giants ix, 40, 86, 94, 95 nn. 36;37
115 n. 95; 117-118, 122 nn. 119-120;
197, 202-204, 206-207, 209, 209
124, 128, 128 n. 139; 129, 132,
n. 32; 210, 210 n. 36; 211-212,
138-140, 146-147, 151-153, 155,
214-216, 216 n. 44; 217-222,
158, 160-161, 165, 173-174, 175
224-225, 229, 239, 247, 251
n. 101; 176-179, 181, 183, 188,
Giborim 197, 206-207, 210-211, 223
191, 191 n. 25; 192, 192 n. 26;
God 4 - 6 , 6 nn. 15-16; 10 n. 35; 11,
194, 198-203, 205-206, 208-209,
11 n. 42; 12, 12 n. 43; 13-17, 17
211, 214, 216-217, 221-222, 224,
n. 70, 75; 18, 20 n. 93; 21 n. 96;
232, 234-236, 240-241, 243-244,
31-35, 38, 38 n. 2; 39-40, 42,
247-249, 254
44-45, 45 n. 22; 4 6 4 9,49n. 33;
50-53, 53 n. 49; 54, 54 n. 51;
55-58, 58 n. 61; 59-62, 62 n. 69;
Earthly 11, 14, 33-34, 73, 88, 92,
66, 66 n. 83; 67, 70, 72-76, 80-81,
114, 123, 129, 132, 134, 148-149,
66
83, 85, 85 n. 1; 87 n. 10; 88, 88

n. 11; 89, 89 n. 18; 90, 90 n. 19;
91, 93, 97-101, 101 n. 58; 102-103,
104 n. 63; 105, 105 nn. 67-68;
106, 106 n. 70; 107-109, 109 n. 80;
110-111, 113, 115, 115 n. 93; 117
n. 104; 118-124, 126 n. 133;
127-128, 128 n. 141; 129-130, 132,
134, 137, 137 n. 169; 139, 145-146,
146 n. 5; 147, 150, 152, 154, 157,
160, 163-170, 173, 176-179, 181
n. 12; 182, 188-191, 197-200,
202-205, 205 nn. 2 3 , 2 0 6 - 2 0 7 ;24
207 n. 28; 211-212, 214-218,
218 n. 46; 221-223, 223 n. 62;
224-225, 228-230, 230 n. 4; 231-233,
233 n. 13; 234, 234 nn. 14-17;
235, 235 n. 18; 236
God as warrior 157
Guardian angels 75
Guests 124, 179, 179 n. 2; 182-183,
189-191, 194, 229
Heavenly Ascent 8, 10 n. 34; 115,
123 n. 125; 146, 153 n. 32; 154
n. 33; 243-246, 252
Heavenly 6 1 0,9n. 34; 12, 17-18,
20. 27. 29. 31, 33-35, 50, 57 n. 57;
73-75, 79, 83, 86, 98, 107, 113,
115, 115 n. 94; 123, 126, 129,
130-131, 137, 145-146, 148-151,
153-155, 157, 159, 161, 163-164,
173, 175-177, 181, 190, 201, 203,
206, 209, 212-213, 217-218, 228,
230-232, 234-236
high priest viii, 3, 59, 64, 64 n. 79;
110, 126 n. 133; 127, 127 n. 137;
128, 128 n. 139; 129, 140, 148,
176, 244
Holy of Holies 176
Holy Ones 14, 92, 94, 97, 104, 132,
152, 159, 162, 162 n. 60; 163-164,
166-167, 207-208
Holy War 242-243
holy war 56, 96 n. 40; 126 n. 130;
157, 159
honeycomb 181 n. 13; 187-188, 192
n. 26; 194
Hospitality 1, 23, 37, 42, 58,59
124-125, 145, 179, 179 nn. 1, 3-4;
180, 180 nn. 5-6, 8; 182-183, 183
n. 18; 184-194, 194 n. 31; 229,
240, 247-248, 251
Hosts 2, 47, 111, 127, 158, 165, 184,
194-195, 241
Humans 1-6, 6 n. 14; 7-9, 9 n. 26;

10, 10 n. 30; 11-20, 21 n. 96;
22-23, 27-29, 33, 37, 39, 44,
54-55, 61, 63, 66, 68, 74-76, 83,
85-87, 90-91, 106-107, 110, 114,
126, 131-134, 138, 140-141,
145-148, 151-155, 156 n. 44;
157-158, 160, 162-163, 166-167,
169-172, 175-179, 181-182, 184,
192-195, 197-198, 198 n. 2, 199,
202-206, 211-212, 215, 218-219,
220, 222, 225, 225 n. 65; 227-233,
235-236
Hybrid offspring 23, 145, 197, 205,
210, 212, 215, 222, 224
Iaoel 81-82
Incorporeal 27, 73, 132, 181, 190,
192, 218, 230
Interaction viii, 19, 22, 46, 54-55, 59
n. 64; 141, 143, 145, 147, 167, 179,
228-229
Intermediary 244
intermediary 128, 234-235
Jabbok 44, 46, 49-54, 99-102, 249
Jacob/Israel 98, 100-101, 228
Jesus xiii, 4, 6, 11, 12 nn. 46-47; 13,
13 nn. 48-49; 15, 16, 21 n. 95; 24
n. 1; 32-33, 42, 52-54, 66 n. 83;
67-69, 69 n. 90; 70-71, 73, 75, 75
n. 101; 76 n. 102; 85, 111-112, 112
n. 85; 114-115, 115 n. 93; 116, 116
n. 97; 117-118, 120-125, 133-134,
134 n. 156; 140, 145 n. 3; 155 n. 36;
161 n. 53; 180-181, 191-192, 192
n. 27; 193-195, 233, 233 n. 13;
234, 234 n. 15; 235, 235 n. 18;
240-242, 244-245, 247-248, 250,
252-253
John the Baptist 66, 111-112, 112
nn. 85-86; 113, 140, 155 n. 36;
228, 247, 253
Judaism 4-5, 5 nn. 9, 11; 12 n. 45;
16, 42 nn. 9-10; 50 n. 39; 61 n. 67;
67 n. 86; 72, 75 n. 101; 76 n. 103;
85, 85 n. 1; 90, 90 n. 19; 99 n. 46;
103 n. 62; 105 n. 68; 127 n. 136;
128 n. 140; 131 n. 149; 147, 147
n. 6; 154 n. 33; 161 n. 54; 172 n. 91;
224, 229 n. 1; 230, 230 n. 4; 231-233,
235, 239, 242-243, 245, 247-254
Judge 47, 57, 57 n. 57; 58 n. 60; 58
n. 159; 59, 96-97, 127, 131, 170,
171, 184-186, 223, 241, 248
Lithargoel 118
Liturgy, angelic 67 . 86; 146, 149,
149 . 10, 13, 15; 150, 239, 251
Liturgical space 47, 171, 176-177,233
LXX xiii, 2, 8, 11 . 37; 17, 19-20,
37, 39, 43, 48, 50 . 38; 56, 56
. 53; 61, 62 . 69; 63, 65, 72, 72
. 93; 82, 99, 100 . 55; 107 . 76;
108, 110-111, 122 . 120; 131-132,
157, 180, 184, 205-207, 209, 215,
224, 252
Name 6, 6 nn. 15-16; 11, 17 n. 75;

