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Outline
1
Learning Objectives
1
T
T
T
+dy
+dz
+higher order terms
x
y
z
Gradient contd...
As per the figure, we can write the change in the scalar field
dT as
dT = dr T = |dr||T | cos
Let us consider two possibilities:
dr is along a constant T surface
dr is in an arbitrary direction
Gradient continued...
Thus, at a given point r, if one moves in the direction of T ,
maximum change in T will take place
This property of gradient is used in optimization problems
involving location of maxima/minima of scalar functions
Examples:
1
T T T
i+
j+
k = 2xi + 2y j + 2z k = 2r
x
y
z
Gradient calculation
Clearly
i+
j+
k
x
y
z
= (2xy + 2yz + z 2 )i + (2yz + 2xz + x 2 )j + (2zx + 2xy + y 2 )k
i+
j+ k
x
y
z
In curvilinear coordinates the gradient operator has more
complicated forms
+
+ k
Spherical r +
+
r
r
r sin
Cylindrical
(U + V ) = U + V
2
(UV ) = UV + V U
3
(V n ) = nV n1 V
Fy
dxdydz
y
Fy
.
y
Divergence contd.
If we similarly calculate the flux through all the remaining faces
of the cuboid and add it to obtain the total flux d , we obtain
Fx Fy F z
+
+
dV ,
d =
x
y
z
where dV = dxdydz is the volume of the cuboid.
Thus we get for the entire cuboid
F dS = ( F)dV ,
where
F =
Fx Fy Fz
+
+
x
y
z
Divergence ...
F = Fxi + Fy j + Fz k.
Divergence Theorem
Divergence Theorem (Gausss Theorem): Flux of a vector
field F calculated over the surface of an arbitrarily shaped
volume satisfies the following result, which is called Gausss
Theorem or Divergence Theorem
I
S
F dS =
FdV ,
(1)
(2)
1 v vz
1
(v ) +
+
z
1 v
1 2
(r vr ) +
(sin v ) +
2
r r
r sin
r sin
x y z
+
+
=3
x y z
1 (r 2 r )
=3
r2 r
1 () z
+
= 2+1 = 3
z
F.dl =
F.dl +
Z AB
F.dl +
CD
Z BC
F.dl
F.dl
DA
Now
Z
ZAB
F.dl =
F.dl =
F.dy j Fy (y , z)y
F.dz k
BC
Fz (y + y , z)z
Curl contd....
Using first order Taylor expansion
Fz (y + y , z) = Fz (y , z) +
Fz
y
y
So that
Fz
zy
F.dl +
F.dl = Fy y + Fz z +
y
AB
BC
Sx
y
z
(3)
Curl contd....
i
j
k
F = x y z .
Fx Fy Fz
Using this we can cast Eq. 3 as
I
F.dl = ( F)x Sx = ( F) S
(4)
Stokes Theorem
Stokes Theorem: If a vector field F is integrated along a
closed loop of an arbitrary shape, then the line integral is equal to
the surface integral of the curl of F, evaluated over the area
enclosed by the loop
I
F.dl =
Z
S
( F) dS
F.dl =
( F) dS.
A = A + A + Az z
1 Az A
A =
z
A Az
+
1 (A ) A
z
+
A = Ar r + A + A
A
1
r
A sin
A =
r sin
1
1 Ar
+
rA
r sin
r
1
Ar
+
(rA )
r r
2
3