--------------------------------------------------------------PGge?

-1
7. GENERAL UT PROCEDURES
Selection oftbe Test Metbod
In the dcvelopment of a UT test technique, severa! options are open to cboose from:
l. eoupling mctbod
2. degree of automation
3. probe arrangement
4. mode of wave propagation.
Altbougb it may be desirable to use a simple immersion serup for ease of coupling and flexibility of angulation in
tbe initial development in tbe lab, considerations must be given to tbe end application. Size. quantities. suace
finish. gcometry and materialtested can all have a bearing on tbe choi~ of options. We will consider each of tbe
four options listed abo\.'C and note tbe advantages and d1sadvantages of each.

Coupling Metbod
Essentially tbrec options exist; immersion, contact or Gap. Ory coupling and non-a>ntacting methods can be used
as well but applications are usually very specialized and require non-standard instrumentation.

lmmet1ioa

Advantages

DiJadvantages

good on rough swfaces

adaptable to large runs on many
pieces witb simple gcometries
case of angulation
constant coupling
low anenuation coupiing
improved near surfa~ resolution

very portable
ideal for spoH:hecks on largc parts
well suited to automation
no special equipment for manual
contact scanniog
heavy pastes can make inspection of
porous material possible

Contact

Cap

more portable tban immersion

good a.'CD coupling as coupling
thickness 1s fixed
ean be less messy tban contact if
"wheel" is used
couplant flow can help maintan
constant wedge tempcrarure
tbcrefore constan! angle
well suited to automation

requires container
large sized pan can be difficult
corrosion inbibitors needed
not viable on some materials
(cerarnics. cement)
not portable
extra equipment needed (X-Y-Z
motion or rotation)
difficultto use on rough surfaces
sorne couplants are messy
awkward in ovcrhead scanning
angles are fixed
annoying signals can arise from
wedge interna! reflections
variable signa! height due to
fluctuations in couplinR
not as portable as contact
requires spocial adaplations of probe
and holder
can be more messy tban contact if
large water flow is used

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION 2
TRAINING FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

--------------------------------------------------------------P~e 7- 2
Details of thcse oplions llave been discussed in Chapter S. The operator must take into consideration lbe feasibility
of the eoupling method best suited to the application. For cxamplc. gap or immersion techniques may be the best
oplion for large production runs on plate or round bar stock in lbe mili. but cost of equipment eould not be
rationaHzcd for testing five or six picc:es in a small sbop. In the latter c:asc contact testing l''OUid prove adcquate.

Degree of Automation
Size of part, quantilles, geomctry, environment, etc. also play a role in detennining degree of automation. The
advantages of automating ultrasonic scanning can be many but these are often off-set by the cost of the neeessary
equipment.
Various aspeas of the test system can be automated. Seanning may involve conveyor motion of the part or probc
movemcnt over the part. Position of the probe may be eneoded or may simply rely on timing with respcct to part or
probc motion. Flaw detector settings can be manually adjusted or remotely eontrolled from a computer. Even data
rccording can run the gamut from rnanualto digital rccording. displays and e\'en interpretation by computer.
J. Cotfey of the Britisb lnstitute of Jlo'DT idenfies three degrees of automation. lf we consider manual scanning as

the loWest leve! of automation (i.e. no automation). a fourtb category can be added. Cotrey furtber allo~ two
levels of complexity in each category, simple and sophisticated.
The following table summarizes and provides examples of CofTey's modified categories of automation. Only for
highly automated systems would the UT flaw detector functions be automated. Automation of any son requires
that sorne pan of the inspecon is carries out using a mechanism or electronic device other than the UT
instrument.

Number of Functi.ons
Automated

Simple

Sophisticated

manual

lhiclcness meter

assiSted manual

12

scanrungjig (unmOtorizcd)

sem-automated

3-6

highly automated

6-7

scanningjig (unmotorized)
with encodcd positions and
automatcd diSPlay plots
automatcd UT machine with
motorized scanner and
simple automated plots

weld inspeaion with llaw

detector
motorized scanning jag and
sorne automated plotting of
displavs
motorized and eneoded
scanningjig and multiple
automated display olots
automated UT machine and
recording from mulllplexed
probcs and automated
detailed plotting

Syslem

U LTRASON JC J NSP ECTJON 2

TRAINJNG FOR NONDESTRVCTIVE TE STING

-------------------------------------------------------------Pgge7-3
Flmctioll tbat cu be automated:

l. scanning
2. probc indexil'!g
3. Oaw detector
4 . ultrasonic measurement
.S. indicatioo positiooiog
6. display function for positioned indication
7. dala rccording.

Advanta&e. ofautomated IIC&Dniag:

l . reproducibilily is improved (rcpealllbility of results)

2. improved detec:tion of defects
3. improved confidence in inspec:tion n:sults
4. more acccss (lo remote, hostile or confincd loc:ations)
5. pennanent record of inspec:tion
6. sc:anoing specds are increased over manual mclhods
7. largc quantities can be inspccted using fcwcr operators
8. specialized UT tcchniques can be used (dg, TOFD, SAFf, ALOK)
9. moniloring of defcct growlh possible due to prccision is possiblc.

Probe Selection and Arrangement

Probe selec:tion and arrangement is determined by several factors;
l. gcomctry of pan of weld prtparation
2. lhickness of material lo be tested
3. type of material tesled
4. nature, locatiorrand pos51ble orientation of defects
5. a''ailabilily of suitable scanning surfac:cs.
Generally, to ensure the best possible detection and resotution lhe highest frequency consisten! wilh adequate
penetration and acceplable grass leve! should be used. Interna! noisc from the probe should be such thatlhere is no
inteerence in the interprelation of results at sc:anning sensitivily.
Orientation of expected defeets and the type of material tcsted will determine bolh angle ofbeam and probe
configuration. Highly attenuative and dispersive materials are more likely to be tested using through transmission.
Planar defeets may redirect the bearn requiring tandem arrangcmcnts. See Figure 7-1.

ULTRASONIC IN SPECTION 2
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-----------------------------------------------------------P~e7-

Figure 7-1
R

Choice of probe frequency is govemed by:

l. nature of thc material tested
2. siz.e of lhe defecHo be detected
3. beam palh length
4. resolution.
Lower frequencies are less affected by coarse gain structures wlch cause attenuation dueto scatter.
Since lgher frequencies result in shortcr wavelengths, lhe size of defects that can be detected is frequency
dependent. Generally lhe inspection wavelength should be less Iban about twice the flaw dimension to ensure
detection.
The effects of attenuation are accumulative so attenuation from absorption and scatter can be reduced by using
lower frequencies for longer palh lengths.
Resolution, bolh temporal (time or diSlance) and spatial (leftlrighl) is improved when lgher frequencies are used.
Higher frequency probes usually have shoner pulse durations lhereby improving temporal resolution wlle lgher
frequencies also tend to have narrow beam widths allowing improved spatial resolutions.
Beam angle should be chosen to be incident on the expeeted rellecting surface witln +/-5 ofprobe configuration
(as in Figure 7-1). Often geometries, such as weld cap, or weld preparation, lnder lhe applications ofoptimum
angle so compromises must be made.
In sorne configurations funher considerations to angle must be made. For example, inspection of a single vee weld
using contact shear mode is often concerned more wilh incomplete root penetration and craclng at the root. The
60 beam that will find non fusion along the bevel of the weld preparation will not be ideal for the more severe root
defects. Mode conversions by the root defects will result in very poor responses with lhe 60 probe. Sharper
angles, 45 to 55 will improve response. However, if geomctry hinders lhe use of lower angles, lhen use of 65
to 75 refracted angles will still improve response ofthe root defect over that from lhe 60 beam.
As with angle, probe size is often a compromise. Smaller diameter probes have a greater bcam spread (no! usually
desirable) but they also have a shoner near zone. Pan si?-e and shape may also dictate probe size. Small probes
are more effective on smaller diameters and in sorne restricted areas. Contact testing of small curved surfaces may
require contoured wedges be maclned.
Generally, for total penetrating ability a larger diameter probe has more punch. However, since the signa! height
of a reflector is proponionalto the ratio of reflector cross-section to beam cross-section at the reflection point a
larger probe will be less sensitive to small near defects.

