1988

IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 8, No. 4, October 1993

MINIMAL TRANSIENT SWITCHING OF CAPACITORS

Guy OLIVIER, Senior Member, IEEE

lmad MOUGHARBEL,

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal
P.O. Box 6079, Station A , Montreal, QC, Canada, H3C 3A7
Telephone:(514) 340-4541, Fax:(514) 340-321 4
Abstract - Capacitor banks are used to compensate
the reactive power demand of large commercial and industrial loads. When used to switch capacitor banks mechanical breakers generate large current transients. These
transients may cause serious system disturbances, premature wear of the breaker contacts and, possibly, shorten
the life of the capacitors. While thyristor switches are not
new and industry has successfully used them to obtain
transient-free switching of capacitor banks, there are very
few papers describing this application. This paper tries to
fill the void and presents a comparative study of various
three-phase configurations of semiconductor switches
intended for low voltage (600 V and less) distribution
systems. Simple theoretical analysis enables the calculation of the optimal switching times to minimize transients.
These calculations take into account the system impedance and the initial capacitor voltages.
INTRODUCTION
In industrial distribution systems capacitor banks are
often used for power factor compensation. The capacitors
are either distributed throughout the plant and installed
close to the reactive equipment or in a single location,
usually at the plant entrance. Often, especially in large
installations, the preferred solution consists of several
dispersed banks of capacitors t o compensate for the
reactive power consumption of the largest loads and a
single capacitor bank at the plant entrance to take care of
the other smaller loads. With ever increasing electricity
costs fixed capacitor banks are often no longer acceptable.
Computers are increasingly being used to determine and
switch in or out the optimal number of capacitors according t o the real time plant conditions.
Switching large capacitors on a three-phase system
is the source of several significant problems. These
problems may be acceptable if the capacitors are not
switched often, i.e. only a few times a day. However, if
switching occurs several times an hour the consequences
could be intolerable. The voltage disturbances associated
with the large current transients that occur at the instant
of switching are the most severe problem. If not limited
by external means the amplitude of these transients can
easily exceed ten times the nominal capacitor current and
their duration can last up t o several milliseconds. As
shown later their amplitude depends on the system impedance and on the actual instant of switching. These
transients can cause significant voltage dips and can be
the source of equipment malfunction or failure. Also, due
to their extreme amplitude, these transients can cause
premature wear of the mechanical contacts and shorten
capacitor life.
93 WM 232-9 PWRD
A paper recommended and approved
by the IEEE Transmission and Distribution Committee
of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for presentation at the IEEE/PES 1993 Winter Meeting, Columbus,
OH, January 31 - February 5, 1993. Manuscript submitted January 30, 1992; made available for printing
November 18, 1992.

Gordon DOBSON-MACK, Member IEEE

B.C. Hydro
P.O. Box 8 9 1 0
Vancouver, B.C., V6B 4 x 3
Telephone:(604) 528-2576, Fax:(604) 528-1 887