18, 19 n. 88; 44, 87 n. 10; 88 n. 11;
90 n. 19; 98, 100, 105 nn. 67-68; 117
n. 104; 146 n. 5; 230 n. 4; 241, 245
Natural order 169, 197, 220
Nephilim 197-199, 199 n. 3;
206-208, 210-211
Noah 85-86, 93-94, 94 n. 33; 95, 95
nn. 35, 37; 96-97, 103, 139, 197-198,
203, 208, 208 n. 31; 212, 214-216,
228, 247
Nuntius 106, 106 . 72; 107, 125-126
Mamre 38, 40, 53 . 50; 189-191,

Paul xi, 10, 10 . 34; 15, 15
194, 249
nn. 63-64; 21, 21 . 96; 30, 42, 76
Man 5 . 11, 13; 58, 63 . 73; 64,
. 102; 85, 85 . 2; 115 . 95; 121,
64 . 75; 82 . 123; 98, 162 . 57;
121 . 117; 122, 122 . 119-120,
185, 194, 233 . 12; 241-242, 245,
122; 123, 123 . 123-125;
247, 249-251
124-125, 134-135, 138 . 170; 140,
Marriage 133, 133 . 154; 134, 139
147, 149 . 13; 167-168, 168 . 80;
Martyrdom 120-123, 136, 136
169-170, 170 . 86-87; 171, 176
. 163-165; 137, 137 . 167
. 105; 178, 179 . 2; 180, 200
Melchizedek 6, 30, 85, 96, 96 . 40;
m 8; 205 . 22; 228
97, 97 . 43; 98, 126 . 130; 139,
152 . 29; 228, 2 4 3 , 2 4 6 - 2 4 7 ,244 50 . 35; 59, 59 . 62;
192
254
Pneuma 170, 218
Messenger 8, 12, 15, 15 . 64; 17,
Post-mortem 141
17 . 70; 27, 28 . 3; 41, 41 . 6;
Priesthood
9 6 1 6 5,153,129,97
48, 49 . 33; 50, 57, 69, 71, 75,
82, 104, 106, 108 . 76; 109-110,
. 67; 250
110 . 82; 111, 111 . 83; 112-113,
Prince 2, 30, 56, 63, 65, 72 . 96;
119, 121-122, 125-126, 126 . 134;
97, 108 . 76; 160, 241
127-128, 128 . 141-142; 140,
Prophets 18, 76, 82-83, 109-111,
146, 227, 249, 253
113, 139, 231, 238, 247, 252
Metatron 91 . 26; 92-93, 139, 229
Purity 148, 158-160, 163-164,
Michael xii, 4 . 8; 7, 13, 13
166-169, 173-175, 178, 188, 200,
. 50-51; 19, 19 . 83-84, 89;
200 . 8; 204, 204 . 20; 205
21, 29, 42, 56, 56 . 53; 61, 63-65,
. 21; 228, 244, 247, 253
72 . 96; 78, 80, 89, 92, 96 . 40;
97, 97 . 43; 98, 105, 126, 126
Qumran 7, 7 . 22; 9, 9 . 28; 10,
. 130; 145 . 3; 156 . 42;
10 . 31; 15 . 32; 64, 39-41, 43,
158-161, 189-191, 203-204, 238
43 . 15; 56 . 56; 61, 63 . 74;
Monotheism 11, 11 . 42; 12 . 44;
65, 86, 91 . 25; 93-94, 96, 96
81, 233, 233 . 13; 234-235, 235
. 40, 42; 97-98, 120, 126 . 130;
. 18; 241, 247, 250-251
127 . 137; 145 . 3; 147-148, 148
Moses viii, 3, 6, 33, 40-41, 54 . 51;
. 9; 149, 149 . 10-11; 14-15;
56, 56 . 54; 57, 103-104, 104
150 . 16; 151, 154, 154 . 34; 155
. 66; 105, 105 . 67-68; 106, 106
. 36-37; 156, 156 . 39, 42;
. 69, 70-71, 73; 107, 114 . 89;
157, 161, 162 . 57; 164 . 64;
115, 115 . 91; 116, 119-120,
166, 166 . 69-71; 167-168, 168
125-126, 126 . 132; 134; 139-140,
. 80; 169, 169 . 81; 172 . 92;
161, 181, 181 . 12; 216-218, 218
174, 175-178, 198, 198 . 2;
. 46; 228, 239, 244, 249, 253
209-213, 215, 224
Mysticism ix, 1, 6 . 15; 10, 10 . 33;
124 . 126; 150, 174 . 101; 227, 235,
Raphael 19, 19 . 86; 21, 56, 65,66
243-246, 248-249, 251-252
105, 159, 181, 186-187, 203, 210-211
Rechabites 5, 147, 171-172, 172