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-----------------------------------------------------------------Page7-5
Mode of Wave to Use
Since orientation of flaws plays a significan! role in detectability, several angles of inspection are often used to
ensure defects are locatcd. This may also require different modes of vibration be used. For lantinar defects, i.e.
parallelto thc suace. longitudinal waves are uscd. Although SH shear waves can also provide normal incidence
to lantinar flaws, logistics of application prccludc thcir use in most flaw detcction tcchniques.
When other than normal incidence of longitudinal waves are used mode conversion ocx:urs and two modes exist in
the test piece up to the first critica! angle. Although delaycd in time, the presence of two modes can cause
intccring and confusing signals. As a resull most flaw detcction using angled beams use SY shcar wavcs
gencrated between the first and sccond critica! angles. Exceptions to this apply to very few applications but include
TOFD and bi-rnodaltransducers such as described in Chapters 3 and 5.
Use of plate waves is not so much a choice as it is a default. Since plate waves are the natural result of angulated
incidence on a medium of lintited boundaries. inspection using plate WS\'CS is not something an operator has
control over.

Performance Characteristics of Equipment

When an ultrasonic exarnination is peormed results are often compared toa calibration standard or previous
results. Unless characteristics of the test system are the same (within lintits) variations can result. Since the test
systern is cornposed of severa! factors variation can be auributed to a number of sources. A typicaltest system
consists of a UT instrument (including imcrconnecting cables) and any ancillary motion control and data
acquisition apparatus. In addition to the hardware just listed, the operator can also be considered part of the test
systern.
To ensure uniformity and repeatability of test results, steps are taken to regulate all possible variables in tbe
system. These steps usually take the form of specifications, standards and codes. Test piece and coupling are fixed
by the test requirernents. Of course a calibra!ion standard should be representative of the material to be tested and
codes rnay stipulatethe dirnensions of the reference targets e.g. flat bouorn holes (FBH), side drilled boles (SDH)
and Vee notches are typical. Coupling conditions should also be consisten!. e.g. type and ternperature of couplant
for contacttesting and waterpath and water ternperature for irnmersion work. The operator is something of a
qualitative variable and all elforts made to ensure that operator peormance is consistent usual!y revolve around
training and adherence to approved techniques. In spite of all such effons, operator "expericnce" will still be a
factor wlch is not easily controlled.
Probe and instrumcntation peormance are essentially the only aspects of the test system where real scientific
measurements can be made. Although sorne of the instrument functions can be made somewhat independent of the
probe, peormance characteristics of one will have an influence on the other.
With the use of digital controls and displays many of the measured properties that applied to analogue displays are
no Ionger universally applicable. Sorne standards and codes have yetto address these changes. Degree of
precision reqwred in the test may not always dcmand tight tolerances. ln such cases field verifica!ion of
peormance is often suitable. Recen! studies however, have shown that variability in field verification may befar
greater than was originally thoughtto exist. This is especially true for sorne mcasuremcnts made using contacttest
methods.
Keeping in mind the shon cornings just mentioned, Le.
interdcpendence of probe and instrument,
new parameter detennnations using digital equipment
difficulties in repeatability using contact tests for peormance,
traditional peormance tests are still required and useful.

ULTR ASONIC INSPECTION l

TRAINING FOR NOND.STRUCTI VE TESTING

--------------------------------------------------------------------Page7-l
The traditional peormance characteristics of UT equipment can be rougllly grouped into lllree areas; display
(scope), pulser/rcoeiver amplifier, and sound beam (probe). These are usually establislled in conjunction with
reference blocks of known dmensions and acoustic velocities.

Peormance Characteristics of the Display (Scope)

Traditional scope display uses a calllode ray tube. This should provide a bright easy-to-read trace, achieve stability
quickly (warm up time), be unaffected by nnor voltage fluctuations in power supply and provide a linear time of
deflection on lile baselioe (time base or horizontal display).
Allllough aiJ of lile parameters mentioned can be measured in units of quantitative value, lincarity of lile timebase
is lile only one likely to be deternned by tbe operator.

Peormance Characteristics of the Pulser/Receiver

Peormance of lile pulser/reeeiver is more closely related to lile interaction with the probe than is lile display.
Pulser/receiver peormance relates to the sensitivity, amplification cllaracteristics and resolution of a system.
Even willl traditional analogue instruments many differences exist. Type of pulse shape will determine what
controls, if any, are allowed. Tone burst pulsers often incorporate damping control and square wave pulsers
usually have a means of varyng pulse duration. No matter what pulse type is used, UT instruments usually allow
variable pulse energy (voltages). These can be simple dual setting (high or low energy) or may be variable in
voltage steps from relatively low (IOOV) toa maximum (400V) in discrete increments. Similarly, variations exist
in the receiver components of instruments. Logaritllnc or linear amplifiers may be used. Signals may be
anenuated or receiver amplification added (receiver gain). Sorne units have a single broadband receiver while
others incorporate severa! bandpass filters.
Wben establishing probe characteristics such as;
'dead zone
donnant frequency
pulse length
signal-to-noise ratio
resolution (time and spatial),
it becomes obvious that instrument settings will greatly affect the peormance results.
Establishing a standard to assess peormance characteristics ofUT equipment may not easily address alltbe
variations possible. As a result an operator may encounter many different ways of peormance assessment
depending on specifications or national standards.
Thc following is a brief swnmary of sorne of lile aspects of peormance characteristics as measured by severa!
national standards.

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-----------------------------------------------------------------Page7-7
Summary ofNational Standards for Measuring Peormance Characteristics
Couatry

Standard

Title

France

NF A09-320

Germany

DIN 54214

Japan

ns z 2352

UK

BS4331 Pan 1

USA

ASTM E 317

Verilication Simple en Service des Appareilages de Controle

Manual par Ultrasons des ProduitS Mctallique
Non Destructive Testing Control ofTesting Equipmem with
Pulse-Echo SeiS- Comrol ofTest Site
Methods for Assessing the Overall Performance Characteristics
of the Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Test lnstrument
Method for Assessing the Performance Characteristics of Flaw
Detector Overall Perfonnances on Si te Methods
Recommended Practice for Evaluating Performance
Characteristies of Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Testing Systems
Without the use of Electric Measurement lnstrurnents

A comparison of methods for detemning sorne of the most cornmon parameters are tabulated in the following
descriptions.

Vertical Linearity
.

Country

Desc:ription

France

Companes signa! beight from a single reflector to change in dB gain or

attenuation
Compares signa! height from a single reflector to change in dB gaio or
attenuation
Compares signal height from a single reflector to change in dB gain or
attenuation
Companes signa! height from a single reflector to change in dB gain or
auenuation
Companes signal height of two reflectors as gain is adjusted. Receiver
adjustment linearity is considered separately by observiog signa! height change
for specific dB chanRe.

Germany

Japan

UK

USA

Horizontal or Time-Base Linearity

All specifications listed use positioning of muJtiple backwall eehoes on the sereen graticules.

ULTRASONIC I NSPECTION 2
TRAINING FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

.,

./

--------------------------------------------------------------Page7Resolution of Far Suace

(See Figure 7-2).