Unlike mechanical breakers, thyristors permit precise,

phase by phase, control of the instant of switching
thereby almost completely eliminating the transients. If the
thyristors are triggered at the precise instant when the
instantaneous anode to cathode voltage changes polarity,
the amplitude of the transient is reduced to a negligible
value [ l ] . In the past this method has been successfully
applied in industrial installations. However, very f e w
papers have been written about electronic capacitor
switching and none, to the authors' knowledge, have
assessed the advantages and disadvantages of the various
switch configurations 11 to 61. This paper tries to fulfill the
need for a comparative study of the various possible
circuits. Furthermore, the paper also presents an analytical
approach to determine the optimal instants of switching.
The paper focuses on low voltage industrial distribution systems, 600 V and less, where up to several Mvar of
reactive power compensation may be required. Although
the same principles apply, this paper is not aimed at intermediate voltage distribution systems where the voltage
levels require the series connection of several thyristors.
SWITCH CONFIGURATIONS
Sinale-Dhase confiauration
In single-phase circuits only one possible circuit
configuration exists. Fig. l a shows a pair of back-to-back
thyristors connected in series with the capacitor.
Although it does not make any difference electrically, for
safety reasons the switch is usually installed on the live
side rather than in the neutral wire. Fig. l b shows the
operation of a single-phase switch. To avoid transients the
thyristors are not turned-on immediately after the closing
signal is received, rather they are fired when the instantaneous ac voltage across the switch passes through zero.
In the case of a discharged capacitor this occurs at the
zero-crossing points of the ac line voltage. The turn-on
delay may last up to a half cycle for a discharged capacitor
and up to a full cycle if the capacitor is charged to the
peak line voltage. When the opening signal is received the
thyristor triggering signals are stopped. However, the
current will continue to flow until it naturally decreases to
zero. As the second thyristor will not be triggered, the
current will be unable to flow in the reverse direction and
will thus stop flowing. This process introduces a turn-off
delay which may last up t o half a cycle. In addition, the
capacitor is left charged at the peak ac voltage. (The
capacitor will discharge slowly; IEEE Standard 1 8 171
stipulates that, after one minute, the residual capacitor
voltage should be reduced to less than 50 volts.) This
residual capacitor voltage, equal t o the ac peak voltage,
has t w o consequences. Firstly, the thyristors sustain
twice the peak ac line voltage and, therefore, must be
rated accordingly. Secondly, the capacitors cannot be
switched on again until a full cycle has elapsed.
Three-phase confinurations
In the case of three-phase systems various configurations are feasible: the capacitors and the switches may be
connected either in a wye or in a delta configuration; one
thyristor per switch may be replaced by a diode; only t w o
thyristor switches may be used and a neutral conductor
may or may not be present. Fig. 2 illustrates all the possible configurations.

0885-8977/93/$03.00 0 1993 IEEE

1989

1, = 0.71 I

I,=

V,

1.63 E

V,

0.82E

V, = f 0.82E
f 0.82E

W33AN

W33NA

Cf

443--1 --@ti

I, = 0 71 I

I, = 0.71 I

*,=I

I,

1.93E

V,

1.93E

V,

1.12 E

V,

1.93E

k 1.93E
f 0.52E
1.41 E

f 1.12E
f 0.82E
f 0.30 E
Cf = 0.73

,V

Vi = 1.93 E
V,

V, =

v33YA

I,

I,

V,

1.93E

V,

1.93E

k 1.93E
0.52E
f 1.41E

1.12 E

* 1.12E

,V

f 0.82E
f 0.30 E
Cf = 0.73

I,

I W32YA

W32AY

I,

I,=

On

I,

0.71I

I - i -0

V,

3.35 E

V,

1.12E

*+ 1.12
E
0.82E

V,

W33DA

058 I

3.35 E

V, = 1.12E

V,

1.93E

f 1.93E
0.52E
f 1.41E

= f 1.12E
f 0.82E

r . - - n A Q

voltage

21
-5T

T
On

=--T
12

V,

C f = 0.42

"._&

W32AD

0.82I

*f 1.12
E
0.82 E

Trec =

-?12T
21
-GT

---It

12

1
2

To,,= - T
,,T

21
-GT

I -+-

V,

U33DA

f 0.30 E

rms line-to-line

Toff =

Cf = 0.73

E : per-unit

T,

= 0.71 I

V,

5
=--T

5
Toff = - 2 T

V33AD

I,
T

Cf = 0.73

0.41I

V, = 3.35 E

"f

W33AD

0.58 1

- E
f 0.30

W32DA

To,

0.71I

I,=

V,

W33AA

Cf = 0.73

I, = 0.71 I

V33AY

0.58 I

V,

V,

W33AY

f 1.41E
f141E
Cf = 0.86

f 0.82E
0.86

f 0.30E

Cf = 0.36

I : per-unit

rms line current

Fig. 2: All possible configurations of three-phase switches

T,

--

1990

THYRISTOR SWITCH

A)

SOURCE
Ac

+-w=+

LINE VOLTAGE

CONTROL SIGNAL

'

'

