BY MURAT O. BALABAN & ASLI Z.

Odabasi

olor is an important component of food qualityconsumers initially accept or reject a food based on its color and
other visual attributesand can be
measured by visual, instrumental,
and machine vision methods.
However, visual observations
may be unsatisfactory due to eye
fatigue, poor color memory of
subjects, lack of uniform lighting
and standardized viewing conditions, and unavailability of trained
judges, especially for routine largescale color quality determination
(Hutchings, 1999).
Instrumental Measurements

Colorimeters and spectrophotometers have been used extensively in

the food industry to quantify color.
Tristimulus colorimeters employ
filters to convert the energy of the

dard observer function defined by

the Commission Internationale
de LEclairage (CIE), the global
governing body for light and
color measurements, to calculate
the averaged spectral data of
the sample area. Because of this
averaging, colorimeters may not
actually measure what humans see
in the color of objects. Tristimulus
values can be converted to many
other color systems.
There are two categories of
instrumentsdirectional and
diffusebased on the arrangements of the light source, the
sample plane, and the detector.
They view the sample differently
and may generate different color
results. Directional instruments
(also called 45/0 or 0/45 devices)
measure only the diffuse reflectance coming from the sample;

aperture and the illuminated area

may also affect results.
These variables, as well as
the method of calibration, the
description of standards, and the
preparation and presentation of
samples, should be well thought out
to have accurate and reproducible
measurements of color of foods.
There are potential disadvantages in using colorimeters and
spectrophotometers that machine
vision can overcome. One problem
may arise when the sample has
nonhomogeneous colors. In such
cases, color values obtained with
repeated measurements on a
surface or from different samples
in the same batch are averaged
(Joshi and Brimelow, 2002).
Consider Figure 1, where the
color of peppers is measured. If a
spectrophotometer or a colorim-

MACHINE VISION

Machine vision systems offer advantages over visual and instrumental analysis,
including the ability to measure nonuniform colors and shapes and to inspect
specific areas of the image.
light reflected off of or transmitted
through the sample into X, Y, and
Z values that locate the color of the
sample in a 3-dimensional color
space. They simulate the response
of the standard observer and can
match most colors across the visible
spectrum. Spectrophotometers
calculate X, Y, Z values by
measuring reflectance or transmittance wavelength across the visible
range. The resulting spectral curve
is compared to a reference standard, and the result is expressed as
a ratio (Joshi and Brimelow, 2002).
Colorimeters and spectrophotometers rely on precise knowledge
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the specular-reflected light is

not measured. Diffuse geometry
instruments can measure both the
diffuse and the specular reflectance. This makes a difference in
the color values measured from a
glossy vs a matte surface.
Therefore, the user must be
aware of the type of instrument,
as well as the history of the color
measurement of any reference
tiles used to make comparisons.
Specifically, the reported color of a
reference tile measured by a diffuse
geometry may not be reproduced
exactly when the same tile is read
by an instrument using the 45/0
geometry. The size of the viewing

eter were used, the result would

be the average color, displayed by
the brown square. This results in
a significant loss of color information. In reality, there are many
more colors than brown. Figure
1 also shows a 512-color segmentation scheme obtained using
machine vision. Both the amount
and the definition of colors are
quantitative.
Another potential problem is
the size and shape of the sample.
For example, shrimp may be too
small to cover the viewing aperture
of the instrument. One solution
is to grind the sample. However,
this changes the appearance and
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Figure 1. Average and segmented colors of peppers.

potentially the color of interest

of the sample. A user looking for
black spots in shrimp, for example,
wont find them, since they will
disappear into the mix.
Machine Vision

Machine vision (MV) involves a

camera connected to a computer,
controlled lighting (generally
in the form of a light box), and
the software to control camera
settings, image acquisition, and
processing. The sensor in the
camera is a charge-coupled device
(CCD) that converts photons to
electrical signals. Once an image
is captured, it can be immediately
evaluated or stored for future
analysis and comparisons. As such,
MV provides documentation and
recordkeeping.
A significant difference
between conventional colorimetry
and color MV is the number of
signals. There are 262,144 sensing