Country

Detc:riptlon

France

uses signals from adjacenl s1eps, the signal from the reference step is sel 10
100% FSH and musl be SCDaraled from the backwall echo by 20dB or less
uses echo widlh al 20% from backwall sel al 80%
same as France bul requires -30dB ratio between signa! and leve! 10 residual
sienals
uses echo widlh at 10% FSH from backwall set at 100% FSH
same as Japan bul -16dB between reference and residual signals

Germany
Japan
UK

USA

Resolution is dependen! on lhe entire system including test piece. The differences in techniques using resolution in
steps versus resolution by pulse width are significantly differenl so not directly comparable.

Figure 7-2
b~ckwall

...----

r ference

gnal

L-==d=B==~~===~.l~sidual

- - - -- x% fsh
L.

1gnal

-..j

(France, Japan, USA)

......

6time or mm

(Germany, UK)

Sensitivity (Signal-to-Noise Ratio)

Definitions of sensitivity and its mcthod of determinalion are uni que for each counuy. The French standard does
nol even address this syslem characteristic.
.

.. ..

..

Country

Deseriptioa

France
Germany
Jaoan

no1 used
backwall ofiiW block sel al 40% and rcad gain to brine noise lo this leve!
sel sil!nal from 5.6mrn0FBH 10 50% FSH wilh mela! path 150mm
set signa! from 1.5mm0 SDH in IIW block 20% then add gain 10 bring noise
10 1his ncighl
expressed in size of FBH and mela! path 1ha1 provides a signa! of al leasl 60"/o
FSH with a noise level nol srrca1cr than 20"/o FSH

UK

USA

'

ULTRASONJC INSP ECTJON 2

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--------------------------------------------------------------Pgge7-9
Performance Characteristics of tbe Sound Beam (Pro be)
Although lo sorne extent beam performance can be affected by the pulser/receiver cbaracteristics il is primarily the
physical makeup of the probe lhat dictates beam shape. Variations exist in sorne of the parameters determined
bascd on whcther the probe is for immcrsion or contact test or whcthcr single or dual elcmem.
Items detennined include:
beam shape
pulse characteristics (frequency response)
electrical cbaracteristics.
ltems measured for beam shape would include:
near zone
angle of beam divergence
deviation ofbeam axis from mechanical axis (skew)
size offocal spot (length and width)
Pulse cbaracteristics usually involve analysis of the RF waveform. ltems noted include:

number of cycles in thc pulse

time response

frequency response
pulse duration

Electrical cbaracteristics are less often detennined. These usually require special equipmenl nol usually associaled
with an NDT lab facility. Complex electrical impedance is detemtined using an impedance measuring instrument.
As weU, detennination of d. c. resistance of the element can be deternned with a simple Ohm meter. This can
iodicale whelber or not an electricaltuning transformer has been incorporaled. Infirule resistance indicates no
tuning circuil whereas an inductor present would be iodicated by a finile resistance.
Beam shape and pulse characteristics are generally considered the most useful items determined for practical
purposes of NDT. As with the deterrnination of overall performance of equipmcnt, so too docs sound beam
detemtinations have standards to follow.

Sound Field Standards

France
Germany
USA
International

A09-323
DIN 25 450
ASlME 1065
ISQ TC135/SC3N33, Rev. 7 (draft)

Sound field detenninations for contact probes are well documented. These use well known calibration blocks (e.g.
IIW, IOW and DIN) and can be used on a daily or weekly basis to morulor for change duelo aging or wear. Exit
point, actual refracted angle, skew, resolving ability, beam dimensions, dead zone and near field are all items
easily detemtined for contacl probes.

Somewhal more involved are the sound field determinations for immersion probes. This is more involved dueto
the mechanization thal is required for probe movemcnt. However. if a lab is perfomting immersion testing
mechanized probe motion is often standard equipment. Although variations exist in the delails ofthe above
mentioned standards, generalizations can be made. The following will briefly describe set-ups used for beam shape
deternnation and pulse characteristics of immersion probes.

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----------------------------------------------------------------Puge7-10
Beam Profiling of l mmersion Probes
Bcam profiling of inunersion probcs is carricd out with tlle probe in pul.seho mode. To avoid inacxuracics of
bacldash and twisting due to moon, !he probe is usually fixcd in a \U block and a target is moved in thc bcam.
To allow for mcasuremcnts in aJI thrce planes and to duplicatc as ncar as possible a point soum:, a sphcrical targct
is used. For most probes with frequcncies up to 10 MHz, a 2mm diamctcr ball bearing is commonly used.

By recording amplitude response with rcspect to target position threc useful presentations are dcrivcd.
l . Centering the target at probe face and moving it away along the probe axis provides information
about rclative amplitudes on the probe axis. Variations in !he near field, length of near ficld and
position and length offocal zone can be obtaincd.
2. Having located the focal spot it may be desirnble to determine beam dimensions at that point By
placing thc targct at the focal distance and trncing a zig-zag panern at right anglcs to tlle probe
axis a
display indicatcs beam dimcnsions in that plane.
3. lfthe target is moved in a zig-zag pancrn in thc plane containing thc mean axis ofthe probe,
beam Clltends can be ascertained. Angle of dwergcnce, skew and thc presen<:e of side lobes can
be Ulustrated.

e-sean

Thesc scans and tlle equipment set-up are shown in Ftgurc 7-3 and 7-4.

Figure 7-3

motion ccntroller
polillon Mt\tOtl

posilion

outpul

ULTRASON JC INSPECTJON 2
T RA I NINC FOR NONDEST RUCTI VE TESTINC

----------------------------------------------------------------PRge 7- ll

Figure 7-4

..~
:::::. ..
ball
~

ball
motion

motion

::---..;~

ball
motion

_.._
+-+

Piot O
lndicates amplitude
wtth respect to
posijion

C-scan
indk:ates spot
dimensions

C-scan
indicates baam
shape, dimensions,
lobes & skew

Determining Pulse Characteristics of an Immersion Pro be

Unlilcc t.hc profiling tests whcre a point souree is used, pulse characterization requires the entire beam energy be
integratcd. This is accomplished by placing a plane reflector perpendicular to the beam axis. The reflector is
sufliclcntly large and thick to encompass all of the beam and not produce spurious signals. lt maybe made of steel,
glass, or similar hard material. Distance the reflector is placed from the probe varies with the standard used and
the probe type. For standard flat probes, water path distanecs may be 25mrn SOmm or lOOmm or may be
detennined by ncar zone distanee. For focused probes, the reflector is usually set at the focal distanee in water.
Where very high ftequency probes are used (> 30 MHz) very shon watcrpaths are used dueto the absorption of
higher frequencies by water. For a SO MHz probe S mm to lOmm of waterpath may be a1J tbat can be toleratcd
before usefuJ upper ftequencies are absortled.
Evaluation of pulse characteristics are made by analysis ofthe RF wavcform. See Figure 7-5.

ULTRASON I C I NSPECTION 2
TRAININC FOR NONDESTRUCT I VE TESTING

----------------------------------------------------------------Puge7-12

rn

Figure 7-5 RF Waveform

.-/

duration

rr-~
maximum
amplitud e

Agreement must be made on the senings used to display the waveform. Time duration is determined from the first
to las! poim where the signa! exceeds a specified threshold down from the maximum amplitude of the signa). In
Figure 7-5, -20dB is used. Time response ofthe signa! may be given in microseconds for the duration the signa)
exceeds the -20dB level. Number of cycles occurring in this time gives an indication of temporal resolution
possible, bandwidth and relativc sensitivity. The dominan! frequency can be estimated by dividing the number of
cycles by the time duration. For example if3.5 cycles occur in 0.22 JISCCS;

35
-6
0.22xl0

=l5.9xl0

Hz= i5.9MHz

When a fast fourier transform s peormed on the waveform, frequency characteristcs are determined. Figure 7~
shows the features usual!y determined from the FFT.