THYRISTOR VOLTAGE

Fig. 1: Single-phase switch

The circuits have been named according to the identification code of the IEEE Standard 4 2 8 [81. The first
letter identifies the basic control elements used: U, single
thyristor; V, one thyristor and one diode back-to-back and
W, t w o back-to-back thyristors. The next t w o digits represent respectively, the number of phases and the number of
control elements. The last t w o letters specify the controller and the load connections: D, for a delta connection; Y,
for a three-wire wye connection; N, for a four-wire wye
connection; A, for nondescript connections.
These configurations can be divided into three different groups. The configurations of the first group are
obtained by connecting three-single phase circuits. In the
first t w o circuits, W33NA and W33AN, the switches and
the capacitors are in series and connected in wye. The
wye center point is tied t o the system neutral. In the case
of the third one, W33AA, the switches and capacitors are
in series and connected in delta. It is important to note
that there is no interaction between the three legs: a single
equation can be used to describe the operation of the
three switches. The second group of configurations can be
characterized by the existence of an interaction between
the three-switches; the closing and opening of a switch
depend on the actual state of the other t w o switches. The
first sub-group, configurations W33YA, W33AY and
W33AD, uses three back-to-back thyristors as switches;
the second sub-group, configurations V33YA, V33AY and
V33AD, uses one diode and one thyristor per switch and
the third sub-group, configurations W32YA, W32DA,
W32AY and W33AY. uses only t w o all-thyristor switches.
The configurations in each sub-group differ from one
another either by the position of the thyristors or by the
capacitor connection (wye or delta). Configurations
W32YA and W32DA are special. These t w o circuits are
electrically identical, however the first one is derived from
W33YA and the second from W33DA. The last group,
configurations W33DA and U33DA, constitute the only
circuits with delta connected switches. Both of them
present peculiar behavior. In the case of W33DA, the
current distribution between the thyristors depends on the
on-state voltage drop of the devices and in the case of
U33DA the thyristors cannot be turned on again until the
capacitor voltage drops t o a critical value.

Another basic difference exists between the singlephase configurations and the other circuits. While the
single-phase configurations can be reclosed without any
restrictions, the other configurations require the switches
to be closed in a well defined manner. If this defined
sequence is not followed, the residual capacitor voltages
are such that the voltage across one of the switches will
never pass through zero and, therefore, cannot be closed
without causing a transient. Fig. 3 illustrates this problem
for both wye and delta connected capacitors. The capacitors were left charged after an initial operation of the
switches. In both cases if switch Ka closes first, when the
Eac voltage becomes equal to the maximum line-to-line
voltage, switch Kb can be closed 270 later. However, if
switch Kb closes first the voltage across switch Ka never
passes through zero. Simple analysis shows that t o avoid
latchwp the first switch t o be closed must be the switch
that sees the peak line-to-line voltage.
The circuits of Fig. 2 differ from one another. In
addition to the obvious differences in thyristor and capacitor current ratings due t o the wye or delta arrangements,
there are differences in their turn-on and turn-off delays,
the peak voltage across the switches and the peak capacitor voltage. Fig. 2 gives the thyristor and capacitor rms
currents (It and IC) and peak voltages (Vt and Vc), the dc
voltages appearing across the capacitors when the
switches are opened (Vdc), the maximum turn-on time
with capacitors completely discharged (Ton), the maximum
turn-off time (Toff) and the minimum delay between the
instant the switches stop conducting and the instant they
can be reclosed (Trec). In Fig. 2, the voltages and currents
have been expressed as a function of the rms line-to-line
voltage (E) and the rms line current (I);the delays are
expressed as a fraction of the basic ac period (TI. These
parameters, as well as the cost of the various circuits,
must be considered when evaluating each configuration.
It is very difficult to establish the relative cost of the
different configurations as the most economical solution
will differ from application to application. However, the
following points must be taken into consideration:
-Number and tvDe of semiconductors: Thyristors are more
expensive than diodes. In addition, each thyristor requires
a gate amplifier and a zero-crossing detector.
-Semiconductor ratinas: The cost of semiconductors
increases with their voltage and current ratings, consequently specific designs must balance the number and
type of semiconductors against their voltage and current
ratings. For instance, the two-switch configurations
require only four semiconductor devices, however these
devices must be capable of sustaining significantly higher
voltages. Alternatively, single-phase configurations
W33AN and W33NA require six thyristors but have the
lowest thyristor withstand voltage. In order t o simplify the
comparison each circuit was assigned a capacity factor,
Cf, equal to the inverse of the product of the peak semiconductor voltage and the rms semiconductor current.
Single phase configurations have the best capacity factor.
-ResDonse time: The turn-on, turn-off and reclosing times
vary with the different configurations.
-CaDacitor banks: Three-phase capacitors are normally sold
as complete three-terminal units. Several configurations
require individual capacitors which may add to the cost of
the capacitor bank.