n. 92; 174-175
Resurrection 21-22, 73, 115, 115
n. 92; 131, 131 n. 149; 133-135,
135 nn. 159-160; 173, 191-192,
242, 247, 250, 253-254
Righteous humans as angels 4 - 5
Rivalry 3, 4, 225 n. 65; 252
Sadducees 21, 21 n. 97; 22, 133,
135, 135 nn. 158, 160; 241, 247,
254
Sariel 45 n. 22; 50 n. 39; 51, 52, 99
n. 46; 159, 100 n. 54; 253
Satan 18, 18 nn. 77, 79; 30-31, 59,
81, 123, 123 n. 125; 243, 245,
250-251
Sinai 41, 66, 103-104, 106, 106
n. 73; 107, 119-120, 120 n. 112;
181, 181 n. 12; 244
Son of Man 61, 63-64, 64 nn.
75-76, 80; 65, 83, 86, 93, 120, 194,
241-242, 245, 250
Sons of God 11, 62 n. 69; 72, 97,
100, 134, 168, 197-198, 198 n. 2;
218, 221, 223, 223 n. 62; 224-225,
240, 242
Spirits 2, 152, 163, 165, 168 n. 76;
190, 217-218, 244
Stars 2, 8, 30, 74-75, 104, 131, 131
n. 150, 138
Stephen viii, 85, 118-119, 119
nn. 109-110; 120-121, 138 n. 172;
140, 172, 228, 249-250
sustenance 180-181, 181 n. 13; 82
Taxo 125-126, 126 nn. 134-135;
127, 140, 228, 253
Teacher of Righteousness 150,
161-162, 240
Temple 1, 6
1
8,16-18,8nn. 80-81;
19, 23, 28, 37, 37 . 1; 39, 43-44,
56, 56 n. 53; 67 n. 86; 71, 77, 77
n. 110; 81, 83, 87, 91-92, 98, 102
n. 59; 107, 111, 129-130, 135,
139-141, 147, 149-150, 154, 156,
156 n. 42; 163, 165, 167, 175-177,
179, 182, 184, 194, 201, 205, 207,