Figure 7-6

.
lj
6ciB

l,

L/

f.

1\

relative
ampl~ude

frequency

r. = nominal or marked frequency

f. = centre frequency

r. - peak frequency
f1 = lower frequeocy (for 6dB)
f. = upper frequency (for 6dB)
Bandwidth of the waveform s calculated from
BW

=[V;. J)}JOo

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-------------------------------------------------------------Page?-13
Bandwidth is gjven as a percentage and higllly damped probes with sllon ring times (few cycles) have higller
bandwidths. Polymer transducers typically llave less tllan 2 cycle duration and bandwidths of lOO% or more.
Figure 7-7 sllows a fairly complete repon of a probc: cllaracterization. Tbe probc: analyzed is a 35 MHz 3mm
diamctcr polymcr probc. Thc targct was a glass slidc placcd 9mm frorn tllc probc: and couplcd witll water.

Figure 7-7
11.000

11.100

11.200

u.~

lUCIO

uoec
11.&00

11.600

]"'

'

:::1

"'g

12.1

!l.900

11.600

11.700

\..,

MHz
0.000

10.000

ID.OOO

ao.ooo

110.()()(

<10.000

Siqnal Anal ysia Summary

Peak Frequency

29.921 MHz

Level
tdB)

Puhe Width

Lower Freq.

Upper Freq.

Centre Freq.

Bandwidth

Spectrum Sym.

lAvel

(Hitzl

(MHZ )

(MHZ)

(\)

Ratio

(dB)

18.110

40 .157

26.968

Width
(U38C)

81.75

- 0.250

-6

0.03
0 . 03
0.04

-6

14.961

H.09l

29.528

98.67

-o. ou

- 14

-12

ll.811

l7 .2U

29.528

120. 00

-0.011

-20

-20

10.236

49.606

29.921

131.58

0 .01 0

-lO

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----------------------------------------------------------------Page7-14

Coupling Media
Thc threc basic coupling mcthods, contact, gap and immersion almKiy have been discusscd. Thc advantages and
disadvantages of each "ill dictate operator choice for a panicular application. Constan! quality of coupling is a
primary advantage in immersion testing. Since contact testing is usually a manual operation, monitoring the
quality of coupling is dependen! on the operator's ability to dctoct changes in signals while watchng the screen.
However, for gap methods where the scanning apparatus is automated. operator monitoring of coupling condition
is not practica!. When automated systems using gap techniques are used, numerous events can cause a reduction in
or evcn loss of coupling;
reduction flow due to block.age in irrigation lines
loss of irrigation (reservoir runs dry or pump sbuiS oft)
bot surface converts water to steam
4. rough suace lifts probc so no contact mack (may e\'en cause probe to be disengaged or may
tear probe out of holder)
S. air flow can cause foarning of couplanL
l.

2.
3.

Gone unnoticcd, tls will cause defocts to go uncktected. To ensure constan! quality of coupling automated
systems usually incorporate "coupling rnonitors".
Coupling monilors are alarmed channels that triggcr whcn a signa! is lost. Tbe signa! being monilored occws
beca use coupling is adcquatc. In simple pulse-<:eho tcsting of plate using a normal bcam, only the baclcwall echo
necd be monitored. For angle bcam tests the solution is not so simple as there is usually no permancnt echo to
monitor.
Two options for anglc bcam coupling rnonitoring are shown in Figure 7-8.

Figure 7-8
a) smaU
nonnal
be am

b)
T-R pair

Figure 7-8a sbows a srnall normal bcam probe mounted in an angle bcam wedge. Provided thcre is a backccho
from the metal inteace (or opposite wall) coupling is verified. Figure 7-81> illustrateS a solution wbcre
syrnmetrically opposite probes are used as may be the case in weld inspection. By multiplcxed firing, threc
sequenocs are used;
l. pulse-echo probe 1 for flaw dctection
2. pulse-bo probe 2 for flaw cktection
3. transmit-receive lto 2 for coupling checlc.

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION 2
TRAINING FOR NONDES TRUCTIVE TESTI NC

-------------------------------------------------------------Page7-1S

Selection of Ultrasonic Testing Parameters

Having dccided on an ulttasonic test of an item severa! aspcctS of thc test must be dccided on in ordcr to assure
optimum and consisten! rcsults. Although sorne of the parameters may be detennined by a code or specification,
even wben such ~gulations apply a range of options is often allowed for, sucb as range and frequency.

Instrument Parameters
Delay, range and sensitivty settings are tbe primary adjustments made by the UT operator. Range and dclay are
established on standard calibration blocks such as thc JJW or DIN (VI and V2 in UK). Range settings are usually
arranged to allow direct conversion of timebase graticules to distanee in thc test piece. Range setting is not fixed
for all applications. A IOOmm range may be aoo:plable wben peorming thickness determinations on a nominal
85mm thick plate, hoy,"CVcr, most Oaw detection with normal beams would use a range suffiCJent to show two
ecboes, i.e. a 200mm screen migbt be preferred for thc Oaw detection sean of the same 85mm plate. For Oaw
detection using angled SV shear waves. thc range is usually adjusted so the distanee to the maximum point of
inspection occurs at about 80"/o of the full horizontal range of the scope. This allows for sorne sizing of vertical
extent for thc most distant indication.
e.g. A 60mm thck plate inspected with a full skip 45 beam would probably use a 200mm screcn to
accommodate the 170mm fuJJ skip path distanee. See Figure 7-9.

Figure 7-9

11

1 div : 20 ITVTl

Delay adjustment allows the operator to conect for actual zero distanee in the test pieee due to dclay of e.nuy when
dclaylines and angle wedges are incoipOrated into thc probe.
Additionally, delays adjustments a~ needed to accommodate large soundpaths in water when peorming
immersion testing. Oceasionally an operator may find it useful to delay the timebase on a weld inspcction wberc a
long soundpath is needed in contact testing. See Figure 7-10

ULTRASONI C INSPEC TION 2

TRAINTNC FOR NONDitSTRUCTJVIt TESTINC

-----------------------------------------------------------Pqe?-16
Figure 7-10
90mm

ranga

100m

200m m
ooundpolh

tE-38mm

S..t ttvougn nozz~ ln~~M~ct-.1 wMn o

~ ahe8r waw from lhe nout

A 200mm ronca- lo odeq..to lf

oc:tetn lo deloyed by 200
Thil l*"lht lnopectlon lo begln 38 mm
lrom lhe tullon lino ond )1&1 bafora tho heot
lttected zont.

Sensitivity is usually oode determined, but even in lhe absencc of a goveming document it is primarily concemed
wilh detecting the smallest allowable defect Since detect~bility is a1so a functioo of the graininess of the material
tested and the frequency used, sensitivity to defeets .s actually a function of the wbole test system. HO\\-ever, io
general, increasing gaio inaeases sensitivity to small defeets. To avoid arbitraJy gaio settings and to allow for
repeatablity bY other operators. sensitivity is usually established om the response from referenee targets. Flat
bottom boles (FBH), side drilled boles (SDH), square notcbes. vee notcbes or backwall echoes are used for this
purpose h sbould also be borne in mind that lhe material used for the referenee standard duplicate in all aspeets
thc conditions ofthc test piece (size, curvature, bcat treal, material etc.).
In addition to thc primary instrumcnt senings there are severa! otbers of\en available that can affcct test resuhs. Of
these, frcquency, damping and reject are the most importan!. Not all flaw detectors have tltcsc controls; fixed
damping anda single broadband receiver amplifier are of\en allthat is provided. When cquipped with these extra
controls eare must be taken to ensure calibration and testiog use the same settings. AJI three controls can result io
reduced amplitude response. Figure 6-10 sbows the effcct ofbandpass filters. Whcn probe and rcceiver
peom1ance are not matched less lhan opmum energy is transferred. Whcn damping control is provided it is
usually an infinitely variable poL This mcans only maximurn and mnimum settings are known constan! positions
for operators. lncreased dampiog provides a shorter pulse duration thereby improving temporal resolutioo,
however, thls is at the expense of signa! amplitude. Reject or suppression is applied to reduce grass level. On
older flaw detectors thls precluded verticallinearity and any relation of gtin to amplitude change. Newer
instruments can now compensate for these shoncomings, howe\lcr most codes do not pem1it the use of reject for
flaw dctection. Rcject finds application when reading thlckness from the rise point on a grainy material. Reject
can help 10 make a better estimate of the appropriate horizontal graticule by eliminating the gmss and clearly
showing a point where the rising signa! breaks lhe basclinc.