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elements (512 x 512 pixels) in

a CCD camera as opposed to 3
signals in colorimeters, and a
maximum of 471 signals (one for
every nanometer between 360
and 830 nm of wavelength) in
spectrophotometers. Thus, color
MV systems offer a tremendous
amount of information compared
to conventional instruments.
High-spatial resolution enables
MV systems to isolate and specify
appearance features such as color
pattern, gloss, and surface texture
attributes not delivered by conventional instrumentation.
MV allows color measurement
of nonuniform shapes and colors
(Korel et al., 2001; Papadakis
et al., 2000). As long as the
sample fits into the view area of
the camera, its color(s) can be
measured. More than one object
can be analyzed at the same time.
Since every pixel of the sample
image is analyzed, the average

color of each object can also be

calculated, emulating the output of
a colorimeter, regardless of sample
size and shape. For example, the
correct average color of one shrimp
or a whole salmon can be read,
provided that it fits in the light box.
In Figures 1 and 2, the squares
with uniform color represent the
average color of the samples.
These are the colors that would be
obtained using a colorimeter or a
spectrophotometer, and they differ
from what the human eye sees
(Balaban et al., 1994; Luzuriaga et
al., 1997).
Using software such as
the ColorExpert program from
Engineering and CyberSolutions,
Gainesville, Fla., MV can provide
the color spectrum of an object with
nonuniform colors. In Figure 2, the
color spectrum of salmon is given as
percentages of the view area.
MV has the flexibility to select a
region on the surface of the sample
from which color and other (e.g.,
geometrical) information can be
extracted. In Figure 3, rectangular
regions of interest (ROI) of two
meat cuts with different marbling
are selected, represented by the
green rectangles. Assuming that
any pixel with a threshold L* value
greater than 50 is fat, we can easily
quantify the marbling in the ROI.
The threshold L* value can be easily
changed by the user. This allows
the user to quantify, for example,
black spots in shrimp, dark spots in
potato chips, blood lines in tuna,
and diseased areas on a leaf. The
ability to analyze only selected areas
of an image is one of the unique and
important benefits of MV.
Along with its benefits,
however, MV brings its own
difficulties. The illumination of
the sample must be well-defined,
necessitating a light box where
the light spectrum, intensity,
and direction are controlled.

Also, MV cameras have many

settings, such as brightness, hue,
saturation, exposure, sharpness,
and white balance. Two images
taken in the same light box with
different camera settings will result
in different colors (Odabasi and
Balaban, 2003). Also, different
light boxes may result in different
measurements due to differences in
geometry and light intensity. There
may also be temporal differences,
since both the intensity and the
spectrum of light bulbs may change
over time.
If two MV systems provide
different color readings of the same
sample, the readings cannot be
used reliably for color measurement. Balaban and Odabasi (2005)
proposed a two-step calibration
method for the MV system to
overcome this potential problem. In
the first step, software determines
the optimal camera settings to minimize the difference between the real
and measured color of several reference tiles. This needs to be done
only once, and these camera settings
are used thereafter. In the second
step, a reference tile is included in
each image, and the color of the
whole image is corrected to make
the measured color of the tile equal
to its real color.

CRI of 100 have color-rendering

capability of daylight. A CRI of 80
or higher is considered excellent.
The ColorExpert software can adjust
and optimize the camera settings,
acquire an image, and analyze and
report the colors of the image.
Figure 4 shows one laboratory
application of MV. The snapper fish
fillet on the left is the control,
and the fillet on the right has been
treated with carbon monoxide.
The hue histograms quantify the
color differences of the two fillets
based on the whole surface.
Quantification of desired
ingredients of foods may also be
important. For example, MV can
be used to quantify the amount
of chocolate visible in a chocolate

chip cookie as a percentage of the

total surface.
MV can also be used on a
production line or in the quality
control lab. Several commercial
systems are already available:
Dipix Technologies, Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada, offers a
QualiVision system that measures
product size and color and provides
inspection/rejection for conveyor
widths of 254 in.
Koch Lumetech, Kansas
City, Mo., offers its Lumetech
Optiscan computer-controlled,
fully configurable system. It uses
visible light, UV light, and a color
vision station to create a computer
model of a meat products size and
shape, together with the location

Figure 2. Determination of the color spectrum of salmon.

Applications

An MV system used in our

laboratory features a digital Sony
DFW-V500 FireWire camera, which
can transfer the image directly into
the computer without requiring
an image-grabber card. The
light box uses two 18-in, 15-W
Lumichrome 1XX fluorescent bulbs
(TrueSun, www.truesun.com)
with electronic ballast and a colorrendering index (CRI) of 98 and
a 50% diffuse surface facing the
inside of the light box. Thus, the
illumination can be considered as
diffuse, 0 degrees.
CRI, a measure of the ability
of a light source to reproduce the
color of an object, ranges from 0
to 100, and light sources with a
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Figure 3. Quantification of the degree of marbling of a meat cut.