rms line-tn-line

voltage

Fia.3: Capacitor voltages after initial operation

1991

Fig. 4

E,

=,
E

sin( w t t

e)

Equivalent circuit of a single-phase switch

SINGLE-PHASE ANALYSIS
Fig. 4 illustrates the equivalent circuit of a singlephase switch. This simple circuit will be used to establish
the basic equations and calculate the transient conditions.
In this circuit, R and L represent the source and circuit
impedances, C the capacitor t o be switched on at t = 0
and precharged a t Eco. The expression of the instantaneous current takes t w o different forms depending on the
circuit damping.
I f R > 2 J L / C , the c i r c u i t i s overdand
i(t)

= I, sin(ot+8-*) + e-6t (AeXt + Be-Xt)

If R

2 JL/C,

i ( t 1 = I,

main transient component vanishes and no large inrush

current occurs. This is illustrated in Fig. 5. In the first
series of curves the switch is activated at the correct
instant. The transient component is very small and may
not cause any harm. Alternatively, the second series of
curves show that a very large transient current may circulate if there is a voltage across the switch at the instant of
closing. The peak value of the transient current may easily
reach ten times the amplitude of the steady state current.
This situation is even worse if a switched capacitor
is connected in parallel with an existing capacitor as illustrated in Fig. 6. In this circuit, the only impedance between the capacitors is that of the wires and the equivalent
resistance of the thyristors. Since capacitors are usually
located close to one another, this impedance is extremely
small and currents of several thousands amperes may
flow. While this circuit can be solved analytically, a simulation using state space analysis and commercial software
is much more convenient. In space state form the set of
equations describing the circuit of Fig. 6 becomes:

(1)

the c i r c u i t i s underdamped and

sin(wt+O-+) + e-bt (D cosart + E sinwrt)

(2)

Where: - ,I and Q are respectively the peak value and

the phase of the steady-state current:
I, =

This set of equations is numerically solved with the

inductor currents and the capacitor voltages taking on
their initial values at the instant of closing. Fig. 7 shows a

Em

l R 2 + (XL

= Arctg t(XL

XCl2

Xc) / R 3

6 i s the damping factor and i s equal to R/2L

E,

i s the peak value of the ac source E,

- Es(t)

= E, sin(wt + 8)

Constants A, B, D, E are calculated from the initial values.

A t time t = 0:
i(t) = 0
di

-=

E, s i n 8

E,

dt

where: , E
,
is the initial voltage across the capacitor.
Then, for the overdamped case:
E, s i n 8 -Eco
I, w cos(&*)
I, (X+6) sin(&))
A=

ZAL

B = -

2 X

2 h

E, s i n 8

2 X L

I, w cos(B-@)

I,

2 X

( 1 - 6 ) sin(@-#)
2 X

and, for the underdamped case:

C = -1, sin(@-)
E,

D =

sin(&

Wr

E,

I, w cos(8-i)
Or

I,

R sin(&*)

2 L

Wr

The last four equations indicate that the transient

components of the circuit response are due t o the voltage
across the capacitor at the instant of closing. If the
switch is closed when the line voltage is equal to the
capacitor voltage or, in other words, when the voltage
across the switch is zero, the term responsible for the

-200

'

10

15

20

Time (ms)

Fig. 5: Transient response of a single-phase switch

0.4n ,

c = 480~~
L=
.I~O~H
E~, = 120 v, e = 30"

1992
the three capacitor voltages (Eca, Ecb, Ecc) and the three
current waveforms (la, Ib, IC)
along with the control signal.
The switches are installed in lines A and B.

c21

Fig. 6: Two capacitors in parallel

typical example. The waveforms of Fig. 7a were obtained

when the switch was closed at the correct instant. Again,
the transients are insignificant if the switch is closed when
the voltage across it is zero. However, when this is not
the case the currents in both capacitors can reach up to
ten times the steady state currents as shown in Fig. 7b.
In the first part of the transient period a large current
flows between C1 and C2. Subsequently, both capacitors
are recharged by a pulse of current from the source. The
values of the various elements used in the simulation were
chosen t o closely match the experimental conditions.
Damping may be considerably less for typical industrial
6 0 0 V installations.
THREE-PHASE ANALYSIS
Analysis of three-phase configurations is similar to
the single-phase case. Configuration W32YA will be used
t o illustrate how the values of Fig. 2. were obtained. In
this analysis the line impedance is assumed negligible and
the thyristors triggered when the voltage across them is
zero. Fig. 8 helps to explain the behavior of the circuit.
This figure shows the three phase voltages (Ea, Eb, Ec),

100

The signal to close the switch is given at time T1,

however, the thyristors are not immediately triggered. The
voltage across one of the switches must be zero before it
can be triggered and this only happens when either the
phase voltage Ea or Eb becomes equal t o Ec i.e. at the
zero crossing points of the line voltage. The first switching
time is labelled T2. A t this instant the phase A switch is
closed and current begins to flow in phases A and C.
Ninety degrees later, at time T3, the phase B switch can
be closed completing the turn-on process. The turn-on
delay may last anywhere between 114 and 7/12 of a
period depending on the phase difference between the
control signal and the switching instants of phase A and B.
Fig. 2 always lists the maximum delays.
The decision t o turn off the switch takes place at
time T 4 at which point the gate signals are immediately
removed. The phase B switch turns off first at instant T5
when the phase B current reaches zero. Again a variable
delay exists: its maximum value is 7 / 1 2 of a period.
Capacitor B is left charged at the negative peak of the
phase voltage or 0.81 6 E. A quarter cycle later, the second switch opens at instant T6. Capacitors A and C final
voltages are equal to half the final voltage of capacitor B
(half the peak phase voltage) plus or minus half the peak
line voltage. In terms of numbers the voltages are: 0.5 $z
(Ep + E) = 1.1 2 E and 0.5 52 (Ep - E) = 0.299 E. During
the off stage the maximum voltage that appears across an
open switch is equal to the sum of the voltage of the
capacitor in series with the switch (Vca), the voltage of
the capacitor in phase C, (Vcc) and the peak line-to-line
voltage (1.41 E), namely 3.95 E.

e
r

-40

10

Time (ms)

10
Time (ms)

Fig. : 7 Transient response, two capacitors in parallel; a ) optimal switching instant b ) random
switching instant ( RS = R = 0.40, L = ~ O L I HLs
, = 150~1H.C1 = C2 = 480~1F.
ES = 12OV

1993

Fig. 8: Timing diagram for configuration W32AY

The signal t o reconnect the capacitor bank is

received a t instant T7. To avoid capacitor voltage latch-up
only the phase A switch should be closed. A t time T 8 the
phase A switch is closed; the phase B switch closes three
quarters of a cycle later. Up to 1 3/4 cycles may elapse
between the appearance of the control signal and the
complete closing of the switches.
The same method was used t o analyze all the different configurations; the results are presented in Fig. 2.
Although the various configurations may appear quite
different, the waveforms produced by the different circuits
are essentially the same. Consequently, a detailed analysis
in this paper of all the circuits was deemed unnecessary.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

analysis. A simple controller based on standard analog

voltage comparators was developed t o generate the triggering signals 191 and fiber optic cables were used to
transmit these signals to the gate amplifiers 1101. Singlephase and three-phase configurations were tested and all
the laboratory results were in agreement with the predicted behavior 191. Only a f e w samples of the experimental results are presented here. Fig. 9 shows a typical
current inrush for a single-phase circuit where the thyristors are randomly triggered; the transient is 11 times
greater than the peak ac current. Alternatively, in Fig. 10
the thyristor is triggered at the correct instant. No inrush
occurs and, as predicted, a small oscillation is apparent
during the first cycle. Finally. Fig. 1 1 shows the behavior
of configuration W32YA. The experimental waveforms and
the calculated ones (Fig. 8 ) match perfectly.

Experimental verification confirmed the preceding

Fig. 9: Typical current inrush (Es = 12OV,

30A/div., 1Oms/div.)

= 13OpF,

Fig. 10: Minimal inrush current (ES = 120V,

30A/div., 2.5ms/div.)

C =

480pF,

1994
151 Alain Roux and al., "Condensateurs commutes par
thyristors", Revue Generale d'electricite, No. 6, June
1988, pp. 2 4 to 27.
161 Michael Hausler and al., "Amorcage e t protection
contre les surtensions des soupapes a thyristors pour
compensateurs statiques", Revue Brown Boveri, No. 4,
1987, pp. 206 to 212.
171 IEEE Std 18-1980,"Standard for Shunt Power Caoaci..a
+, r n

[81 IEEE Std 428-1 981, "Definitions and Reauirements for

Thvristor AC Power Controllers"
(91 Gordon P. Mack, [
tor Banks", Masters Dissertation, Dept. of Elec. Eng.,
Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal, March 1990.
[lo1 Olivier G. and al., "Design Considerations for Optically
Isolated Gate AmDlifiers", Canadian Conf. on Elect. and
Comp. Eng., Toronto, September 1992.

Fig. 11: Configuration W32AY (E = 208V, C = 480pF)

a) Capacitor voltage (200V/div., 50msldiv.)
b) Capacitor current (2OA/div., 1 0 msldiv.)
CONCLUSION
Using thyristor switches it is possible to connect
large capacitor banks t o ac systems without damaging
current transients. If the thyristors are triggered when the
voltage across the switch is zero, minimal current transients will occur. Furthermore, it is not necessary t o
precharge or discharge the capacitors before closing the
switches because the capacitor bank can be connected to
the ac system independently of the initial capacitor voltages. Fourteen different three-phase configurations were
identified and analyzed. For each of them, the turn-on and
turn-off delays of the switches, the thyristor current and
voltage ratings and the voltage and current characteristics
of the capacitors were determined. Experimental results
confirmed the theoretical analysis.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish t o thank Prof. G.-E. APRIL of the
Ecole Polytechnique for his contribution to this project.
This work was supported by the National Sciences and
Engineering Council of Canada.

-Job-

111 J.E. Miller,"Re ctive Power Control in Electric Svstems",

[21 Allan Greenwood, Electrical Transient in Power Svstems", 2nd edition, Jo!n Wiley 81Sons, 1991.
I31 I.B. Johnson and al., Some Fundamentals on Capacitance Switching", Proc. of AIEE, Vol. 74, Part 111,
Auaust 1955, DD. 727 to 736.
[41 Sue S. Mikhail'and Mark F. McGranaham, "Evaluation
of Switching Concerns Associated with 345 kV Shunt
Capacitor Applications", IEEE Trans. Pow. Syst., Vol.
PWRD-1, No.2, April 1986, pp. 221 to 230.

GUV OLlVlER
(S'71-M'81SM'84) was born in Montreal,
QC. Canada in 1 9 5 2 . He
received B.Sc.A. and M.Sc.A.
degrees in electrical engineering
from the Ecole Polytechnique de
Montreal in 1 9 7 5 and 1977,
respectively, and a Ph. D. in
Power Electronics from Concordia University, Montreal, in
1982. In, 1981 he joined the
Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering of the
Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal, where he is currently a
Professor. His research interests include large converters, variable speed drives and
transformers. Dr. Olivier is a registered Professional
Engineer in the Province of Quebec.
lmad MOUGHARBEL was born in
Beirut, Lebanon, in 1953. He
received a diploma of Electrical
Engineering f r o m t h e Ecole
Centrale de Lyon, France, in
1977 and a Doctorat d'ingenieur
from
the
Universite
d'Aix-Marseille in 1980. His
doctorate research work was
done in the Power Transistor
Development Department of
Thomson CSF. In 1982, he
joined the Department of Electrical Engineering of the Lebanese
University, Beirut. From 1987 to
1 9 9 0 he was also a Dart time
lecturer at the American University of Beirut. In '1991, he
joined the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering of the Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal as a research
associate.
Gordon DOBSON-MACK (M'91)
w a s born i n Victoria, British
Columbia in 1964. He received a
B. Sc. in Electrical Engineering
from Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, in 1986. Following
t w o years of studies in France and
i in Kingston, he began a Masters
program at the Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal. In May 1990, he
obtained a M. Ing. in Power Electronics. In September 1990, he
joined B.C. Hydro, Vancouver
where he is currently a Graduate
Engineer Trainee. Mr. DobsonMack is a registered Engineer in
Training in the Province of British Columbia.