ULTRASONIC I NSPECTION l
TRAIN ING FOR NONDESTRUCT IV! T!STING

-------------------------------------------------------------P~e 7-17

Effect of Pulse Repettion Frequency (PRF)

Althougl\ whcn increascd PRF has the dTcct ofincn:asing thc mtcnsity or thc trace, thcreby making it more visible.
this is not its main function. Timing bctween pulses must allow cchocs to attenuate prior to firing again, otberwise
the next pulse will re-iUuminate the trace and expose 'phantom' signals. For very thick sections of stcel (about
1m) maximum recommendcd PRF is about 50Hz but SOOHz PRF is acceplable for IOOmm thick sections.
Krautkrtlmer recommends a pulse spacing of 60 times thc pulse-echo time for a single echo.
e.g. A IOOmm thick plate tested by longirudinal mode requires 34J!S for the round trip (estimate 30J.LS)
60 x 30 ~ 2040J!S

l -

2040rl0"

490Hz("' 500Hz)

For very thin plates 1mm thick it is possible to use a PRF of 50,000 Hz or SOkHz b~'C\-er, no praeticallJT
instruments are a\'ailable with sucb bigh PRF.
PRF also dictates 5Callllng speed as was sbown in the prcvious cbapter.

Probe Parameters
Probe selection for testing any weld or paren! metal is madc after eonsidering severa! factors;
a) the geometry of weld preparation, or geometry of the piece to be testcd
b) the thickness of material to be testcd
e) the material to be tested
d) the nature, location and probable orientation of defccts
e) availability to suitable scanning surfaces.

A general statement tbat can be rnade is; ro ensure the best possible detection ond reso/ution, use the highest
frequency consisten/ wilh odequote penetro/ion ond occeptob/e gross /~/. Any intemal noise from the probe
should be such tbat tbere is no interference with thc interpretation of thc results at !he seanning sensivity.
Choice of probe frequency is governc:d by thc following:
a) Tbe nature of !he material which the ultrasonic beam wiJI pass through. Anenualion is mosy
dependen! on the metallographic strucrure. In eourse grained materials higher frequencies are
absorbed so a lower frequency may be neeessary.
b) Size of discontinuity is a function of wavclcnth. The ltigher the frequency. thc shoner tlte
wavclength. The shoner the wavelength. thc smaller the diseontinuity which can be detccted.
e) Beam path lengths, long beam path lcngths may require low frequencies becausc of attenuation of
highcr frequencies.
d) Resolution between adjacent diseontinuilics is beller when higher frequencies are used and also
wlten shon pulse lengths are uscd.
Beam geometry is another eonsideraon. Tbe beam angle should be chosen Lo be incidcnt on the expcc:ted
refleeting surface within + or -s ofnormal incidence. In ordcr todo Ibis eonsidcration must be given to thc nature
and type of diseontinuities whicb can occur in the picc:e you are testing so you can predict their probable position,
oricntation. shape and cven the tex1Ule of the retlccting surface.
Having eonsidcred thesc things and relating it allto thc seanrting surface, you ean determine the beam angle tbat
would be beSitO use, tbal is the beam anglc tbat would gvc you a maximum response. In eontact tcsting ofwclds,
somcmes the wcld cap, or weld prep is such that selcction of probes doesn 't allow choice of thc optimum angle.
lf this is the case a eompromisc is made and you use thc nearest angle to the optimum. In the case of single "vce"
groove Lhin wcld where you are nol so concerned with diseontinuities along the wcld prep, but instcad concern is
ULTRASONIC INS P &CT ION 2
TRAIN ING FOR NOND&STRUCTIV& TESTING

_____________________________________________________________

Rag~7-18

with root defeas such as incomplele penetralion or cracking. because they present themselves as a ~comer
reOCCior", 600 bcam angle is probably nol the besl. This type of reOCCior -..ill give a greatly rtduoed response lo
60" incidence as a resull of mode changes.
Probe size is usually sclCCied to meet the geomeuy oonditions of the test piece. Smaller dirnensioned probes are
lcss 5USCeplible to surface irregularit.ies whcn contact tests are perforrned. however smaller element sizes are lcss
energetic so inspection of thick scctions (>SOmm) may rtquire thc receiver amplifier to be operated near maximum
and electrical noise may not be tolerable. Since sensitivity of a probe is related to the ratio of defCCI arca {for
planar reOec1ors) to the element area, smaller probes tend to be more sensitive.
As with frequcncy selection, probe size selection becomcs a oompromisc based on numerous oonsidcrations.

Scaooing Parameters
Scanning oonsiderations may be divided into 3 catcgories:
l. motion control
2. speed
3. indexing.
Motion control will either be manual or mechanized. 1f manual. speed is regulated by operator c.xperience, the
difficulty of the gcometry. bow ~dirty" the pan is (a pan witb many inclusions slows the operator down as each
must be investigated) as well as location of test. The location of the test will have a bearing on how easily the
operator can access the part, mainwn ooupling and monitor the CRT. On good conditions a probe speed of
1OOmm/s to 200mm/s is acceptable.
Manual scanning usually involves probe motion in a zig-zag pattern with the probe pointed at right angles 10 the
axis of the zone ofinterest.
e.g. a wcld's centre line, to ensure 100% OO\'crage along thalline lhe probe sbould overlap with the
previous pass on each ad\'ance. 10% to SO% overlap can be rtquired, i.e. 1O-SO% of the probe
diameter.
Whcn scanning is rnechanized scanning speed and index (overlapping) are dictated by both the mechanical and
electrical aspects of thc system. Scanning speed is limiled only by the response speed of the instnunentation or the
data acquisilion speed. Indexing is precisely controlled when positional enooders are used. lndexing can be as
small as SO-l 00 microns for testing small electronic componcnts or it may be several cm when just a ooarse grid
for plate thickness determina!ion is noedcd.