213, 219-220, 223-225, 225 . 66;
227, 229-233, 241, 244, 249,
252-253
Theomorphic 89, 96, 107, 147, 177, 228
Theraputae 173-175
Throne 33, 60, 73, 88, 101 n. 58;
104, 161, 161 n. 54; 176-177, 233,
233 n. 13; 235 n. 18; 236, 241
Transformation 5
1
0,9-10,7n. 33;
22, 54, 66, 73, 79, 91, 91 n. 24;
92, 103, 105, 107, 115-116, 121,
124 n. 126; 129-130, 132, 137
n. 168; 138, 138 n. 170; 139, 141,
148, 154-155, 159-160. 170 n. 87;
173, 175-177, 228-229, 230 n. 3;
246, 249
Transfiguration 69 n. 90; 114, 114
n. 89; 115, 115 nn. 91-94; 116, 116
n. 103; 119 n. 110; 140, 242, 249,253
Two Powers 4, 4 nn. 6-7; 61 n. 67;
158, 158 n. 48; 252
Uriel 19, 19 n. 87; 100, 100 n. 56;
101, 216 n. 44
199,
Veil 103, 119, 167, 167 n. 75;
168-169
Veneration 12, 12 n. 45; 20
nn. 93-94; 33 n. 11; 75 n. 101; 76
nn. 103, 105; 89, 128, 128 n. 140;
171 n. 88, 253
Watchers 86, 92-95, 95 nn. 34-35;
200-201, 201 nn. 12-13; 204-205,
207-208, 210-213, 215, 219-221,
221 nn. 54-55; 222-224, 253
Worship
11-12,31,33,48,55,61,
75, 76, 76 nn. 102-103; 89,90
105, 127-130, 137, 137 n. 169, 147,
151, 154, 163, 167-169, 171, 177,
189, 233 n. 13; 241, 245, 247,
249-250, 253
young men 37, 41-42, 70-71, 79-81,
83, 130, 130 n. 148
Zosimus 171-172, 172 nn. 90-91;
173, 173 n. 95, 174 nn. 98-99; 249
ANCIENT LITERATURE
INDEX
OLD TESTAMENT
Genesis
1:26
1:26-27
2-3
2:7
2:17
3:17f
3:22 a, b
3:24
4:25
5-15
5:18-24
5:21-32
5:24
5:29-9:28
6
6:1
6:1-4
6:1-12
6:2
6:2, 4
6:3
6:4
6:5
6:5-8
6:9
12
12:2
14:18
16
16-21
16:7f
16:13
17:2
18
18-19
83
85, 8'9
85
162
87
87
86
18 n. 81, 19
91
207
91
87
91, 93, 139
93
59 n. 63, 102,
204-205, 216,
218, 221--222
202
10 n. 30, 23,
197-200, 204,
205-207, 207
n. 28, 209, 212,
214, :216, 219
n. 48 ,221, 224,
229
214
11 n. 37, 168,
202
205, 223-224
202, 207 n. 28, 214
202, 217
198
93
93
45
38
96
17 n. 74, 29, 72
n. 93
124
146
47
38
38 n. 2, 124-125,
179, 194, 228
18:1-3
18:2
18:2-15
19:1
19:1-4
19:15-16
22
22:11,15
23:22
24
24:7
25:8
25:26
25:31
27
27:45
28
28:10-22
32
32:1-2
32:7
32:9-12
32:22-31
32:24-32
32:25
32:29
32:30
32:33
35
35:10
38:8
38:18
39
41:37-45
46:2
46:20
48:16
50-52
52:21
37-44, 83,
181-184, 189,
191, 193, 194,
37-38
182-183
193
183
193
183
17 n. 74, 72
n. 93
146
57
17 n. 74, 72
n. 93
146
132
46, 99 n. 50
44
45
44
101
51
38 n. 2, 44-5
83, 99 n. 51,
101, 102
98
44
45
44
54
99
52, 99
57, 101
50 n. 37
99 n. 51, 101
46 n. 24
133 n. 154
52 n. 44
45
76
46 n. 24
76
72, 146
76
45
Exodus
1
3
3:2
3:5
3:6
3:14
4:24
12:12
14:13-14
14:19
15:3
16:15
20:19
18-20
18:11
20:3
23:2f
23:20-21
23:20-23
23:21-22
24:9-11
24:11
24:16
25, 26
33:20
34
34:28-9
34:28
34:29-30
34:29-35
34:33, 35
103
72 n. 93, 103
17 n. 74, 30, 33,
56 n. 54, 57
56
33
117
17
156
157
146
157-8
181
33
103
156
156
98
72
146
56
181
47
115
18 n. 81
47
106
181
181 n . 12
103
115 n . 91, 119
103
Leviticus
6:10
12:1-8
15:25-30
16
16:8, 10, 26
24:16
63
130
130
203
203
117
Numbers
13:32-33
13:33
20
22:31
22
n.
n.
17
105
23:22
28:9-10
206
199 n . 3
17 n. 74
32
17, 17 n. 74, 72
n. 93, 146
157
149
Deuteronomy
2:10-11
9:9,18
199
181
n.
23:9-14
25:5-10
32
32:1-43
32:8
34:5
33:2
Joshua
5
5:13-15
6-24
8:25
Judges
2:1
2:1-2, 4, 5
2:1-4
2:1-5
5:23
6, 13
6-13
6:11
6:11-18
6:11-24
6:13
6:20-22
6:21
6:22-23
6:23
6:24
13
159
133 n . 154
168
105
11 n. 37, 62
n. 69, 72
116
120
228
19 n. 89, 33,
55-56, 78, 157
n . 47
56
199 n. 3
13:2-22
13:3-21
13:17
13:20
13:22
13:23
14
20:46
27, 57, 57 n. 57
57
29
27
27
17, 103, 146, 228
181, 184-186
57
193
58, 185
38 n. 2
185 n . 20
192
47, 101
33
57
41 n. 6, 67 n. 84,
72 n. 93
193
58, 185
46
192
33, 101
57
186
199 n . 3
Ruth.
4:1-10
133
1 Samuel
24:16-17
29:9
146
108
2 Samuel
14:17
14:17, 20
88
108
n.
154
19:27
23:8-39
108
199 n. 4
1 Kings
14:9
14:18
22:19-22
152
58 n. 61
17
2 Kings
1
2:11
17:34
19
19:32-35
19:35
25:11
72 n. 93
91, 113, 116
46 !1. 24
72 n. 93
157
157
199 n. 3
1 Chronicles
11:10-47
21:1
21:12-30
21:16
21:20
21:26
23:6
199 n. 4
18 n. 77
146
157
32
56 n. 55
11 n. 38
2 Chronicles
12:5-8
15:1-8
19:1-3
21:12-15
36:15-16
110
110
110
110
110
Job
1-2
1:6
1:14, 16, 17, 18
2:1
4:18
5:1
20:15
36:14
31:32
33:23
38:7
40:11, 19
41:25
Psalms
6:6
8:5
29:1
17
11 n. 37, 20
n. 91, 205
20 n. 91
20 n. 91, 205
20 n. 91
20 n. 91
20 n. 91
20 n. 91
179
20, 162
11 n. 37, 20
n. 91, 131, 205
20 n. 91
20 n. 91
131
33
11 n. 37, 152,
205
34
34, 35
34:7
78:23-25
82
82:1, 6
82:6
88:4-6
89:7
91:11
110
110:4
115:17
135:4
138:1
145:14
17
72 n. 93
146
180
17, 96
11 n. 37, 152
205
131
152
72
98
96
131
46 n. 24
152
199 n. 3
Ecclesiastes
5:5
9:4-10
27
131
Isaiah
6
6:1-13
6:3
9:6
9:6-7
24-27
37
38:18-19
40:3
42:13
44:26
63:9
19
140 n. 173
146 n. 5
107 n. 76
11 n. 38
131 n. 149
72 n. 93
131
112
157 n. 47
110 n. 82
146
Jeremiah
35
35:2, 3, 5, 18
39:9
52:15
175, 178
172
199 n. 3
199 n. 3
Ezekiel
1
1:26
1:28
1:26-27
8:2, 40:3
8-2
9:2, 3, 11
10
10:2, 6, 7
32:22, 24
37
44:17
46:4-5
102 n. 61
47, 98
33
60
60
62 n. 71
63
19 n. 81
63
199 n. 3
131 n. 149
63
149
268
Daniel
1-6
2:46
3
3:25
3:28
4:10, 14, 20
4:13, 17, 23
6:22
7
7-12
7:13
7:18, 27
7:28
8:15
8:16
8:16-17
8:11, 12:1
9:20-21
9:21
10:5-6
10:6
10:13
10:16, 18
10:20
10:21
11:5
11:36
11:40-12:3
ANCIENT
LITERATURE
61
61
65
11 n. 37, 61, 205
146
208
201
146
17, 102 n. 61
61, 146
61-65, 82, 128,
158
64
61
62
19, 61
32
56
67 n. 85
19, 61-62
62-63, 68
63, 82, 102
19, 56, 61, 72
n. 96
63
56
19, 61, 63
72 n.96
152
156
INDEX
12:1
12:2-3
12:3
12:6
61, 63
131
120 n. 113
63
Hosea
6:2
12
12:6
131 n. 149
102
157 n. 47
Haggai
1:12-13
110
Zechariah
1:8-11
l:9f
1:9, 14
2:1, 4
2:1-7
4:1-5
5:5-10
6:4-5
12:7-9
59-60
146
59
60
59
59
59
59
109 n. 80
Malachi
1:1
2:7
3:1
3: If.
4:5
111
127
27-28, 111-11
227, 231
126
111-113
NEW TESTAMENT
Matthew
1-2
1:20
2:13, 19
3:17
5:8
5:43
10:40
11:7-14
16:13-20
17:1-9
17:10-13
18:10
19:1
22:23
22:23-33
22:30
22:39
25:35-36
146
66 n. 83
66 n. 83
116 n. 97
75
194 n. 31
122, 194
112-113
116 n. 102
69 . 90, 114
113
73, 146 n. 5, 194
194 n. 31
133
133, 225 n . 6
138
194 n. 31
193
28:2-7
28:3
28:4-5
69
30, 102
32
Mark
1:1-14
1:2
1:2-4
1:11
1:13
5:42
6:14
6:14-16
8:27-30
8:38
9:2-10
9:37
12:13-17
12:18
112
68, 113
112
116 n. 97
68
72
112
113
116 n. 102
68
69 n . 90, 114
122
133
132
12:18-27
12:25
12:28-34
12:31, 33
13:32
13:37
14:51-52
16:5
16:6-7
132, 225
66
68
133
194 n . 31
68
221
68
67, 102
68
Luke
1
1-2
1:11-12
1:11-24
1:19
1:26-38
2: If
2:9-15, 21
2:13-14
2:15
3:22
4:33
7:24
7:24-35
8:56
9:18-21
9:28-36
9:29
9:39
9:52
10:16
10:27
13:11
20:27
20:27-40
20:34-40
20:35
20:39
24:4-5
24:22
23
24:33-43
24:37
24:42
24:44-48
29
146
32
66
146 n . 5
66
66-67
66
130, 146
146 n . 5
116
192
15 n. 64
112 n . 86
72
116 n . 102
69 n. 90, 114
102
192
15 n. 64
122
191 n . 31
192
22, 133
133
225 n . 66
134
134 n . 157
69
72
191-192, 195
192
73
192 n . 26
192
n.
John
1:14
1:18
4:12
6:67-71
10:304
98
47
47
116
117
n.
n.
102
105
13:20
20:12
Acts
1:10
1:10-11
4:1
4:1-2
5:19
6:11
6:12-13
6:15
122
70
7:30
7:33
7:38
7:53
7:55
8:26
9:7
10:3-4
10:34
10:45
11:13
12
12:7
12:7-9
12:7-11
12:12
12:15
12:23
14:11-12
14:12
22:9
22:22
23:1
23:6-8
23:8
23:8-9
23:9
28:7
28:8-9
68
70
22
133
72, 146
118
119
119-122, 121
n. 117, 172
30
56
120
120
120
146
63
32
32
72
29
72f
30
73
146
72
72-74
146
21 n . 96, 179
31
63
134
134
134-136
21-22
133
134 n. 157
180 n. 5
74
Romans
5:12
8:38
12:2
12:13
13:8, 10
13:9
87
121
115
180
194
194
1 Corinthians
3:1
4:9
123
121
n.
n.
n.
n.
116
95
5
31
31
n.
116, 169-171
n.
n.
270
ANCIENT LITERATURE
INDEX
6:2
6:3
170-71
170
1 2 1 n.
11:3
167,
11:5
168
5 9 n. 6 3 , 1 2 1
n. 1 1 6 , 1 4 6 , 1 6 7 ,
1-2
1:6
2:2
114
11:10
169, 1 7 1 , 178
1 7 0 n. 8 7
2:5
5-7
170
96
121
171
n. 1 1 6 ,
13:2
180, 180
95,
1 1 5 n. 9 5
13
13:1
15:51
Philemon
17
116,
168,
169
130,
123
Hebrews
146
120
193,
194
James
2 Corinthians
2:17
3:18
11:14
2:8
2:24
123
9 5 , 1 7 8 n.
108
30, 1 2 1
116
n.
31
1 5 . 64
1 Peter
11:23-33
12:1-10
123
123
12:2-5
12:3
12:7
123
1 2 1 n.
117
2 Peter
121
116
1:16-18
2:4
3:19-20
4:9
n.
1 9 4 .
222
1 8 0 . 5
1 1 4 . 90
222
Galatians
1:8
1:12
1:16,
3-4
29
122
2:20
Jude
1 2 2 n.
3:19
121
29, 120,
n. 1 1 6
4:1-11
121
4:14
15,
nn.
121
121
116-117,
121-123,
4:21-31
4:29
5:14
5-10
6
119
165,
193
125
124
1 9 4 n. 3 1
Philippians
2:25
122
1:15
2:18
53, 101
1 1 4 , 146,
1 Thessalonians
4:16
121
Revelation
1:13
1:13-14
1:14
1:16
1:20
n.
116
1 Timothy
171
4-22
146
74
5:11
6:9-11
74
6:11
68
74
74
74
8:10
10:1
29
30
14:16
29
74
15:6
16
19:17
1 8 0 n. 5
19:10
1 8 0 n. 5
19:9
22:8
22:8-9
1 8 0 n. 5
136
8:2
8:3-5
3:2
1:8
68
4:8
5:2
5:10
Titus
63
64
1 2 0 . 1 1 3
30, 74
7 4 11. 1 0 0
7:1-2
7:8-10
Colossians
221
221
22:9
1 2 6 .
132
146
30
33,
75
33
75
74
74-75
OLD TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA

Additions to the Book of Esthtr
15:13-15
Tobit
1 0 8 n.
77
3:17
19
1 8 6 - 1 8 7 , 1 9 1 n. 2 5
5-12
2 Esdras
111
1:40
n.
83
5:3-6
5:4
65
19
66
5:5
1 Maccabees
7:41
146,
157
5:10-12
5:21
6:5
7:8
9:1,
2 Maccabees
3:26f
7:14
102
11:6
15:22f
146
157
131
n.
149
3 Maccabees
157
6:18
4:10
157
7:19
132, 138
n. 1 7 2
16:15
132, 138
n. 1 7 2
Prayer of Azariah
1:26
62
Susanna
1:55,
59
19
19
11:2, 7
12
19
181
12:1-20
12:12-15
193
1 2 6 n.
12:15
19, 66, 80
187
12:15-16
12:16-22
12:19
4 Maccabees
146
66
72, 146
187
132
66, 76 n.
187
Wisdom of Jesus Son of Sirach

44-45
44:16
103
91
45:2
48:9-10
103
113
48:10
126
48:21
49:16
146,
87
157
Wisdom of Solomon
2:23
87
10:1
87
PSEUDEPIGRAPHAL LITERATURE
Apocalypse of Abraham
1-8 "
9-31
9-32
10-18
10:3-4
11:1-3
13
13:6-4
Apocalypse of Sethel
9 0 n. 2 3
9 0 n. 2 3
9 0 n. 2 3
81
81
4 n. 5
2:10 "
3:3
146
48:19
49:4, 16
81
82
181
12:12
50-51
50:1
50:4
91
9 0 n. 2 3
91
9 0 n. 2 3
14:4-6
17
2 0 3 n. 1 7
2 0 3 n, 1 7
6 7 n. !86,
51:1
51:5-6
20:6-7
146
2 0 3 n. 1 7
51:6-15
52:4
54:3
56:12
Apocalypse of Moses
40:2 "
8 0 n. 1 2 0
58:3,
59:4
60:10
9 0 n. 2 3
9 0 n. 2 3
91
22
91
90 n. 2 3
90 n. 2 3
9 0 n. 2 3
9 0 n. 2 3
9 0 n. 2 3
9 0 n. 2 3
102
Apocalypse of Zfphaniah
6:11-14
31, 131
6:11-15
76 n. 102
Ascension of Isaiah
1-5
3:13-4:22
5:11
6-11
7:21
7:25
7:37
8-9
8:15
8:16-17
9:24-26
9:31
9:33-34
9:37-38, 39
11:35
136-137
137
137
136-137
33
137 n . 169
146
76
137
137
136
146
137 n . 169
137 n . 169
137 n. 169
2 Baruch
32:2-4
49:2
51:3-13
51:5
51:10
53
56
56:10-15
220
131
30
138
131
220
220
220
3 Baruch
11:6
13:3
56
56
1 Enoch
1-36
6
6-11
6:1-4
6:6-8
6:11
7-8
7:1-6
8:1
9-10
9-11
9:1
9:6
9:6-9
9:9
10:1-3
10:4-8
10, 86 , 200,
224
202
200-205
201
201, 202
n. 15
23
213
202
203, 203 n . 17
126 n . 132
211
80 n. 120
203 n. 17
203
216 n . 44
203
203 n . 17
10:5
10:9
10:11
12-13
12-16
12:1-2
12:3-5
12:4
13:1
14:14
17-36
20
20:1
20:2
23
36-71
39:4-5
40:9
46:1
46:3
54:5-6
54:6
61:10-12
69:2
69:11
71:8
71:11
71:14-17
72-108
83-90
90:21
91-105
104:2-6
104:4
106
106-107
106:1-6
203
204
204
204
214
92
91 n . 26
211
203 n . 17
33
146
213
201
100 n . 56
30
86, 93, 200
132
80 n. 120
64 n. 80
64
203 n . 17
80 n . 120
146
203 n . 17
86
80 n. 120
93
93
10, 200
86
80
86, 126 n . 132
30, 131
138
95, 208
86
93-94
2 Enoch
19:1
22:6
22:6-10
22:8
30:11
31:2
32:1-2
33:10
69-73
71:2
71:17-19
80
56
92
124
87
88
88
56
97
97
97
3 Enoch
1:12
4:3
16:1-5
146
92
76 n. 102
Ezekiel the Tragedian

68-82
104
4 Ezra
2:43f
3-14
4-5
4:1
10:28
13:2f
102
146
146
100 n. 56
100 n. 56
64
Greek Apocalypse of Ezra

1:4
56
4:24
56
History of the Rechabites
passim
171-175
5:3
173
5:4
170
6:1
170
7:2-3
170
7:10-11
172-173
11:2
173
12:6
173
Joseph and Aseneth
4:16
6:6
14
14-17
14:4-10
14:7
14:9
15-16
15:9
15:11-12
15:14-16:2
18:11
16
26, 194
16:14
21:9
22:7-8
Jubilees
passim
1:27-28
2
3:15
4:15
4:16
4:22
5:1
5:1-2
187 n. 23
79
63
78, 187-188
78
56
79
187-188
102
76 n. 102
187-188
79
188, 192 n.
5:1-19
4:21-23
4:28
6
10:17
15
16:1
18:7
30-31
30:18
214
93
207
67
91
67
40
40
67 .
146
Ladder of Jacob
4:1-4
101
Life of Adam and Eve

Vita
13:1-3
14:2, 3
16:1
89
89
89
Lives of the Prophets

16:1-3
111
Prayer of Joseph
passim
1-9
99-101, 113
100
86
26
86
86
Pseudo-Philo, Liber Antiquitatum

Biblicarum
3:1-3
219 . 48
4:2
182
11:12
72
15:5
72
35:6
185
42:8
186
59:4
72, 146
109
61:8-9
Sibylline Oracles
2:227-232
79
79
102, 206
Testament of Abraham
pasxm
40-41,
213-15
40
67 n. 86
201
213
213
213
201
214, 214 n. 41
1:1
l:4ff.
1:7
3:5
4:2
4:6-10
4:10
5:1
5:2
6:4
6:10-13
216 . 44
189- 191,
194
189
56
189
189
189
190
190
191
190
190
191
274
11:4, 9
12
13:2
13:4, 6
ANCIENT LITERATURE INDEX
88
88
88
191
Testament of Adam
3:2, 4
89 . 18
Testament of Jacob
1:10
72
Testament of Job
48
48:1-2
49:1-3
50:1-3
170 . 87
129
129
130
Testament of Moses
passim
9-10
105-106
125-126
10:2
11:17
125
106
Testament of Solomon
22:20
21 n. 95
Testaments of the
Twelve Patriarchs
T. Levi
3
3:8
8:1
T. Reuben
3:5
5
5:6
T. Zfbulrn
6:4
67 n. 86
146
80
220
168 n.79
219
179 n. 3
QUMRAN LITERATURE
CD
2:18
5:18
12:21
13:22
16:3-4
201, 211
97
150 . 19
150 . 19
41
1QM
passim
1
7:4-6
7:6
9:14-15
9:14-16
10:9-11
12:8
12:8-16
13:10
19:1-8
155-160
178
158
165
51
80 . 120, 160
159
159, 165
157
97, 160
157
1QS
passim
3:13
3:20
4:12
9:12
11:7-8
1Q6
passim
163-165
150 . 19
97
146
150 . 19
164
185 . 20
lQSa
passim
2:5-9
163-165
164
lQSb
passim
1:1
3:22
4:24-26
5:20
163-165
150 . 1!
150 . 1!
146, 165
150 . 1!
1QH
passim
161-163
1Q20
passim
2: 20-21
43 n. 15,
207-210
94-95,
207-208
94-95
1Q23-24
passim
209
2:1-18
4Q156-157
passim
4Q180-181
4Q180 2 - 4
4Q180 7-10
4Q181 2:2
43 n. 15
40
212
212
4 0 1 9 6 - 1 9 9 , 200
passim
40197
65
187 n. 22
4O203
7:5-7
8:1-15
210
210
40252
1:2-3
207 n. 28
40255-264
pasm
40-252 col 1:2-3
163 n. 63
207 n. 28
40267
2
211
146
40374
passim
120
106
2:6-8
40400-407
passim
4:400-405
40400, 2
4 0 4 0 1 , 14 1:8
4Q405 20, 2:6
40427
7
4Q47 l
passim
155
160-161
161
160
4Q510-511
4Q511
4Q511 35
4Q511 35:1-5
150 n. 19
165-167
166
4Q521
2
131 n. 149
4Q530-531
passim
4Q531:1-7
4Q531 5
211
40270
1
20
4Q491-496
passim
4Q491
4Q491 1:12-14
4Q491 11:1
149-155
9
152-153
153
150 n. 18
209
211
210
4Q534
passim
95 n. 35
5Q.11
passim
163 n. 63
6Q8
passim
209
11Q.10
43 n. 15
passim
160
b
110,12
214 n. 41
11 Q.14
7-14
97
160
PHILO
On the Life of Abraham