17.7% of the rectangular area is greater than L*=50

4.3% of the rectangular area is greater than L*=50

Figure 4. Hue histograms of CO-treated and untreated snapper fillets.

estimates the weight of a shrimp

from its view area. Optical sorting
machines used on the production
line identify and remove contaminants and defective products (e.g,
discolored, blemished, etc.).
Although the term color sorter is
used, such machines use reflectance at particular wavelengths
rather than the entire visible
spectrum.
Precarn, Ottawa, Canada, has
developed the Parasensor system,
aimed at improving productivity and reducing costs in fish
processing operations. The system
automatically inspects and classifies
fillets using an intelligent camera
system that emulates aspects of
human eye peripheral vision and
scanning.
Imaging Technology, Bedford,
Mass., developed the Prophecy 550
system to inspect samples at speeds
greater than 20,000 parts/min.
SINTEF, Oslo, Norway,
developed a system for objective
visual inspection of split cod. The
system detects overall color, liver
stains, blood stains, deformation, and
ruptures/splitting in the cod meat.
Outlook for MV systems

of bone, lean meat, surface fat, and

sinew and color variation. From
the information gathered, a robotic
water-jet cutter can remove fat,
bone, and sinew, trim out discolored portions, and cut portions to
a desired weight, size, or shape.
Marel, Reykjavik, Iceland,
markets the Model L-10 Vision
Weigher for shrimp processing.
Once calibrated, the system

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Computer hardware is becoming

faster, lighter/smaller, and less
expensive. Image analysis times
are decreasing. Also, speed and
storage space allow measurement
of larger, more detailed images.
Digital cameras are increasing their
resolution (number of pixels) and
are adopting faster and simpler
interfaces, such as Apples FireWire
standard, which eliminates the
image-grabber card between
the camera and the computer
to convert visual information to
digital data.
Cameras also are getting
smaller, faster, and less expensive.
When coupled with software to
take advantage of these advances,
MV can be a viable method to
measure the color of foods, and

enable capabilities not possible

with other methods. The major
advantage of MV is to enable
and extend the color analysis to
samples with nonhomogeneous
colors, shapes, and surfaces. This,
combined with the shape, size,
orientation, and other analysis
capabilities of machine vision,
allows evaluation of total visual
quality of foods. FT
Murat O. Balaban, Ph.D. (mobalaban@ifas.ufl.
edu), a Professional Member of IFT, is Professor,
and Asli Z. Odabasi, Ph.D. (asli@ufl.edu), a
Member of IFT, is Post-Doctoral Associate, Dept.
of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University
of Florida, P.O. Box 110370, Gainesville, FL 32611.
Send reprint requests to author Balaban.

REFERENCES
Balaban, M.O and Odabasi, A.Z.
2005. Color measurement with
machine vision, and comparison with
hand-held colorimeters. Presented at
EFITA and WCCA Joint Conference,
Vila Real, Portugal, July 23-28.
Balaban, M.O., Yeralan, S., and
Bergmann, Y. 1994. Determination
of count and uniformity ratio of
shrimp by machine vision. J. Aquat.
Food Prod. Technol. 3(3): 43-58.
Hutchings, J.B. 1999. Food Color
and Appearance, 2nd ed. Aspen
Publishers, Gaithersburg, Md.
Joshi, R. and Brimelow, C.J.B.
2002. Colour measurement of foods
by colour reflectance. Chpt. 5 in
Colour in Food; Improving Quality,
ed. D.B. MacDougall, pp. 82-114.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla.
Korel, F., Luzuriaga, D.A., and Balaban,
M.O. 2001. Quality evaluation of
raw and cooked catfish fillets: Use of
electronic nose and machine vision. J.
Aquatic Food Prod. Technol. 10(1): 3-18.
Luzuriaga, D., Balaban, M.O., and
Yeralan, S. 1997. Analysis of visual
quality attributes of white shrimp by
machine vision. J. Food Sci. 62: 1-7.
Odabasi, A. and Balaban, M.O. 2003.
Correlation of color measurement
between a color machine vision system
and a hand-held colorimeter. Paper 92D4 presented at Ann. Mtg., Inst. of Food
Technologists, Chicago, Ill., July 12-16.
Papadakis, S.E., Abdul-Malek, S.,
Kamdem, R.E., and Yam, K.L.
2000. A versatile and inexpensive
technique for measuring color of
foods. Food Technol. 54(12): 48-50.