ULTRASON IC INSPECTION 2
TRAINING FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

-------------------------------------------------------------PGge7-19

Flaw Sizing Techniques

Engincering assessments of the cffect defects have on lhe serviceability of a part are usually based on the lcnglh
and heighl of the defect (or lhe ratio of lhese two dimcnsions). Wilh lhe introduction of new malcrials and more
stringcnt safety regula1ions engincering asscssmcnts requirc more aa:urate sizing of defects by NDT. Therefore,
sizing lechniqucs have been an ongoing dcvelopmenl in ultrasonic 1esting.
Broadly spcaking lherc are lhree melhods ultrnsonics can use lo size a defect;
l. amplilude comparisons
2. transl time differcnccs
3. a combinaon of amplirude and time.
Amplitude comparisons are probably lhc oldest mclhod and often suffice for production silualions. This usually
involves comparing defect echo amplitudes 10 echo amplitudes from known rellectors in ealibralion blocks or
refercnc:e pieces.
TOFD mcthods, described earlier, uliu diffcrcnecs in arrival times lo e..'31ualc defecl siu . Allhough sufficicnl
gain musl be used in order lhal a defect be notcd asan indieaon, its amplitudc plays no part in sizing. Delails of
TOFD are covcrcd in Chapter 5.
A prior knowlcdgc ofbeam shape allows sorne ability lo cvaluale defect siu by lhe amplilude response al a given
distance or by lhe way lhe signa! reduces in amplilude when lhe probe is moved. The combination of signa!
amplilude and time change form lhe basis for lhc ALOK and dB drop sizing mclhods.
Amplilude based sizing melhods al! suffer lhe same problem, lhey are based on ideal refleclors. Calibra!ion targets
are ideal in lhallhey are usually smoolh machincd surfaces. These provide a max.imum reflectcd signa! al a
prcdlctable anglc. Real defects howcver, are rarely smoolh and often in an unknown orientation. Relect.ions off
real defects will usually bare linte relation to the ealibraon reflector.
Herein l.ies the d.ilernrna faced by bolh engincer and operator. lf size of a defect is truly critiealthen all cfforts must
be made 10 ensure sizing precision. Melhods using relationship betwcen travel time and probe position provide the
bcst op11ons. lf lhe actual si u of a dcfect is not so importan!. amplitude opons provide a convenicnl quick sorting
option. The DGS syslern. sorne structural codcs and even sorne aspects of lhe ASME boiler codeare more gearcd
to moniloring or simply standard.izing rcsults.
Very few acccptance criteria are so stringent lhal thcy allow no ind.ieation to cxcced lhe rcference amplitude
wilhout considcration to lhe lengtb of lhc indication. Even amplitude cornparison methods usually require sorne
mcans of lcngtb dctermination. Most frcquently used lo determine Iengtb is sorne form of amplilude drop. Tbe
remaining coverage of defect sizing will describe lhe two rnost commonly used rnelhods; arnpliludc drop rnelhods
and lhe DGS melhod.

ULTRASONJC INSPE CTION 2

TRAININC FOR NONDE STRUCTIVE TESTINC

----------------------------------------------------------------P~ge7-20

Amplitude Drop Sizing Methods

Amplitude drop methods of sizing relate relative probe motion from a maximum amplitude toa lower amplitude.
In sorne teehniques the centre of the beam is used and others require beam dimensions be determined first. For the
purpose of demonstration contact angle beam methods will be considered here. Similar principies ean be applied
to irnmersion and compressional wave appliealions.

Figure 7-11

.OdB beam

edges

Top view

Side View

Figure 7-11 shows two views ofan angle beam probe aod its 6dB sound envelope in the test medium. lfwe assume
we direet the beam at a reflector having dimensions greater than the beam dimensions at that distance, a maximum
amplirude signa! will result. For an ideal reflector, movemem left or right along the length of the reflector will
maintain a constant soundpatli and amplirude will rema in constant until the edge of thc reflector is approached.
When the centreline ofthe probc aligns with thc edge ofthe reflector one half ofthe beam energy is no longer
reflected. This reduces thc echo signa! to half what it was at maximum, i.e. a 6dB drop is observed. Determining
the len,'lh of such an ideal defect is mere!y a matter of finding thc points wherc the signa! drops 6dB from its
ma.ximum and measuring the distanee the probe has been moved. See Figure 7- 12a.

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION 2
TRAINING FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

----------------------------------------------------------Awe7-Zl

Figure 7-12

-~-;r

- -

r-- --

'

1 !
1

~rl
1

j~

1)

----f-

-- ----

'
'
'

fl
Li
1 '

; -

1' !

ii
l l

\11

,l~
1
1 1

--...

--..:

Length (ellectlve tor defectalongtr !han beom widlh)

b)

1 \
L __

jL-....t--'1
1(

)1

Apperenllenglh
(dafeCIIs Shorter
!han beam width)

Wben the defcct dimcruions are less than tbe beam dimensions (scc Figwe 7-12b) lateraliJIO\Iemcnt from a
maximum amplitude results in inunediate reduction of signal amplitude. But the probe displacement is more a
result ofbeam dimension !han defect dimension. This is more pronounced as the ratio ofbeam width 10 defcct
widlh increases. h is due 10 Ibis effcctlhal many indicalions rccorded during a weld inspection will have nearly
identicallengths. The operalor is doing Jittle more than rccording lhe probe's bearn widlh as il passes over srnall
inclusions or tiny spots or nonfusion.

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION l
TRAININC FOR NOND'BSTRUCTIVE TESTINC

-------------------------------------------------------------P~e ?- 22
Similar conditions exist for vertical extent determinations. Thesc are madc by moving the angle beam towards and
away from tbe rclleaor. However in tls plane the amplitude of the reOeaor cbangcs for two reasons;
l. portion ofbeam interacling on the rclleaor's surface
2. distance amplitude variation due to changc in sound path distancc.
Sincc most defeas will be smaller than tbe beam in at least one dimcnsion, amplitude drop methods sbould be uscd
with a knowledgc ofbeam divergence and correction madc for ths divergencc. Tbe half angle of divergence for a

6d.B drop can be estimated from

o.su but this will not accurately correct ~or reeracuon

dlicrences
= Sm - D

from a wedge to metal in contacttesting methods. Accuratc beam shapes are determined empirieally from
calibration blocks. The IOW (!nstitute !!f Welding) block is most oficn used for tls purpose.
The IOW block eonsists of nine 1.5mm diarneter boles drilled 22mm deep in a steel block 305 x 75mm x SOmm.
Figure 7-13 iiiUSllates IOW block layout.

Figure 7-13

so

2S
p:..

11

. 19

10~

1- '

"-o&"'~"....
IPtOed 1ihown -'.

lrl..,..td low

.i

llLfcf-~ v

125

~ -t. \.-~

---4

u~-lll
1

35
JOS

~:

,ij. r,!22

:: !22

d1

..
fl

222

r2rr
.

22

t, _r

so

!
'

Hole ends and sides are uscd to determine beam width and beam height respectively.

Beam width is determined as follows:

l. obtain a signa! from one of the SDH's and maximize the signal
2. move the probc latcrally towards the centre of the block until the signal drops to the dcsircd dB difl'crence
e.g. 6dB or 20 dB (a straight edge placed on the block wilJ help serve as a guide to deep probc motion
true)

3. mcasure thc distance from tbe block cdge to the poi m ~ herc the probe centreline occurs at tbe dcsircd dB
drop
4. subtract 22mm (holc depth) from the distance measured to obtain tbe halfbcarn sprcad at that soundpa!h
5. rcpeat tbe above four steps from the opposite side of tbe hole
6. rcpeat steps 1 lhrough 5 for three or more holcs Lo obtain divergente ovcr a range of soundpaths and plot.
See Figure 7-14

ULT RASONJC JNSPECTJON l

T RAJNI NC POR NO NDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

----------------------------------------------------------------P~e7-23
Figure 7-14

[[]EJ
J .