92
107
110-118
115
167
17
42, 42 n. 7
183
42
183
On the Confusion of Tongues

27
'
42 n. 8,
132
146
53, 98,
100-101
On the Contemplative Life

10-40
11-13
64-90
90
203
173
173-174
173
174
173
On Flight and Finding

5
104
On the Giants
If.
216-219
1-18
6
9-11
16
19-57
58
58-61
Who is the Heir
252
216
216
216
217
216
217
216
99 n. 50
Allegorical Interpretation
1.161
99 n. 50
2:89
99 n. 50
3:15, 93
99 n. 50
On the Migration of Abraham
200-201
99
On the Life of Moses
1:58
1: 158
2:69
179 n. 2
105
181 n. 12
On the Change of Names 34

92
81
99 n. 50
Questions and Answers

on Exodus
104
Questions and Answers
on Genesis
92, 183 n. 17
1:92
2
2:56
3
4:8
On the Sacrifices of
Cain and Abel
104
9
42
2:29, 40
1:85-86
217-218
183 n. 17
87
183 n. 17
104
8-10
105
99 n. 50
On Dreams
1:142
1:171
104
99 n. 50
On the Virtues
72-79
104-105
JOSEPHUS
Antiquities of the Jews
33f
73
74, 76
86
196
196-197
200
1:325
1:331, 333
2:82
3:62
3:99
3:180
101
215
216
92
41-42
184
41-42, 41
n. 6, 184
50 n. 35
50 n. 35
50 n. 35
50 n. 35
181 n. 12
104 n. 66
3:400
5:213
5:213-214
5:277
5:279
5:282-284
10:272
18:16
41 n.
50 n.
185
50 n.
41 n.
186
50 n.
133
6
35, 58
Jewish War
2:119-121, 160-161
2:142
2:165
3:353, 5:381
167
148
133
50 n. 35
35, 59
6, 59
35
RABBINIC LITERATURE
Mishnah
Hagigah
2:1
Kelim
1:8
60
130
Megillah
2:1
4:10
Sanhedn
7:4-5
43 n. 16
60
117 . 105
Tadaim
4:5
Tebam
3:9
44 n. 16
78:1
78:3
181
82:2
19 n. 83
91 n. 26
223
179
101 n. 58
45 n. 22
101 n. 58
101 n. 58
85 n. 2
Pirqe R. Eliezer
22:15
219 n. 50
18:1
44 n. 16
133 n. 154
25:1
26:5
43:7
68:12
Babylonian Talmud
Shabat 115a
Yoma 75 b
Midrash Rabbah
8:3-6
SAMARITAN LITERATURE
Memar Marqa
4:6
181 n. 12
TARGUMIM
Targum Neofiti
Gen 5:24
Gen 6:2, 4
Gen 18-19
Gen 32
Targum Onqelos
Gen 6:2, 4
Gen 18-19
Gen 18:8
Gen 19:3
91 n. 26
223
43-44, 184
54
223
43-44
184
184
Targum Pseudo-Jonathan
Gen 6:2, 4
223
Gen 18-19
43-44, 184
Gen 28
43
Targum of the Prophets
Josh 5:13
Judg 6
Judg 13
Fragmentary Targumim
passim
56
185
186
184 n. 19
GRAECO-ROMAN LITERATURE
Apollodorus, The Library
2.4.8
" 21 n. 96
Iamblichus, De Mysteriis Aegtptus

1.1
21 n. 96
Hesiod, Shield of Heracles

1-56
21 n. 96
Theogony
Plato, Cratylus
"
407e'
Lams
4:717d
Sophist
216B
21 n. 96
Ovid, Metamorpheses
8:611-724
628-632
21 n. 96
179 n. 2
Silus Italicus
7:176
21 n. 96
185
Homer, Odyssey
5:29
"
7:59
17:485
17:485-487
Llliad
2:786, 3:121
204
17 n. 70
204
21 n. 96
179 n. 2
17 n. 70
17 . 70
17 n. 70
APOSTOLIC FATHERS
1 Clement
10:7
12:1
34:5
183 n. 18
183 n. 18
146 n. 5
Didache
11-13
11:3-4
12
180 n. 8
123
183 n. 18
Epistle of Barnabas
61:7
220
Shepherd of Hermas
Visions
1.4.1
2:2:7
80
120, 138
3.1.6-8
3.2.5
3.4.1
3.10.1
6.2.1
Mandates
6.22.2
Similitudes
6.1.5
6.2.1
8.3.3
9.6.1
9:25:2
80
80
80
80
81
80
81
80
80
120, 138
Martyrdom of Polycarp
2:3 ~
12:1
120, 122:
120
146
NEW TESTAMENT APOCRYPHA

(Including Nag Hammadi Codices)
Acts of Paul and Thecla
3
121 n. 117
Hypostasis of the Archons

93:13-22
31
Acts of Peter
15-17
Melchizedek
9:1
115 n. 90
Acts of Peter and the Twelve

9
118
Gospel of Peter
35-37
Gospel of Thomas
13
97
On the Origin of the World

105
53 n. 49, 101
Papyrus Oxyrhynchus
1:654, 655
116 n. 98
70-71
Tripartite Tractate
64:28-65:1
47
116-117
PATRISTIC LITERATURE
Clement of Alexandria
Stromata
5.14.111
Excerpta ex Theodoto
10, 6-11
Hippolytus
Rejutatio
9.13.2-3
21 n. 96
73
206 n. 27
Tertullian
De Oratione
26
Virg. Vel.
7:2
167 n. 75
Justin Martyr
Dialogue with Trypho
58:3
'
59:1
54
54 n. 51
193
120.5
125:5
De Patientin
14
Apology
2:5
137 n. 166
53, 101
137 . 166
222
Origen
Commentary on the Gospel of John
passim
113
Eusebius
Praeparatio Evangelica
9.21.1-19
Ecclesiastical History
3.3.2
6.12
52
70
70

Kevin P SULLIVAN. Wrestling With Angels. A Study of The Relationship Between Angels and Humans in Ancient Jewish Tradition and The Nerw Testament PDF

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Kevin P SULLIVAN. Wrestling With Angels. A Study of The Relationship Between Angels and Humans in Ancient Jewish Tradition and The Nerw Testament PDF

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Wrestling with Angels

A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP

DORE: JACOB AND T H E ANGEL, 19th C.

WRESTLING WITH ANGELS

ARBEITEN ZUR GESCHICHTE

WRESTLING WITH ANGELS

Library of C o n g r e s s Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Copyright 2004 by Koninklijke Brill rw, Laden, The Netherlands

I n t r o d u c t i o n : Wrestling with Angels

"Blinded by the Light": Angels as H u m a n Beings

" Y o u L o o k Positively Angelic": H u m a n Beings as

" G u e s s W h o ' s C o m i n g to D i n n e r " : Hospitality a n d

5.1 T h e Book of Genesis 1 8 - 1 9

6.1 Genesis 6 : 1 4 in the H e b r e w Bible

Modern Author Index

T h i s book is a modified f o r m of m y doctoral thesis s u b m i t t e d to the

a c k n o w l e d g e d here: Prof. J a r l Fossum, Prof. C h a r l e s Gieschen, Prof.

T h e a b b r e v i a t i o n s used in this m o n o g r a p h follow the Society of Biblical

A m o n g the m o s t frequently used a b b r e v i a t i o n s in this b o o k are:

The Anchor Bible Dictionary

Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible

Journal, for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and

a b o u t angels. Angels, t h e n , w e r e a significant p a r t of late

h u m a n hospitality, a n d also, in a t least o n e line of t r a d i t i o n , h a v i n g

Ultimately, the p r e p o n d e r a n c e of t h e evidence suggests n o compelling

Methodology and Sources

It is t h e a i m of this study to e x a m i n e all the relevant literary sources

G i v e n this r a n g e of p r o v e n a n c e , t h e c h a l l e n g e is t o assess this evid e n c e i m p a r t i a l l y a n d p r e s e n t t h e p i c t u r e t h a t e m e r g e s as a c c u r a t e l y

T h e following section surveys p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p in o r d e r to d e m o n strate (a) w h a t s c h o l a r s h a v e said a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

h u m a n s a n d angels, (b) w h e r e c o n f u s i o n h a s arisen, a n d (c) t h a t t h e r e

Engeln und Menschen:

suchungen z- rabbin. Engelvorstellung collected a n d e x a m i n e d 74 r a b b i n i c

h i g h priest, Moses) f o r t h e text a n d his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . 2 H i s overall

P. Schfer, Rivalitt zwischen Engeln und Meuchen: Untersuchungen z rabbin. Engelvorstellwig

S c h f e r briefly s u r v e y e d a s p e c t s of post-Exilic a n g e l beliefs as a

h u m a n s a r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o angels. T h e seeds of t h e rivalry in t h e

angelic m e d i a t o r s " w i t h J e s u s . 7 Segal w a s n o t t h e first, a n d c e r t a i n l y

I n a s h o r t b u t salient 1980 article J . C h a r l e s w o r t h collected seven

P. Schfer, Rivalitt, p. 222.

will b e seen in c h a p t e r 3 of this s t u d y , t h e

with such t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s w e r e individuals w h o h a d lived a particularly

R o w l a n d h a s d r a w n a t t e n t i o n to t h e role t h a t i m a g e r y used to c h a r a c t e r i z e angels h a s p l a y e d in d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e risen C h r i s t . T h i s

b e i n g s a n d a n g e l s a r e n o t v e r y c l e a r . ' " 8 S h e sees t w o m a i n s t r a n d s

h u m a n s w h o a r e r i g h t e o u s c a n t a k e t h e i r p l a c e in the h e a v e n l y h i e r a r c h y a f t e r d e a t h . T h e s e traditions, t h e n , focus on h u m a n relationships

des judischen Engelglaubens in

M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien des judischen Engelglaubens in vorrabinischer ^eit (Tbingen:

his o w n w a r n i n g ) look a t e v i d e n c e w h e r e t h e t e r m " a n g e l " a p p e a r s ,

logy for t h e N e w A n g e l o l o g y " is t h e s u b j e c t of M a c h ' s s e c o n d c h a p ter. H e looks at issues i n v o l v e d in t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of a n g e l t e r m s f r o m

b r o a d e r sense t h a n is t a k e n in c h a p t e r 4 of this study, M a c h

cusses c o m m u n i o n w i t h a n g e l s in t h e f o r m s of c o m p a n i o n s in h e a v enly a s c e n t , i n t e r p r e t e r s / m e s s e n g e r s , stars, et al. H e a t t r i b u t e s

M. Mach, Entwicklungsstadien, pp. 300-333.

tion b e t w e e n t h e b u r g e o n i n g of a n g e l beliefs a n d t h e political aspects

r e l a t i o n s h i p of h u m a n s a n d angels, h o w e v e r , still m e r i t s g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n , especially in light of s o m e r e c e n t c o n c l u s i o n s m a d e b y t h o s e

angels (including a w i d e r a n g e of t e r m s for h e a v e n l y beings). N e w s o m ' s

D i c t i o n a r y is a n excellent s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a n y look a t angels. 2 9 E v e n

deeply into t h e relationship b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d angels. Nevertheless,

t h e e v i d e n c e of " t h e sons of G o d , " she states, "All t h e texts in t h e

s o m e t i m e s refers to angels. H e r distinction a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h f o r m

and the Cult of Christ,

c o n t a i n s a n insightful section o n t h e " C o - o r d i n a t i o n of angelic a n d

In t h e 1990s several s c h o l a r s r e f o c u s e d scholarly a t t e n t i o n u p o n t h e

believed in a b i f u r c a t i o n of t h e g o d h e a d : G o d a n d C h r i s t . T h i s b i f u r c a t i o n s t e m s f r o m t h e i m p a c t of J e w i s h " d i v i n e a g e n c y " t r a d i t i o n s