'

X..- 22mm

hall beam dM!rgence

Sido2

Sido 1

~HoloS

'

Holo~

Holo3

IOWblocl<

Beam beighl delenninalion is subject 10 some dilferenee of opimon. Some standards do nol deem il necessary lo
acc:oum for dlstanc:e anenuation and mere!y note soundpath for front. c:enue and back ofbeam with signa! dropped
to the same screen beighl for bolh from and back positions. The melbod described bere lakes into acc:ountlhe
iocreascd auenuation with increased soundpath. This is aa:omplished by flt'SI establishiog a dlstanee amplitude
eorrection eorve for the raoge eovered
For the purpose of demons1ralioo, we will eonsider the steps for vertical beam profile delermination for a SMHz
IOmm dlameler nominal 45 angle beam probe. Four boles will be used for beam heighl delerminalion so a DAC
will be drawn using 6 holes, lhe four for the profile plus one with a grealer soundpath than the longest soundpath
used for the prolile. and one wilh a shorter soundpath than l.he shortesl soundpalh used for the profilc. Use ofthe
lwo extra holes ensures a DAC curve will exist lo drop the signa! lo for the back ofthe beam for the shortesl hole
posilion and the fronl of lhe beam for the longesl hole pos ilion.
The DACas il might appear is drawn in Figure 7-15. A simple IOOmm range allows for easy reading ofvalues.
For this DAC the side drilled holes al the following deplhs in the IOW block were used; 13mm, 19mm, 32mm,
43mm, SOmm and S6mm. This results in poims al pathlengths of 18, 27, 45, 60, 70 & 78 mm.

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION 2
TRAININC FOR NONDESTRUC TIVE TES TJNG

--------------------------------------------------------------------Page7-24
Figure 7-15

1,
1

..

1~

b-

: ~ ,?

1'-.

"' 13 50

"-

Having constructed the DAC, profiling can begin.

l. Set gain to 6dB over that required for DAC construction (20dB if 20dB beam prefiJe is to be
established).
2. Peak thc signa! from the 19mm deep hole oo the IOW block and note the soundpath distance
on the CRT. (lt will be about 27mm.)
3. Move thc probe forward untilthe pcaked signal drops to the DAC curve and note the
distance on the CRT. (lt will be about 23mm.)
4. Peak the signa! again then move backwards untilthe signal drops to the DAC curve and note
the distance on the CRT. (lt will be about 32mm.)
5. Repeat steps 2,3 and 4 for the boles at 32, 43 and 50mm depths.
6. Plot recorded results.
Probe motion is aided by using a straight edge to move against. This ensures thc bearn is always at right angles to
the target. Plotting ofresults can be done by drawing ares from a z.ero point oo an X-Y axis similar to that in
Figure 7-16.

Figure 7-16

32
43
50

42
54.5

45
60

49

65

64

70

76

~~------~~~~----

50 L-------+-~,1--.~,=-..:==, front of
baek of
beam

vaJues

"'-...
beam
""'-...
values
centre of

beam

varues

ULTRAS O NIC INSPECTION l

TRAINING FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE T&STING

-------------------------------------------------------------P~e?- 25
Another option for vertical beam spread plots utilizes a plastic overlay. The overlay is placed on the IOW block
where the probe exit point has been marked and hole locations are immediately apparenl The hole locations are
marked and beam edges drawn justas resulted in Figure 7-16 but the process is simplified as no ares need be
dawn and tabulated values need nol be recorded. See Figure 7-17. The original overlays were rnade avalable
from the School of Applied NDT (SANDn in the UK.

Figure 7-17

"'"'

...,.....

,..

Having generated bearn profiles, sizing of defects can be related lo known characteristics of the beam. Caordinales obtained from a defecl allow size determination by applying the bearn profile 10 a cross-sectional view of
the test piece.
For example; a double vee weld is inspected with the 45 probe jusi profiled. When a defecl is located its position
is determined by measuring probe positions with respec11o sorne reference system on the surface and noting
soundpath distances for maximum amplitude and 6dB extremities. Data recording sheets are usually arranged lo
permit these co-ordinales 10 be recorded. Cross-sections of the weld are drawn using conlour gauges and
lhicknesses determined ultrasonically. Using lhe recorded eo-ordinates, vertical extent ofthe defect can be
delermined on lhe cross-sectional view. This is illustrated in Figure 7-18.

tiLTRASON JC INSPECTI ON 2
TRAINING FOR NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

----------------------------------------------------------------Page7-26
Figure 7-18

Wl6d prolle MCI pkllt ea dewrJintd trcm a.rlliOI QaUQe,

~IOnk~tJ;Ir'ld....-.~..,.oratpOIN5UMdn~
--~e-ntprolle&.

A \'ariation of the amplitude drop rnethod relies on the fac1 thal rnany defects are nol srnooth bul presenl nurnerous
facets lo the bearn. Each of these facets occur al different dis1ances from the probe so will peak at different points
in time as the probe is moved forward and backward lf exil point and soundpath distances are recorded for each
peak rnaximizcd, a series of points can be plotted that, when connected, closely matches thc vertical extent of the
defect. The technique is terrned the maximum amplitude (Max Arnp) technique. lts application can be
experirnented with using the 5 resoluon boles on the IOW block.

The DGS System of Defect Sizing

In 1958 Krautkrarner developed a series offorrnulae to estmate the size of a defect asan equivalen! toa fiat dise
reflector. These relate echo height to bearn path and larget si1.e. With these relationships, Krautkramer developed
curves relating diSiance along the horizonlal axis to gain in dB compared toa backwall reflector at a proportion of
the probe diameter. The original Gerrnan terrn for the system is AVG (Abstand, Verstrakung, Grosse). Translated
to English these words are Distance, Gain and Size, hence the terrn DGS. The general DGS diagram is shown n
Figure 7-19.

Figure 7-19

.&

1
J

---JO'
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION 2
TRAIN IN G FOR NONDESTRUCTlVE TESTING

-------------------------------------------------------------Pqe?-27
The horizontal scale is disl.anc:e and made 1ogarithmic. lts unilS are of path 1ength to near field ratio

A=!_
N

P =Path length to target

N = Near field length
A= Dstance
The vertical scale is the dB gain required to bring the defect echo to the same height as the infinite reflector at tbe
dclined distance.

V= Amplilication
H; = Amplitude of defect (dB)
H,. = Amplitude of infinitc reflector
The ratio of thc dcfect diametcr lo probe diametcr is called the rcduced siz.e of the flaw.

G=D
G E Reduced sze
d = Equivalen! flaw diarneter
D = Probc diarneter
As an example we will determine the sze of a flaw for the following conditions;
material R steel
acoustic velocity = 6000mls (long)
probe diameter = 1Omm
disl.anc:e to Rferena: back:wall = 1OOmm
ncar :wne distance = 83mm as detcrmined from(

~)

N=

probe frequency = i MHz

dJ.stance to flaw = 1SOmm
amphtude to infinite reflector = 40 dB
amplitude of flaw signa! = 58 dB
Solution
l. Normalize the distances
P 1S0/83 1.8 (path length to flaw)
R 100/83 1.2 (distance to the referena: backwall)
2. Establish the gain differena: between flaw and inlinitc reflection
58.40. 18 dB
3. Move along the infinite reflector cwve to the distance for the reference i.e. 1.2
4. Move down thc 18 dB amplitude dilference on tbe vertical scale, i.e. from 2 dB to 20 dB
5. Move along the borizontalto the pathlength 10 the flaw i.e. 1.2, and locate the nearest reflector cwve, in Ibis
case it is 0.2
6. Multiply the probe diameter by 0.2 to determine the approximated Oaw sze. i.e. 10 X 0.2 = 2mrn diamcter
Normalizing thc values is time consurning so curves are made specilic toa probe. Transparent scrcen inscu are
availablc tbat are customized to various UT insttumenlS and for various ranges and probes. This allows more
direct cvaluations.

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Codes, Standards and Procedures
Thc tcrrns "code", "standard", "specification" and "procedure" are often confusecl in NDT. In sorne cases thesc
terrns are used inter-changeably. However from a technical point of view each refers to a separate lype of
documenl. To avoid even further confusion we will restrict our definitions to the written documents implied by
these tcrrns. This caution is due lo the common referralto calibration blocks or test pieces with known defccts
used to verify accuracy of a test procedure as "standards".
A standard is a written docurnent assembled by recognized experts, with thc purpose of rccommending actions lo
achieve certain objectives. An example of a standard is the American Society of Nondestructive Testing
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-IA. This is a standard for qualification and certification ofNDT personnel
by employers.
A standard is usually enforced or given authority by an organization or agency {typically professional societies or
national institutions). When a set of standards is incorporated into law and thereby enforceable legally il is
considered a code. Examples of codes are:
American Society ofMechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Yessel Code
Canadian Standards Association (CSA) Zl84 Gas Pipeline Systems.
When a user or purchaser of a specific product requires assurance of quality level they will often arrange their own
document describing specific test parameters and acceptance criteria. Such a product specific standard is
considered a specification. Allhough it may reference other codes and standards it can require more stringent
limits than the more general standards. An example of a specification might be; "NDE ." XYZ Co. Ltd.,
Specification for Nondestructive Testing ofEiectric Resistance Welds.
To avoid the ambiguity of the usually general standards, and lo avoid the constan! updating of specifications thal
refer to national standards which are constantly revised, companjes often develop a procedure.
The procedure can address the company's needs by setting out its standard practices for the various aspects ofthe
test method, such as; procurement, processing, periodic controls, approved materials and accessories.
Finally, as a contracled inspection company applies a test to various parts, the variations available to achieve the
desired results can be too myriad to list as part of the procedure document and generalizations are again too vague.
A common method of addressing the specific inspection application 10 a specific part is to use a technique sheet.
This sheet would typically contain the following information:

part description and identification (e.g. model or type number)

origin of part of material (e.g. customer)
technique number
date of issue of the technique
UT procedure to be used
any other NDT methods to be used
applicable codes, standards, or specifications
acceptance criteria
signatures of authority approving the document.
In summary, there is a hierarchy of documentation in NDT.
l. Standards and codes, which provide general guidelines and limits.
2. Specification, which is a product specific document usually assembled by the customer.
3. Procedures, which are usually an inspection company's statement oftheir standard practices ora
document dcsigned 10 address the requirements of a specification used by thc company they are
providing a service to.
4. A techniquc sheet is often part of a procedure and provides a brief description of test application
to a specific part.

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--------------------------------------------------------PGge?-29
.Ale requirements will vary from counuy to counuy and even from one industry to another within the same
counuy. Whether the code covers pressure vessels, aircraft, nuclear components or struetural components, eertain
general aspects are addressed. Equipment, scanrung, recordi.ng levels, reporting details and aceept/reject critcria
are the main items common to all.

Sorne of the largest variation in the way codes deal with a subject will exist in accept/reject criteria. Sorne codes
leave it up toan agreement belween the coouacting parties. Other codes spulale every detail in a logic scquenee
that begi.ns with ampliiUde over a threshold and goes on lo place limits on; Jength orientation with respect to
surface, venical extent, proximity lo surface and flaw type. The latter leaves no room for judgment and makes no
allowance for experience of the operator and work history of the item tested.
Examples of uluasonic inspection codes include:
l. ASTM A 388 - Uluasonic Testing of Heayy Steel Forgings
2. B. S. 4336 (British) NDTofPiate Material: Uluasoruc Detection ofLaminar lmperfections in
Ferrous Wrought Plate
3. AFNOR PN A 04305 (French) Uluasonic Testing ofHeayy Steel Plate
4. B.S. 3923 (British) Methods for Uluasonic E:<amination of Welds. Par1 l. Manual
E:<amination ofFusion Welded Butt Joints in Ferritic Steels
S. ASME (USA) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section 111; Nuclear Power Plant Componcnts,
Appendix IX 3000 Nondestructive Methods ofExamination
6. CSA W 59 (Canada) Welded Steel Construction - Clauses 11 and 12 Design and Construction
Codes or standards are nol always referenced for a project. Their guidelines are usually stringent and consider

flaws i.n a very conservative manner (for !hose where accept/reject critcria is not established by agreemeru betwl:en
conuacting parties). A new philosophy for evaluation was established by the Weldi.ng lnstitute in Cambridge, U.K.
in the 1970's . Terrned fitnessforpurpose, this philosophy considered many factors when making a decision to
accept or reject a eomponent in whicb a flaw is detected. This has been used to eliminate many unnecessary
repairs and pan rejections. lts applicability is easily shown by pans containing cracks which were pan of the
fabrication process yet they have nol grown to cause failure over a 30 or 40 year life of the componen!.
Fitness-for-purpose evaluates each defect by engineeringjudgment, experience and expertise to establish lhe
sigrtifica.nce of any detected discontinuity. Engineering judgment must be based a knowledge of the material in
question, operating temperature and pressure ofthe componen!, variations in loading, any occurrences outside of
the intended eonditions, environmental risks and the presence of previously introduced defects (e.g. manufacturing
defects as opposed to service defects).
Working to a fitness-for-purpose requirement will require the UT operator provide as much inforrnation as is
necessary to the evaluating engineer. Only when all possible aspects are available can the evaluation be made with
a high degree of eon1idence. When well applied, fitness-for-purpose philosophy can provide significan! savings in
unneeessary rejection, however aceeptance, by code bodies, of lhls philosopby may be slow to come. Where
liability for failure could resl with a goverrunent boiler inspector they may not want to rely on the fitness-for
purpose concept but may insist on the more conservative requirements of the code.
A closely related concept is found incorporated into sorne codes. For example, in CSA Zl84 Code for Gas Pipeline
Systems, the concept is called Engineeri.ng Critica! Assessment. This allows a less stringent acceptance criteria be
developed providing mechanicaltests on material toughness be perforrned and exact location, length and vertical
extent of any discontinuities be identified. Whereas as the most stringcnt workmanship evaluation must be done
on welds that are radiographed to lhls code, if uluasonics is used and the neeessary material evaluations done, an
engineer can extend the allowable lengths of many defects. This is primarily because ultrasonics provides the
necessary inforrnation about lhe througb depth of the flaw which radiography can not.

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Reports
From a customer's point ofview the repon is the most imponant pan ofthe inspection. 11 provides a certification
of the status of the component. But a repon does not just indicate the pan is aeeeptcd or rejected. In sorne cases
aeeeptanee criteria may not even apply and lirulings of the test will be evaluated elsewhere. A complete repon
covers severa! items peninentto the test. Four main categories of information should be found in the repon.
These nclude;
identification
equipment .
technique
results
Companics often have standard repon forms that allow a "fill-in-the-blank" completion of the repon. However,
the complexity of inspection technique used may not allow such a simple formal. Automatcd systems can provide
various repon formats including chans, maps and computer files containing all necessary information but even
these may need sorne form of"cover page" to address unique applicalions. For a typical manual weld nspection
tbe following items would normally be found on the repon.
Identification
customer namc, address etc.
customer work number or description (P.O.#)
inspection company name
inspector's name and certification
part descriplion -componen! name, serial nwnber, material, quantity
date of inspection
localion of inspection
Equipment
flaw detector - make, SIN, model
probes - size, angle, frequency
couplant
calibration blocks used
any special equipment
Tecboique
applicable codes, standards or specifications
company procedure
range and reference sensitivity
scanning sensitivity
attenuation correclions made
scanning surfaces and directions
scanning restrictions (geometrical obstruction)
sizing method used
recording level
reponing coordinates( surface references for measurements)
Results
indications above recording level - location and descriplion
sketch of pan and localion of indications - plan and cross-section
status of indication andlor pan witb respect to aeeeptance criteria
Although the above items are a good outline of most requirements, sorne codes may slipulate othcr requirements.
Wben computerized equipment is used compatibility to codes and standards is not straight forward and in sorne
cases not even possible as tbe standard is too rigid to consider anything other than manual mcthods.

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION l
TRAINING FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING