Revista 2 Articulos de Diseño de Minas Sub Level Caving

NEWSLETTER
AUSTRALIAN CENTRE FOR GEOMECHANICS
Vo l u m e N o . 3 3
December 2009
IN THIS EDITION
Sublevel caving past and future, Page 1
In-pit risks, Page 7
Mine closure planning, Page 11
Mining-induced seismicity, Page 15
Tailings disposal, Page 17
Mine tailing solutions, Page 20
Increasing value of paste, Page 21
ACG event schedule, Page 24
First International Seminar on

the Reduction of Risk in the
Management of Tailings
and Mine Waste
29 September 1 October 2010,
Perth, Western Australia
Mine Waste 2010 will tackle the full
range of issues that constitute risks
in the management of mining wastes,
particularly tailings and waste risk.
This forum will encourage debate
amongst practitioners, researchers and
regulators about the key shortcomings
in industrys current understanding
of the performance of mining waste
storage facilities and associated risks
faced by owners and operators of these
facilities.
Abstracts due 1 March 2010
www.minewaste2010.com
The views expressed in this newsletter are those of
the authors and may not necessarily reflect those
of the Australian Centre for Geomechanics.
The Captain's pit in Malmberget. Photo courtesy of LKAB
Sublevel caving past and

future
by William Hustrulid, University of Utah; and the

Colorado School of Mines, USA, and Rudolph Kvapil, USA
Introduction
The sublevel caving technique according to

early mining books (Peele, 1918) evolved in
the U.S. from top slicing. It was a logical next
step in the mine geometry scale-up process.
Block caving, in turn, was the logical scale-up
from sublevel caving.
Janelid (1972) indicates, In the first
application of sublevel caving, the ore was not
drilled and blasted completely between two
sublevels, but certain parts were broken by
induced caving (hence the name sublevel caving).
As the method is applied today, the whole
quantity of ore between the different sublevels
is broken (or at least should be) using controlled
drilling and blasting. If this is done in a proper
and rational way, there are good possibilities

of developing a mining method which can be
applied, technically as well as economically, on
any orebody of suitable size, location and rock
mechanical properties.
In spite of some searching, the modern
origins of todays version could not be
clearly identified. Possibly it was developed
in the iron mines of Sweden. Janelid (1972)
indicates, For a long time, sublevel caving was
the predominant mining method at Grngesberg.
During the last ten years (since about 1960),
however, block caving has given 70% of the
production.
In 1960, the sublevel caving technique
was being used by 19 Swedish mines with a
Continued page 2
Continued from page 1

total yearly production of about 9.5 Mton
(Ohlsson, 1961). Figure 1 is a sketch of
the method as practiced at LKABs Kiruna
Mine at about that point in time.
Figure 1 Composite section view of the sublevel

caving mine at Kiruna in 1957
The scale was small, certainly by todays

standards, with a sublevel spacing of 9 m, a
drift size of 5 x 3.5 m, and a sublevel drift
spacing of 10 m centre-to-centre.
As Janelid (1961, 1972) pointed out,
Sublevel caving is in many respects simple. It
can be used in orebodies with very different
properties and it is easy to mechanize.
However, from other points of view such as
recovery, dilution and similar, the method is
unfavorable.The designs which are used and
the measures which can be taken to eliminate
the disadvantages are poorly understood. In
the end of the 1950s, model tests regarding
gravity flow in material resembling broken
rock were started at the Division of Mining,
the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in
Stockholm.The purpose was to study how the
geometrical design of various parameters in
sublevel caving are influenced by the motion
which is induced in the material when ore
is loaded in a sublevel drift. Some of these
model tests were performed as a part of
senior theses and others by assistants and
research engineers. Model tests and extensive
literature studies on sublevel caving have
also been carried out in Kiruna together with
conducting practical tests underground.The
results achieved have been so encouraging that
continued research work is well justified since
LKAB being a leader in this regard. Figure

the economic benefits which can be achieved
3 provides a comparison of the sublevel
through the development of the correct
caving mining geometries appropriate
method are extraordinarily large.
for the years 1963, 1983 and 2003 at
In Czechoslovakia in 1950, Rudolf
the Kiruna Mine. Some of the important
Kvapil was given the task of determining
parameters are tabulated in Table 1.
the causes of problems in bins and silos
and, based on this new understanding,
to develop ways of improving their
performance. It was evident to him that it
would first be necessary to determine the
basic gravity flow principles for granular
and coarse materials since they must
be completely different from principles
describing the flow of liquids which were
then available for use. He decided that
Figure 3 The sublevel caving geometry at the Kiruna
the only realistic way to proceed was
Mine at three different points in time (Marklund and
to construct and test a large number of
Hustrulid, 1995)
models and to make in situ observations.
Many of these models and the knowledge
At the Kiruna Mine today the sublevel
gained are described in his recent book
spacing
is 28.5 m. In certain sectors of
Figure 3 The sublevel caving geometry at the Kiruna Mine at three different points
(Kvapil, 2004). In 1965, Kvapil joined Janelid
LKABs
Mine,
the sublevel
timeMalmberget
(Marklund and
Hustrulid,
1995)
at KTH and began applying the gravity flow
spacing is as high as 30 m.
At the Kiruna Mine today the sublevel spacing is 28.5 m. In certain sectors of LKABs
principles gained in the study of bins
and
Malmberget Mine, the sublevel spacing is as high as 30 m.
silos to sublevel caving.
Table 1 Summary of some important
of some
important design
parameters
Figure 2 shows the application ofTable
this1 Summary
design
parameters
(Marklund
and (Marklund and Hustrulid
1995)
type of model to a sublevel cave design.
In
Hustrulid, 1995)
this particular case, the sublevel spacing is
Year
Parameter
1963
1983
2003
12.5 m, the drift dimension is 5 x 3.5 m,
Drift width (m)
5
5
7
the sublevel drift spacing is 12 m and the
Drift height (m)
3.5
4
5
burden is 2 m. These closely resemble the
Sublevel height (m)
9
12
27
Sublevel drift spacing
sublevel dimensions used by the Kiruna
(m)
10
11
25
Mine in the early 1980s. It is interesting
Blasthole diameter
to note that the design is based on a
(mm)
45
57-76
115
Burden (m)
1.6
1.8
3
drawbody width (WT) to drawpoint width
Holes/ring
9
9
10
(WD) ratio of 1.7.
Tons/ring (t)
660
1080
9300
Tons/metre of drift
(t/m)
400
600
3100
Today,push
with
the continuing
push
to
Today, with the continuing
to increase
mining scale,
a fundamental
question is wheth
the gravity flow principles
which
servedscale,
as theadesign
basis for the small-scale sublevel
increase
mining
fundamental
caving mine designs of the past can be applied at much larger scales or whether some othe
question
is whether
gravity
flow
approach is required.
This article
will providethe
some
thinking
in that regard.
principles which served as the design

basis for the small-scale sublevel caving
mine designs of the past can be applied
at much larger scales or whether some
other approach is required. This article will
Figure 2 Application of gravity flow principles to
provide some thinking in that regard.
sublevel caving design (Kvapil,1982, 1992)
Mine marker studies
Over the past few years, the scale of
sublevel caving has increased markedly with
Copyright 2009. Australian Centre for Geomechanics (ACG), The University of Western Australia (UWA). All rights reserved. No part of this newsletter
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information contained therein.
Australian Centre for Geomechanics December 2009 Newsletter
Caving
Mine marker studies
It is one thing to study flow principles
in a laboratory setting and quite another
to show that they apply in the reality of
a mine setting. One way of doing this is
through marker studies. Figure 4 shows
some results from the first marker studies
conducted as part of the overall KTH
sublevel caving research programme
conducted at the Grngesberg iron mine in
central Sweden in the early 1970s.
area. It was decided to install markers in the

fans so one could estimate the ellipsoid of
extraction.
Figure 5 shows the fan geometry and
Table 3 summarises some of the important
parameters.
the sides of the fan indicating that the ore

flow was small. On the other hand, a large
number of markers were recovered from
the central part of the fan indicating that
the predominant ore flow pattern was in
the center. This type of flow behavior will
result in early dilution. Figure 7 shows the
results in Figure 6 in the form of a contour
plot.
e thing to study flow principles in a laboratory setting and quite another to show that
ply in the reality of a mine setting. One way of doing this is through marker studies.
4 shows some results from the first marker studies conducted as part of the overall
ublevel caving research programme conducted at the Grngesberg iron mine in central
n in the early 1970s.
Figure 5
Table 3
.
Figure 5 Fan geometry for the Kiruna sublevel cave

Fan geometry
for the Kiruna sublevel cave

Summary of some
important factors concerning the Kiruna marker tests
factors concerning the Kiruna marker tests
Parameter
Sublevel drift spacing (m)
Sublevel spacing (m)
Hole diameter (mm)
Burden (m)
Sublevel drift width (m)
Sublevel drift height (m)
Front inclination (degrees)
Value
25
27
114
3
7
5
80
Figure 7 Contour plots showing the percent

recoveries at the different marker positions
Recently, comprehensive marker studies

have been carried out at the Perseverance
and Ridgeway sublevel caving mines in
Figure 4 Results of the Grngesberg marker tests
Australia. At the Perseverance Mine, the
(Janelid, 1972)
overall flow pattern as demonstrated using
4 Results of the Grngesberg marker tests (Janelid, 1972)
the markers is shown in Figure 8. Some of
Some of the relevant parameters are
of the relevant summarised
parameters areinsummarised
the important parameters are presented in
Table 2. in Table 2.
Table 4.
Figure 6 shows the results of the
2 Design parameters at Grngesberg Figure 6 shows the results of the recovered markers expressed as a percentage of the total
recovered markers expressed as a
Table 2 Design parameters at Grngesberg
number of markers installed
at each particular
percentage
of the totallocation.
number of markers
Parameter
Hole diameter (mm)
Burden (m)
Front inclination (degrees)
Value
7
13
41
1.5
3.0 slashed to 3.5
3
90
installed at each particular location.
Figure 4, it appears
that Figure
the flow4,width
is of thethat
orderthe
of 5flow
m. Since the drift width is
From
it appears
the flow width to drift width ratio is 1.43. Due to the roof curvature, the effective
width is of the order of 5 m. Since the
ion width is somewhat less and the ratio would be corresponding slightly larger.
drift width is 3.5 m, the flow width to
driftforwidth
ratio
is 1.43.
Due
to the
quite a long time
the next
group
of mine
marker
testsroof
to be performed. As noted by
iro et al (2001)curvature, the effective extraction width
is somewhat less and the ratio would be
ublevel caving layout used at Kiruna has reached dimensions that are far beyond those
slightly
rmed the basiscorresponding
for the development
of thelarger.
early design guidelines. Thus, there was a
It flow
tookpattern
quite for
a long
timelarge
for the
verify the gravity
this very
sublevel caving area. It was decided
all markers in the
fans
so oneofcould
ellipsoid
of extraction.
next
group
mineestimate
markerthetests
to be
Figure 8 Section showing the rings with the draw

pattern superimposed. Perseverance Mine
performed. As noted by Quinteiro et al.

markers at a particular position
It is one thing to study flow
(2001), The sublevel caving layout used at
Kiruna has reached dimensions
arethat
far only a Figure
6 Percentage
of the
at a
principles
inthe
a laboratory
It can bethat
seen
very small
number
of recovered
markersmarkers
were recovered
from
the sides of
particular position
beyond those that formed
basis for the
setting
and were
quite another to
fanthe
indicating
that the ore flow was small. On the other hand, a large number
of markers
development of the earlyrecovered
design guidelines.
from the central part of the fan indicating that the predominant ore
flowthat
pattern
wasapply in the
show
they
Thus, there was a need to verify the gravity
It can be seen that only a very small
reality of a mine setting.
flow pattern for this very large sublevel caving
number of markers were recovered from
Figure 6 some
Percentage
of the
recovered
5 shows the fan geometry and Table 3 summarises
of the important
parameters.
omprehensive marker studies have been carried out at the Perseverance and
height (m)
4.8
ublevel cavingSublevel
mines indrift
Australia.
At the Perseverance
Mine, the overall flow
inclination
emonstrated usingFront
the markers
is shown in Figure 8. Some of the important
(degrees)
75
are presented in Table 4.
Figure 10 Silo type of flow pattern. Kvapil (1955), Janelid and Kapil (1965)
esult from the Ridgeway Mine marker studies is shown

in average
Figure 9. Table
5 flow width/drift width ratios (W /W ) for the four cases are
The
primary
f
d
s some of the important parameters.
summarised in Table 6.
Section showing the rings with the draw pattern superimposed (Perseverance
Table6 6AAcomparison
comparison
of marker
the marker
flow patterns
Table
of the
flow patterns
factors concerning the Perseverance
ummary of some important factors concerning the Perseverance marker testsDrift width
Level
Flow width
marker tests
Parameter
Hole diameter (mm)
Burden (m)
Front inclination
(degrees)
Value
14.5
25
102
3
5.1
4.8
75
interval
(Wf)
Wf/Wd
(Wd)
(m)
(m)
(m)
Grngesberg
3.5
13
4.9
1.4
Kiruna
7
27
10.3*
1.5
Perseverance
5
25
7.1
1.4
remnants. Its mobility
varies 25
with
location and10.0
with time (it changes
with the
Ridgeway
5.9
- 30
1.7
geometry).
* Arbitrarily
taken as the 30% contour
Mine
Finally,
most rock materials
The Wf /W
d ratio of 1.4 1.7 seems
upon
being
blasted
would
like
to bulk (swell) of
of the
fan which
is the
primary
provider
The
Wf/W
ratioIn
ofsublevel
1.4
1.7caving,
seems toit apply
small
scale
sublevel
geometries
dsmall
is the
sublevel
drift
located
at the
endasof th
offor
swell
space
for the
ore in caving
the
ring.bottom
As
to
apply
for50%.
scale
sublevel
caving
An example Table
showing
markersome
recovery
mine.
well as
very
large
These
results
are space
inshown
agreement
the
early
sublevel
caving
in Table
7, the
available
freeAs
swell
is
geometries
as(After
well
asscale.
veryprovider
large
scale.
5 summarises
of theat the Ridgeway
the
primary
of swell
for
thewith
ore
in
the
ring.
shown
in Table
esult from the
Ridgeway Mine marker studies is shown
in Figure
9.
Table
5 by Kvapil
2009)
geometry
recommended
(see
Figure
2)
which
used
1.7.
highly
mining
scale
dependent.
These
results
are
in
agreement
with
important parameters concerning the
free swell is highly mining scale dependent.
s some of the
important
parameters.
the early sublevel caving geometry
Ridgeway
marker
tests.
In retrospect, by
there are(see
three
reasons
is a7 very
logical
result:
Table
Available
free
swell for the
recommended
Figure
2) why this
Table Kvapil
7 Available
free
swell
for the
different
LKAB designs
ummary of Table
design
from the
Ridgeway Mine
different
LKAB
designs
which1.used
1.7.middle holes of the ring are fired
5 parameters
Summary of design
parameters
The
first and
can
make first use of the swell volume
In retrospect,
are underlying
three reasonssublevel drift.
from the Ridgeway Mine
offeredthere
by the
"Free"
Swell close to one
why this
a very
logical
result:
Parameter
Value
2. isThe
central
holes
are drilled subvertical,Design
fairly parallel,
and relatively
1. The middle
holesThe
of the
ring is
area fired
1963
14
another.
result
relatively high and
uniform specific24.0
charge compared to the
first and
can make
useround.
of the Thus, one would
30
1983
other
holesfirst
in the
expect the best, 17.9
most uniform
swell volume
offered by the underlying
Hole diameter (mm)
102
fragmentation.
2003
5.5
sublevel
drift.
Burden (m)
2.6
3. The ore material in the central part of the round can make the best use of the effect of
2. The central holes are drilled subvertical,
6
gravity
in directing
it to the drawpoint.
As the
hasclose
increased
inhas
theincreased
quest toover
reduce
As years
the scale
the the specific de
fairly parallel,
andscale
relatively
to one over the
4.7
As indicated
earlier,
small-scale
physical
model test results
have historically
played LKAB
a very d
available
free
swell
has
correspondingly
decreased.
With
the
current
years
in
the
quest
to
reduce
the
specific
another.
The
result
is
a
relatively
high
Front inclination
important
role
in
the
dimensioning
of
sublevel
caves.
In
the
construction
of
these
models,
the
available
hasthe near vicin
and uniform
specific
to at development,
(degrees)
80
about
5%. charge
Since compared
it is located
the bottom the
of the
fan, free
the swell
ore in
sand
or
other
material
is
simply
poured
into
the
forms.
As
such,
the
properties
are
uniform
correspondingly
decreased.
With
the other
holes
in the greater
round. Thus,
one to this
has
a much
access
volume and
the chance
tothe
bulk.
The ore at th
and
the mobilities
are the
same
independentcurrent
of position
model.
In 5%.
a sublevel cave,
LKAB within
design
itthe
isand
only
about
would
expect
theand
best,
most
uniform
reviewing
results
marker
g the results ofInthe
markerthe
tests
from of
thethe
Grngesberg,
Kiruna,
Perseverance
the
fan,
on
the
other
hand,
has
little
chance
to
bulk
its
mobility
is very low
isofnot
the case.
All of the material in theSince
fan itisisdrilled
blasted.
Because
locatedand
at the
bottom
of the of the fan
fragmentation.
tests from to
thenote
Grngesberg,
Kiruna,
mines, it is interesting
that they all
basically reveal athis
type
silo
flow mobility
material
alone,
one
would
expect
significant
differences
in
geometry,
the amount
explosive/unit
volume
and
fragmentation
varies the mech
fan, the
orehence
in thethe
near
vicinity of the drift
3. The
in theof
central
part of
anddrilling
Ridgeway
mines,
it is far outside
wn in FigurePerseverance
10, even if the
pattern
extends
ofore
thematerial
silo.
between
models
and
particularly
asand
the
sublevel
scaleofistheincre
throughout
the make
fan.the
The
ore material
thereality
centre
partgreater
of the fan
part
fan
has a much
access
tothe
thislower
volume
the round
can
thesand
best
use
of thein
interesting to note that they all basically
results
verythat
high
significance.
has
a much
higher
specific
at the
of the
the
and
theboundaries
chance to bulk.
The ring.
ore atFurthermore,
the
effect
ofmarker
gravity
intest
directing
itcharge
tohave
the than
reveal a type of silo flow such as shown
cave
which lies in front of the blasted slice
is an eclectic
of other
wastehand,
rock and ore
extremities
of themixture
fan, on the
drawpoint.
in Figure 9 even if the drilling pattern
extends far outside of the silo.
Figure 9 Silo type of flow pattern. Kvapil (1955),

Janelid and Kapil (1965)
The average primary flow width/drift

width ratios (Wf /Wd) for the four cases
are summarised in Table 6.
has based
little chance
to bulk
and its mobility
is
As indicated
earlier, small-scale
physical rules
Sublevel
cave layout
upon
marker
test input
very low. Based on material mobility alone,
model test results have historically played
one would expect significant differences
a very important role in the dimensioning
the resultsofof the four
marker
tests,
appears
in the
mechanics
of it
flow
betweenthat
the the Wf can be e
of sublevelBased
caves. Inupon
the construction
constant
times
the
width
of
the
W
.
As
a
first
approximation,
d models and reality, particularly as
sand
these models, the sand or other material is
the sublevel scale is increased. Hence,
simply poured into the forms. As such, the
properties are uniform and
Wthe
(1.4 1.7) Wthe
f = mobilities
d marker test results have very high
significance.
are the same independent of position
within the model. In a sublevel cave, this is
Some preliminary design rules Sublevel
for initialcave
planning
arerules
summarised
layout
based below:
not the case. All of the material in the fan
upon
marker
test
input
)
and
height
(H
):
determined
based on e
Sublevel
drift
size
(width
(W
d
d
is drilled and blasted. Because of the fan
Sublevel
interval (HS): theBased
theoretical
geometry, the amount
of explosive/unit
upon themaximum
results of thevalue
four is based on the
volume and hence the
fragmentation
varies This,
marker
tests,isitbased
appearson
that
Wf can
be
long,
straight holes.
in turn,
thethehole
diameter
(D). T
throughout the fan. based
The oreon
material
in theand dilution
expressedconsiderations
as a constant times
the width
of to manag
recovery
which
are due
centre part of the fan
and the lower part
the Wd. As a first approximation,
pulsation.
of the fan has a much higher specific charge
Hole diameter (D): based on the
available drilling equipment
and the a
than that at the boundaries of the ring.
Wf = (1.4 1.7) Wd
(1)
long
holes.
Furthermore, the cave which lies in front
isSpacing
of mixture
the sublevel
drifts
of the blasted slice
an eclectic
of
Some(S
preliminary
design rules for initial
d):
waste rock and ore remnants.SIts
mobility
planning
are
summarised
below:
=
(2.4
2.7)
W
d
d
varies with location
and
with
time
(it

Sublevel
drift
size
(width
(Wd) radius
and
Ring spacing (burden (B)): based upon the damage
(Rd) concep
changes with the extraction geometry).
height (Hd): determined based on
Hustrulid and Johnson (2008):
Finally, most rock materials upon being
equipment.
blasted would like to bulk (swell) of the
Sublevel interval (HS): the theoretical
B it= is2 the
Rd
order of 50%. In sublevel caving,
maximum value is based on the ability
Where
sublevel drift located at the bottom end
Rd / rh = 20
4
Pe Exp
2.65
Pe ANFO
rock
Rd = damage radius (m)

r = hole radius (m)
available free swell has correspondingly decreased. With the current LKAB design it is only
about 5%. Since it is located at the bottom of the fan, the ore in the near vicinity of the drift
has a much greater access to this volume and the chance to bulk. The ore at the extremities of
the fan, on the other hand, has little chance to bulk and its mobility is very low. Based on
material mobility alone, one would expect significant differences in the mechanics of flow
between the sand models and reality particularly as the sublevel scale is increased. Hence, the
marker test results have very high significance.
Caving
Sublevel cave layout rules based upon marker test input
Implications for future sublevel

to drill long, straight holes. This, in turn,
is
based
on
the
hole
diameter
(D).
The
caving
Based upon the results of the four marker tests, it appears
that thedesigns
Wf can be expressed as a
actual
is of
based
and
constant times
the limit
width
the on
Wdrecovery
. As a first
approximation,
dilution considerations which are due to
The results of the marker studies would
managing
ore/waste
pulsation.
suggest
that modifications in (1)
some of the
Wf = (1.4 1.7) Wd
Hole diameter (D): based on the
current, very large scale sublevel caving
available
drillingrules
equipment
andplanning
the
designs should
be considered. Assuming
Some preliminary
design
for initial
are summarised
below:
ability
to
charge
long
holes.
that
the
drift
width
not changed, the
Sublevel drift size (width (Wd) and height (Hd): determined based onis equipment.

Spacing
of
the
sublevel
drifts
(Sd):
results
suggest
that
the
sublevel
Sublevel interval (HS): the theoretical maximum value is based on the ability
to drift
drill
spacing
should
be
reduced.
Presuming
long, straight holes. This, in turn, is based on the hole diameter (D). The actual limit is
on recovery
Sd = (2.4 and
2.7)
Wd considerations
(2) which
that there
is no
change in the
sublevel
based
dilution
are due
to managing
ore/waste
height,
this
means
that
the
overall
mining
pulsation.
Ring spacing (burden (B)): based
scale would decrease and the specific
Hole diameter (D): based on the available drilling equipment and the ability to charge
development would increase. One way of
long upon
holes.the damage radius (Rd) concept
discussed by Hustrulid and Johnson
maintaining the current scale is to increase
Spacing of the sublevel drifts (Sd):
(2008)
the width of the sublevel drift. Figure 10
Sd = (2.4 2.7) Wd
(2)
shows one possibility.
Ring spacing (burden (B)): based upon the damage radius (Rd) concept discussed by

B = 2 Rd
(3)
Hustrulid and Johnson (2008):
Where:
Where

B = 2 Rd
Rd / rh = 20
(3)
Pe Exp
2.65
Pe ANFO
rock

(4)
(4)
RRd ==damage
damage radius
radius (m)
(m)
rhr =d =hole
radius
(m)
hole
radius
(m)
h
PPe Exp ==explosion
pressure for the explosive
explosion pressure for the
e Exp
Pexplosive
e ANFO = explosion pressure for ANFO = 1600 MPa
rock = rock density (g/cm3)
Pe ANFO = explosion pressure for ANFO =
Figure 10 Silo design with super-scale extraction
1600 MPa
drifts, patterned after Kvapil (1992)
rock = rock density (g/cm3)
3
2.65 = density of typical rock (g/cm )
This has advantages with respect to the
Hole toe spacing (ST): based upon the
silo shape and the parallel hole drilling.
burden
However, one must be concerned with
ST = 1.3 B
geomechanics issues (drift and brow
stability). Furthermore, the draw must be
Spacing for parallel holes (SP): based
well controlled over the entire face.
upon the burden
If one wants to preserve the specific
development ratios in place today, one

SP = B
(5)
would need to increase the sublevel
height. However, this has problems with
Front inclination: 7080 degrees
hole deviation, maintenance of long holes,
(forward)
charging of very long holes, and dealing
If it is assumed that:
with ore/waste pulsation over a much
D = 115 mm
longer draw duration. This seems like a
Drift dimensions: 7 m wide by 5 m high
very difficult alternative to achieve on a
Explosive: emulsion (Pe Exp = 3900 MPa)
day-to-day basis. On this basis, it would
Rock density = 4.6 g/cm3
seem that in the future mining companies
Sublevel interval: 25 m based on drilling
will be looking toward smaller scale designs
ability and control of pulsation
than today and not larger. The current very
One finds that the remaining dimensions
large-scale designs may actually be too
are:
large-scale.
Sublevel drift spacing: 1719 m
Burden: 2.7 m
Front caving implications
Toe spacing (fanned): 3.5 m
Toe spacing (parallel): 3 m
This article has only dealt with standard
Front inclination: 80o selected
sublevel caving. There are a number of
variants, however. Front caving is a variety
It is noted that the new sublevel drift
of the sublevel caving technique which is
spacing rule has very limited basis and must
quite often used. It is, for example, a very
be carefully complemented with further
interesting technique for the creation of
testing.
the undercut required in block and panel
caving. However, it is very important that

the undercut be completely formed. The
marker studies would indicate that the flow
stream is much narrower than previously
thought. If rock mass flow does not occur
over the full drilled width, the remaining
portions could form remnants and
transmit loads to the production level with
catastrophic consequences. This means that
current undercut designs based upon front
caving will have to be re-evaluated.
Future possibilities to maintain/

increase scale
There are two possibilities, at least, to
try and maintain or possibly even grow
the scales used today. One possibility
deals with using more of the sublevel drift
for swell than just that taken by the ore
falling down. This involves changing the
blasting pattern and initiation sequence
so that the ore at the lower part of the
ring is propelled far out into the drift. A
second possibility which also involves a
change in the blasting is to use the available
swell space more effectively. This means
permitting the ore in the lower part of the
ring to only swell 20%, rather than 50%.
This would thereby increase by a factor of
2.5 the amount of ore in the ring which has
a chance to swell. Accomplishing both of
these possibilities should be well within the
capabilities of electronic detonators with
very precise timing.
A problem with todays typical ring
drilling design is that the hole spacing
changes from very small near the drift to
large at the hole ends. The parallel hole
design used in the silo design avoids this
problem. Without a major change in drift
width, one is confined to a rather narrow
pattern. Figure 11 shows one possible
futuristic design involving special drilling
technology and the blasting innovations
which better use the available free swell
space.
The design presents an opportunity
to achieve improved fragmentation, an
increase in ore mobility, and a more
uniform distribution of ore mobility over a
much wider front. An understanding of how
the ore actually flows in sublevel caving will
lead to better designs. The marker studies
are an important step along that path.
The results of the marker

studies would suggest that
modifications in some of
the current, very large scale
sublevel caving designs
should be considered.
th
International Seminar on
Deep and High Stress Mining
68 October | Santiago - CHILE
2010
Figure 11 New possibilities for large-scale sublevel caving
Future studies
Acknowledgement
In closing, the authors believe that

it is time to seriously revisit the
recommendation made by Janelid (1961)
nearly 50 years ago with regard to smallscale sublevel caving,The results achieved
have been so encouraging that continued
research work is well justified since the
economic benefits which can be achieved
through the development of the correct
method are extraordinarily large.
In spite of their obvious value, field
studies are few and far between in the
mining business. In addition, if conducted,
it is very difficult for others to access the
results and perhaps gain and offer new
insights. This must change if the mining
business is to meet the technical, economic
and safety challenges the future has to offer.
There is a real danger that todays
sublevel caving designs are far from
optimum due to a poor understanding
of the fundamental processes involved.
In the past, the application of sublevel
caving has primarily been to iron ore,
particularly magnetite, which because of its
very forgiving magnetic property, permits
easy and inexpensive separation from the
waste. The same is not true with other
minerals, for example copper porphyry and
gold ores. For these, it is very expensive
to separate ore and waste. It would
appear that prior to fully committing to
any sublevel caving design, a pilot project
should be run with a carefully planned and
executed program of data collection. One
very important piece of information to
be extracted is the draw width. It is also
very important to develop the required
draw control techniques to be applied in
the mine. Ore/waste pulsation, which is
inherent in very high draw designs, makes
practical draw control very difficult.Visual
viewing of the cave front is not enough.
This edited article is from the paper

entitled, Sublevel caving - past and
present featured in the proceedings of
the 5th International Conference and
Exhibition on Mass Mining, Lulea, Sweden,
911 June 2008.
William Hustrulid
University of Utah; and
the Colorado School of
Mines, USA
CAVING
2010
Second International
Symposium on Block and
Sublevel Caving
2022 April 2010,
Novotel Langley Hotel,
Perth, Australia
The growing popularity of caving
methods around the world is largely
due to the very low production cost
and the intrinsic safety associated
with this mining approach. More
than 50 technical papers are
expected to be presented at this
three day event.
www.caving2010.com
Pontificia Universidad Catlica

de Chile, in collaboration
with the Australian Centre for
Geomechanics, the University
of Toronto, and the University of
Witwatersrand, is organising an
International Seminar on Deep
and High Stress Mining.
As the mining industry
faces new challenges to
extract mineral resources at
increasing depths, the Deep
Mining International Seminar
series provides a forum for
the industry, academics
and researchers to share
information, experience and
ideas on deep and high stress
mining.
For more details contact
deepmining2010@ing.puc.
cl or visit http://web.ing.puc.
cl/~deepmining2010/
Collaborating Organisations
Open pit
orebody that was deposited as an evaporate
The changing profile of risk associated

with in-pit placement of waste
by Raymond Yost, Rio Tinto Minerals Boron Operations, USA
Introduction
Risk, risk assessment and risk analysis
have a number of meanings across a range
of disciplines. At the most fundamental,
risk is simply a combination of uncertainty
in an outcome and consequences for that
outcome. Risk analysis or risk assessment
is the process of identifying, quantifying,
and communicating those uncertainties
and outcomes. In geological engineering,
risk has traditionally been tied to the
calculation of a factor of safety of a slope,
or potential failure geometry, and has
historically been a qualitative assessment
of a calculated value. Advances in the
computational power of stability analysis
software programs have set the stage for
more quantitative assessments. Depending
on the scale of the slope under evaluation,
and given the variation inherent in earth
materials in general, almost every input
can be considered to vary over a range of
potential values.
As such, risk assessment in geological
engineering often considers both aleatory
uncertainty - the variability inherent to
natural materials, and epistemic uncertainty
- the variability related to the ability to
model a phenomenon. It is uncommon,
however, that risk assessment considers a
temporal element, i.e. how the inputs, and
therefore the associated risk, change with
time. To an extent this is to be expected
as many inputs do not significantly change
over the course of a project life. However,
elements such as pore pressure, the surface
topography of an excavation, the weight
distribution on a potential failure plane,
the probability of a seismic event and the
properties of low strength materials can
all change to a magnitude that materially
affects the outcome of a risk analysis. No
attempt has been made in this assessment
to look at equipment or personnel
temporal exposure.
To evaluate the effect of the aleatory,
epistemic and temporal variation, research
was conducted at the Rio Tinto Minerals
Boron Operations open pit mine near
Boron, California. The purpose of this
article is to discuss the background to that

work, the nature of the risk analysis and
assessment, and to present preliminary
results.
Background and site characterisation
The Boron open pit mine is located
near the town of Boron, California in the
Mojave Desert Geologic Province. The
mining operation extracts borates from
a lenticular orebody that was deposited
as an evaporite and is encased in layers
of low permeability claystone. The clay
and borate sequence is bounded on the
bottom by a layer of basalt, which is in
turn underlain by feldspar-rich sandstone
(arkose) with interbeds of clayey sand (the
Tropico Formation). Poorly to moderately
consolidated and cemented arkose covers
the borate and clay sequence. An intrusive
body, composed primarily of quartz
monzonite, bounds the deposit to the
south.
The sequence of Tropico-basaltevaporites-sediments has been tilted and
dips moderately; 5 to 15 to the south.
Faulting has offset the orebody into three
primary components and a number of
sub-blocks.
The open pit operation was initiated in
the late 1950s in the northwestern portion
of the deposit where the borate layer was
generally closest to the surface. Over the
past 60 years, the pit has expanded to the
south and east and has deepened as the
higher elevation ores have been mined out.
Slope failures that have occurred during
open pit mining operations typically form
due to a combination of pore pressure,
high-angle faults (which act as a back plane)
and low-strength beds of clayey sand or
claystone. All of the open pit slopes are
designed in recognition of these variables.
The design of the north wall, however,
is also governed by the orientation of
the orebody. As offset on most faults is
relatively minimal, the overall slope of
the wall generally follows the overall
orientation of the orebody.
The overall slope angle of the wall,
in conjunction with the strength of the
foundation material (basalt), generally

results in factors of safety well in excess
of industry required limits. Furthermore,
the mineralised zone at the site is confined
to a single geologic unit. Extraction of
the borate layer represents complete
extraction of the resource, so dumping
over mined out areas does not present
any risk of covering potentially economic
mineralised zones. The north slope of the
pit was therefore an attractive option
for overburden disposal given that it was
stable, composed of a higher strength unit,
and close to active mining operations. A
risk assessment was conducted prior to
the large-scale placement of overburden on
the slope.
Structure of the risk assessment and
input variables
Mining in the most general sense,
balances two basic elements benefits
realised against the potential for loss. In
this case, they have been incorporated
into the risk assessment. Benefits are
realised if the ground and overburden
dump remain stable throughout the project
life and costs are incurred if they do not.
Evaluating risk in this case is therefore a
matter of determining the potential for
slope instability along with the values
of the benefits and costs. Stability is a
function of the geology, the potential
for a seismic event, the pore pressure,
the size of the dumped volume and the
slope configuration. While some of these
variables remain constant over the project
life, most of them change to a large enough
degree that they affect the probability of a
slope failure. A thorough risk assessment
therefore requires an evaluation of
conditions through the full time line of the
project.
The risk assessment was structured to
evaluate the potential for slope failure.
The risk through time was quantified via
a series of steps to establish a probability
of failure, determine the magnitude of
potential negative outcomes and model the
expected values. Specific tasks included:
1) Estimating the probability of an outcome

(a slope failure) through the use of
limit equilibrium analysis and statistical
sampling of analysis inputs.
2) Estimating the likely extent of negative
results (failure clean-up) through the
use of numerical and empirical methods
to develop a model of post-failure
topography.
3) Estimating the likely extent of positive
results (savings associated with dumping
near the area of extraction as opposed
to ex-pit dumps) through an evaluation
of equivalent tonne miles (ETM).
4) Using the probability of an outcome
and the estimated costs and benefits to
establish expected costs and benefits
with time.
5) Adjusting the timing of benefits and costs
(benefits are expected to be realised
early while costs are expected to be
realised later) with a discount rate.
6) Estimating a net expected sum of
benefits at distinct points.
Once these values were estimated,
the risk was determined as the net sum
of expected benefits and costs. A value
greater than zero implied that the outcome
had a positive expected economic value,
while a net sum of less than or equal
to one implies that the outcome had a
negative expected economic value and a
negative risk. The evaluation was repeated
at appropriate time increments for a range
of in-pit dump volumes to determine if, and
how much, waste could be economically
placed in the pit.
Figure 1 Pit topography at year 2010
Probability of failure 5.0% (with seismic load).

Probability of failure 0.55% (without seismic load).
Failure volume (in section) 28,350 m3 (with seismic load).
Failure volume (in section) 28,700 m3 (without seismic load).
Probability of seismic event 5.0%.
At this beginning stage, ore (blue and green units) is close to the toe of potential
failure and subject to burial should failure occur. Failure volume is relatively high, but
the probability of failure is relatively low. The probability of a seismic event occurring is
relatively low.
Figure 2 Pit topography for ultimate pit
Probability of failure 81.20% (with seismic load).

Probability of failure 41.60% (without seismic load).
Failure volume (in section) 39,500 m3 (with seismic load).
Failure volume (in section) 39,250 m3 (without seismic load).
Probability of seismic event 70.0%.
At this final stage, failure volume increased by approximately 40%, but the probability of
failure increased, on average, to approximately 60%. The potential for a seismic event has
increased as well, but the ore zone is farther away from the toe of slope and is less likely to
be covered by a slope failure.
Results
Modelling post-failure runout
To illustrate the interplay of the

various inputs to the risk assessment,
the start and end points of one of the
analyses are presented in Figure 1, from
the limit equilibrium analysis through
empirical modelling, to the final economic
assessment for a 30 million t in-pit waste
dump.
A combination of numerical modelling and empirical evaluation was used to develop

potential post-failure topography. Post-failure profiles were developed for all sections with a
probability of failure greater than 0.01% regardless of the factor of safety. The configuration
of the runout was based on an assessment of historical slope failures at the site. At Boron
this was the angle of repose of the failed material relative to the dip angle of the underlying
failure plane, and adjusted for the geometry of the runout area.
Risk in the most general sense,

balances two basic elements
benefits realised against the
potential for loss.
Figure 3 Topography for failure at 2010 for 30 million tonne dump
The ratio of the clean-up area to the post-failure area is 18.5%. The runout was contained
to some extent by the concave geometry of runout area resulting in a low overall angle of
repose.
horizontally. By determining the total ETMs necessary to move a quantity o

ex-pit location versus an in-pit location, a difference in the hauling effort co
determined. That difference, along with a unit cost of an ETM, obtained by
total haul costs for a unit time period by the total ETMs for that time period
be used to determine a total value. That total value divided by the quantity o
tonnes) was used as the estimate for the unit ton value of in-pit dumping. Th
below illustrates the concept for the difference between hauling 100 million
a northern dump versus an in-pit dump.
Open pit
At the other end, the clean-up costs

) * $/ETM]/100
[(ETM
north ETM
can include
thosein-pit
charges
along with amillion t =
average unit value
realised
by
hauling
to
dump versus north d
range of fees associated within-pit
consulting,
Article references are available from the ACG.
additional equipment, accelerating stripping

To establish the cost oftofailure
clean-up,
1997-1998 slope f
continue
mining records
in otherfrom
partsthe
of the
reviewed. Despite extensive
documentation,
there is still
variat
Figure 4 Topography for failure at ultimate pit for 30 million tonne dump
site, overtime
costs, contracting
andconsiderable
leased
constitutes clean-up costs.
On
one
end
of
the
spectrum,
the
costs
can
be m
equipment. Based on the previous two
labor
and
equipment
charges
associated
with
removing
the
portion
of
failure
assessments, a range of values was obtained
The ratio of the clean-up area to the post-failure area is 22.5%. The removal of material
necessary to re-establish
access into a mining area or to uncover buried ore
for both the unit cost of cleaning up a
below the toe of failure has allowed considerable runout. The overall angle of repose has
the other end, the clean-up costs can include those charges along with a rang
tonne of failure debris and the unit value of
increased.
associated with consulting, additional equipment, accelerating stripping to c
dumping a tonne of overburden in the pit.
Benefits and costs
mining in other parts of the site, overtime costs, contracting and leased equi
Economics ofa in-pit
rangedumping
of values was obtained for both th
Assessing benefits and costs began with establishing values for dumping a on
unitthe
of previous
waste in two assessments,
cleaning
up
a
tonne
of
failure
debris
and
the
unit value of dumping a tonne o
the pit and for cleaning up a unit of failure debris from the pit. The value of dumping tonnes
The final step was to use weighted (by
in the
pit.
in the pit is a function of reducing both horizontal and vertical haul distances.
Reducing
the probability of a seismic event) average
the haul distance generally means that additional truck hours are available. These truck
values for the expected volume of failure
of In-Pit Dumping
hours are either used to haul additional waste, or, if enough truck hours are offsetEconomics
by the
debris, the expected value of the volume
short hauls, a truck(s) could be parked. The difference in either case is reflected by overall
of material that would have to be cleaned
Theinto
finalwhat
stepthe
was to use weighted (by the probability of a seismic event) av
lower haulage costs. The problem lies in translating these lower overall costs
up, and the associated expected costs and
forversus
the expected
of failure debris, the expected value of the volume
specific unit cost difference is for dumping a portion of the waste in the pit
hauling volume
benefits with time.Values of benefits and
that
would
have
to
be
cleaned
up, and the associated expected costs and ben
all waste outside of the pit.
costs were shifted with time by using a
time. Values of benefits and costs were shifted with time by using a discoun
discount/interest rate of 7%.
To accomplish this, it was necessary to evaluate haul costs with a unit that accounted
of 7%.
for both the difference in horizontal and vertical travel distances associated with hauling
Table 1 Summary of benefits and costs
to a site outside of the pit, versus hauling to a site inside the pit. The value used was the
Table 1 Summary of benefits
and costs shifted with time
shifted with time
ETM, which assumes a difference in hauling effort for moving a unit of waste vertically
versus horizontally. By determining the total ETMs necessary to move a quantity of waste
DIFFERENCE
DUMP SIZE
to an ex-pit location versus an in-pit location, a difference in the hauling effort could be
YEAR
(TONNES)
H/L
L/H
determined. That difference, along with a unit cost of an ETM, obtained by dividing the total
2010
30,000,000
positive
positive
haul costs for a unit time period by the total ETMs for that time period, could then be used
2015
30,000,000
positive
positive
to determine a total value. That total value divided by the quantity of waste (in tonnes) was
2020
30,000,000
positive
positive
used as the estimate for the unit ton value of in-pit dumping. The formula below illustrates
2032
30,000,000
positive
positive
the concept for the difference between hauling 100 million t of waste to a northern dump
2036
30,000,000
negative
negative
versus an in-pit dump.
The
negative
values inthat
the for
finalthe
row
The negative values in the
final
row indicate
difference between
indicate
that for
the(H/L)
difference
[(ETMnorth ETMin-pit) * $/ETM]/100 million t = expected benefits and low
expected
costs
(bestbetween
case), and the low exp
high
expected
benefits
and size
low of 30 million t is no
average unit value realised by hauling to in-pit dump versus north
and dump
high expected coststhe
L/H
(worst
case),
the dump
design in this case. expected costs (H/L) (best case), and the
low expected benefits and high expected
To establish the cost of failure clean-up, records from the 1997-1998 slope failure were
costs L/H (worst case), the dump size of 30
reviewed. Despite extensive documentation, there is still considerable variation in what
million t is not a feasible design in this case.
constitutes clean-up costs. On one end of the spectrum, the costs can be merely the labor
This method of risk assessment has
and equipment charges associated with removing the portion of failure debris necessary to
helped Rio Tinto to understand the
re-establish access into a mining area or to uncover buried ore reserves.
interplay of a number of variables that
influence the risk associated with placing
overburden on the north slope of the open
pit. While the 30 million t dump option
proved to not be an economically feasible
option, other volumes evaluated in the
course of research do have positive values
throughout the mine life. The methodology
described here has allowed Rio Tinto
Minerals to identify those cases and
proactively manage risk in the present and
throughout the life of the project.
Ray Yost,
Rio Tinto Minerals Boron Operations,
USA
Rio Tintos Boron open pit operation was initiated in the 1950s
ACG Open Pit Rock Mass

Modelling Seminar
Seventh Large Open Pit

Mining Conference 2010
2930 July 2010, Burswood

Convention Centre, Perth
2728 July 2010, Perth, Western Australia
This seminar will maximise the

dissemination of geotechnical rock mass
modelling and synthetic rock modelling
technologies to industry.
High demand for commodities, record fuel prices and a scarcity of skilled personnel
have been replaced and surpassed by the recent global financial crisis as the primary
issues facing the mining industry. As demand for commodities improves the incentive
to continue to drive operational and safety improvements will become paramount.
The Seventh Large Open Pit Mining Conference 2010 (LOP 2010) will provide the
opportunity to chart that progress in large open pit mines around the world
The trend of open pit operations

mining to steeper and deeper levels
has seen an increase in the stress
environment and greater uncertainty
about the mechanical behaviour of
slopes, elevating mine worker safety
and productivity risks. To better
identify, understand and manage these
potential geotechnical risks (including
seismic hazard) associated with slope
stability failure, the ACG will host this
two day seminar immediately following
The AusIMMs Seventh Large Open Pit
Mining Conference 2010.
The conference will provide the forum for operations with major achievements, along
with those operators implementing changes, the chance to outline their innovations
and to share and explore experiences with others. Consistent with the aims of The
AusIMM, the Conference will allow members and the industry to keep abreast of
technical developments and provide a forum to share views and opinions within the
large open pit sector.
For more information, please contact:
Katy Andrews, The AusIMM

Phone: +61 3 9658 6125
Fax: +61 3 9662 3662
kandrews@ausimm.com.au
Please visit,
www.acg.uwa.edu.au/events_courses
CSIRO helps redefine large

open pit design
Many of the uncertainties surrounding
the development of a large open pit
mine have now been overcome with the
publication of the 496-page Guidelines
For Open Pit Slope Design.
The publication is the result of four
years of effort and support from a group
of 12 mining companies representing the
majority of the worlds production of
diamonds and base metals.
Open pit mining is an efficient way
to mine many deposits. But there are
complications. Make the slope of the
pit too shallow and you have to move
millions of additional tonnes of valueless
overburden. But if its too steep, you risk
failure with subsequent risk to people and
property.
Up until now, the only handbook of
this type available to open pit mine slope
design practitioners, including engineering
geologists, geotechnical engineers,
mining engineers, civil engineers and
mine managers has been the CANMET
manual last published in 1977.
10
The new Guidelines For Open Pit Slope

Design was officially released at the Slope
Stability conference in Santiago, Chile,
9 November. It is a direct outcome of
the Large Open Pit research project
and comprises 14 chapters that follow
the life of mine sequence from project
development to closure.
CSIRO Earth Science and Resource
Engineerings Dr John Read is one of two
editors and has also authored a number of
chapters in the book.
Dr Read has over 40 years experience
as a practitioner and consultant in the
mining industry, with special interests and
expertise in rock slope stability and open
pit mine design and investigation tasks in
Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Brazil,
Argentina, Chile, Canada, South Africa and
Zambia.
He says that each chapter is written
by an industry practitioner with specific
experience in the topic being described.
The purpose of the book is to be
a new generation guideline that links
PUBLISHING
innovative mining geomechanics research

with best practice he said. The book
outlines for todays practitioners what
works best in different situations and
why, what doesnt work and why not, and
what is the best approach to satisfy best
practice in a range of situations.
Guidelines For Open Pit Slope Design
is available from CSIRO publishing for
AU$195. www.publish.csiro.au/
Mine closure
Mine closure planning in South America
by Hugo Rojas,Teck Resources, Chile; and Roger Higgins, Teck Resources, Canada
The Chilean town of Andacollo and Teck's Carmen de Andacollo mine are close neighbours.This leads to a very close relationship between the community, for both
operations and closure planning
Introduction
Mining is an important activity in
the economy of many South American
countries. It is predominantly a formal
sector, regulated and facilitated by laws and
regulations; it is also a leading contributor
of export earnings that is integrated into
the global economy. The contribution of
the mining sector can represent up to
10% of the gross domestic product and
over 50% of the value of all exports of a
country with a strong and predominant
mining sector. Mining has a multiplier effect
- generating synergies with other economic
and social sectors in the community and
region where it was developed.
However, society does not always have a
good perception of the mining industry. In
part, this may be due to the environmental
liabilities left behind by legacy mining
sites that date back to times when there
was neither awareness of the impact that
mining can have, nor a modern legal
and supervising framework. Until recently,
regulations requiring companies to prepare
abandonment and closure plans were
largely absent.
The world has changed and the
requirements for mining projects are
evolving. Compliance with international
agreements, such as those of biological
diversity, community engagement,
climate change, and the struggle against
desertification and new environmental

standards have demanded a new way
of mining. This includes social and
environmental impact studies and closure
plans that are developed from the time
when a mining project commences.
This article presents for comparison the
most important elements of mine closure
standards in Chile, Argentina and Peru.
started operations before the Base Law

of the Environment Nr. 19300 (1997) and
Regulations of the Environmental Impact
Assessment System were enacted.
With respect to financial guarantees,
mining companies have to provide these
in annual instalments, over a period of five
years, or during the period of remaining
mine life (if this is shorter).
Mine closure legal framework
Argentina
Chile
On 7 February 2004, modifications to
mining safety regulations came into force
in Chile, establishing an obligation for all
mines to prepare closure plans within
five years. The objective is to prevent,
minimize and/or control the risks and
negative effects that might result from or
continue to take place after the cessation
of the operations of a mine site, in the
life and integrity of the people working
there, and of those who, under defined and
specific circumstances, are related to the
operation and are within the influence of
its facilities and infrastructure.
In 2009, draft law addresses the closure
scope of mine facilities and sites of the
extractive mining industry. This draft
legislation differentiates between those
projects that have an environmental
resolution and those that do not. The
second group are those mines that
The law on environmental protection

for mining activity and its supplementary
regulations does not contain specific
regulations for mining companies to submit
abandonment and closure plans for the
approval of authorities. This matter is open
to different interpretations.
According to the Second Section of the
Complementary Title, the following must
be considered:
a) Environmental impact: modification of
the environment, whether beneficial or
detrimental, direct or indirect, temporary
or permanent, reversible or irreversible,
may be potentially caused by mining
activity.
b) Environmental impact report: a
document that describes a mining
project, the environment where it is
developed, the environmental impact
it will cause and the environmental
protection measures proposed for
11
adoption. The EIR must address

measures and actions for prevention
and mitigation of environmental
impact, and rehabilitation, restoration
or recomposition of the altered
environment.
c) Environmental impact declaration:
an administrative act based on the
mining environmental standards in
force, approving an EIR, passed by the
application authority, and in which are
set the specific conditions that the
holder company must comply with
during all stages of the mining project.
An aspect that is not regulated in
Argentina is community involvement in
the approval process of an EIR.
Peru
Peru applies regulations for mine closure
to every mining activity, with the purpose
of preventing, minimising and controlling its
potential risks and effects to human health,
safety, the environment, the surrounding
ecosystem and property. The regulations
were passed in 2005, and the articles
clearly specify when and what details must
be presented to the Director General
of Mining Environmental Affairs of the
Ministry of Energy and Mines.
The mine closure plan complements the
study of environmental impact and the
programme of environmental management
corresponding to a sites operations.
The filing of the mine closure plan is an
obligation for every owner of mining
activity that is in operation, beginning
mining operations or resuming mining
operations after having been suspended
or stopped by the validity of the law,
or where there is no an approved mine
closure plan.
The approval of a mine closure plan leads
to the constitution of guarantees through
which assurance is given that the owner
of a mining activity can comply with the
obligations stated in the mine closure plan.
In the event of a breach, the Ministry of
Energy and Mines can execute the closure
tasks.
An important aspect of the regulations
is the provision that allows citizen
involvement. Every stakeholder can present
their observations and make contributions.
Once the closure plan is approved, it is
to be executed in a progressive manner
during the life of the mining operation. At
operation end, the remainder of the areas,
works and facilities that, due to operational
reasons had not been closed during the
production stage must be closed. The
regulations also establish mechanisms
12
and periods for review, updating and

accountability.
Observations
The legal norms of closure plans in
South America differ in their scope,
depth and citizen involvement. This leads
to different requirements for mining
operations of similar characteristics.
The review and update of closure plans
is a matter of interest for governments,
as well as for organised communities and
mining companies.
Even where there is a deficiency in the
law regarding mine site closure, there are
companies that progressively design and
apply high quality closure plans.
The design of closure plans in
engineering stages prior to the
construction of projects and their
application from the beginning of the
operations, represent an advantage
for companies and should be seen as
an opportunity to prevent, minimise
and control risks and negative effects
that might occur after the end of the
operations.
The globalisation of markets,
the requirement to comply with
international norms and standards,
the exchange and development of
technical knowledge, together with open
communication channels worldwide,
will result in the further evolution of
mine closure regulations, both legal and
self-imposed. This will improve mining
processes and practices, environmental
stewardship and the efficient use of
resources.
The voices and actions of communities
that feel affected by mining will continue
to grow, and constructive relationships
with communities will be vital.
A good closure plan will contribute to
obtaining and maintaining the social
licence to operate.
Hugo Rojas,
Teck Resources, Chile
These proceedings are a hard-bound, black

and white publication featuring 53 papers,
comprising 622 pages.
www.acg.uwa.edu.au/shop
5th International Conference on

Mine Closure
23-26 November 2010

Casa Piedra Events Centre
Santiago, Chile
RESPONSIBLE CLOSURE: LIVING

UP TO COMMUNITIES AND
STAKEHOLDERS EXPECTATIONS
CONFERENCE THEMES

Designing and planning for closure

Progressive closure planning
Closure costs and financing
Proactive stakeholder engagement
Long term water management
Mine site reclamation and rehabilitation
Control and monitoring
Soil ecology
Mine cluster, redeployment,
redevelopment and decommissioning
Mine legacies and relinquishment
Legal and regulatory issues
Mining heritage and tourism
Recent closure case studies
Send your abstracts by 25 January 2010 to:

mc@mineclosure2010.com
Roger Higgins,
Teck Resources, Canada
For further information, please visit:
www.mineclosure2010.com
Underground
The student chosen to undertake the project was Natalie Kari, a 3rd year mining engineering
student at Laurentian University. While Marty provided supervising guidance from afar, a site
based introduction to the use of MS-RAP was provided by Johan Wesseloo, ACG. Natalie
was technically an employee of Allstate Explorations NL during her time at Beaconsfield, and
as such she technically reported to myself.
Summer vacation students in winter
Natalie provided the Beaconsfield Gold Mine with a substantial analysis of its seismic data,
particularly
that
collected
overBCD
the 18
month period
to June 2009
by Peter Hills,Tasmania
Mine
Joint
Venture,
Resources
(Operations)
NL when stoping had
A phone call from Professor Marty

Hudyma in February 2009 was my
introduction to the idea of offering
summer vacation experience to students
during the winter. The concept had real
merit. We had engaged summer students
at Beaconsfield before with somewhat
mixed results. This is not usually a measure
of the desire of the student to have a
go, but rather it is the coincidence of
the engagement with permanent staff
wanting to take annual leave. Inevitably,
the students are slotted in to fill the roles
of absent staff, while receiving insufficient
guidance and mentoring from remaining
staff who are left to carry the burden.
Furthermore, summer vacation students
often simply want a job to earn some
money and gain some experience. Marty,
however, was keen to see a student
undertake a project and complete real
work. The project was to be titled
Retrospective Analysis of Mining Induced
Seismicity at Beaconsfield Gold Mine. It
seemed ideal. A summer vacation student
with a defined project, arriving in the
winter when minimal leave was planned
by site personnel would avoid all the usual
pitfalls of a summer placement, and so
it was agreed that a placement could be
made.
The Beaconsfield Gold Mine has
experienced seismicity since 2003.
Increasing incidents of seismic events saw
the installation of a temporary seismic
array logging six uniaxial channels in
early 2004, and this was replaced by a
permanent array logging 12 channels (nine
uniaxial and one triaxial) in mid 2005. The
system was upgraded in 2007 and again in
2009, and currently logs 24 channels (12
uniaxial and four triaxial).
In late 2005, the Beaconsfield Gold Mine
signed on to be a minor sponsor of the
ACGs Mine Seismicity and Rockburst
Risk Management project. Sponsorship
commenced from January 2006 and has
continued since then. At the time of the
original sponsorship, the Beaconsfield Gold
Mine had been experiencing significant
mining-induced seismicity for a period
of two years. Much effort had been
expended on developing an understanding
of the seismicity and procedures to deal
with it were being implemented through
the development of a Ground Control
recommenced in earnest following the 2006 accident. The database remained live for much
of her stay, allowing Natalie to observe and understand all the aspects of data capture
through
the ISSI
system,
its software
transfer MS-RAP
to MS-RAP,
and
analysis as
immediate
Management
Plan.
The ACG
offered
theitsopportunity
to an
enhance
the tool
through Omori Analysis after stope blasts, and as a longer term management tool in updating
management of seismicity in the day-to-day operation of the mine.
EVP maps. She expended a significant effort in analysing data to assist in the refinement of
Following
an accident
the mine
in early
2006,ofallher
aspects
of the mining
operation
were
re-entry
protocols,
and theatlatter
formed
the basis
final report.
A synopsis
of that
report
redesigned
under the
of a Case to Manage
Underground
Safety
(oranalysis
Case forsuch as
follows
this article.
Theumbrella
key to understanding
the basis
of a detailed
data
Safety).
The Casecan
for only
Safetybewas
developed
in four tranches
by Coffey from
Mining,
and covered
Natalie
performed
gained
by observing
the environment
which
the data is
obtain.
Consequently,
she went
underground
to (Pfitzner,
inspect 2006),
the geotechnical
environment
mining of
capital and operating
access
development
sill driving (Sidea,
Scott
regularly,
and2007),
everystoping
effort inwas
made toaseismic
introduce
facets
of mining
and Reeves,
the generally
east her
zonetoof as
the many
mine (King,
Thomas
geomechanics
at Beaconsfield
possible.
Asactive
a result,
report
she
produced
and Scott, 2007),
and stoping inasthe
seismically
westthe
zone
where
theultimately
most significant
has real practical application in the ongoing management of seismicity at the mine.
changes were required (Scott and Reeves, 2007). A key requirement of the Case for Safety
was the establishment of protocols to manage seismicity, and MS-RAP was a key tool in that
The experience of hosting a project focused summer vacation student was a positive one for
endeavour.
the Beaconsfield Gold Mine. Our continued use of MS-RAP as a tool in the management of
Hills and
(2008) describe
the management
of seismicity
at thevacation
Beaconsfield
seismicity
hasPenney
been enhanced
as a result.
The fact that
the summer
student came
Mine when
in some
detail. was
Of particular
utilityofwithin
MS-RAP
ability to
implement
in Gold
the winter
vacation
not the focus
mine staff
was isa the
significant
factor
in ensuring
Omori
Analysis
(Figure
1) to
re-entry
times into
areas excluded
after to
that
maximum
benefit
could
bemonitor
obtainedand
bymanage
all parties
concerned.
In particular,
the benefit
thestope
students
ofSeismic
early career
international
cannot
be over-emphasised.
blasts.
analysis
is coupled experience
with intensive
monitoring
(Figure 2) (Penny, Hills
and Walton, 2008), including stress change using H1 cells, and the impact of that change
Article
onsupport
requestusing SMART instruments. Stope blasting is a
on thereferences
rock mass are
and available
the installed
key trigger for stress change (Figure 3), and as a consequence it is the primary trigger for
seismic activity.
Figure1.
1 Omori
following
a stopeablast
Figure
Omorianalysis
Analysis
following
stope blast
Figure 2 Intensive monitoring at Beaconsfield showing the SMART cables (grey) and stress monitoring
(HI cells) (yellow)
13
the aspects of data capture through the

ISSI system, its transfer to MS-RAP, and
its analysis as an immediate tool through
Omori Analysis after stope blasts, and as a
longer term management tool in updating
EVP maps. She expended a significant
effort in analysing data to assist in the
refinement of re-entry protocols, and the
latter formed the basis of her final report.
A synopsis of that report follows this
article. The key to understanding the basis
of a detailed data analysis such as Natalie
performed can only be gained by observing
the environment from which the data is
obtained. Consequently, Natalie went
underground to inspect the geotechnical
environment regularly, and every effort was
made to introduce her to as many facets
of mining geomechanics at Beaconsfield
Figure
3
A
plot
of
raw
micro-strain
change
data
illustrating
the
impact
of
stope
blasting
(and
non
Figure 2. A plot of raw micro-strain change data illustrating the impact of stope blasting (and as possible. As a result, the report she
seismicity)
on the local
field stress field
ultimately produced has real practical
nonblast-related
blast-related
seismicity)
on stress
the local
Figure 2. A plot of raw micro-strain change data illustrating the impact of stope blasting (and
application in the ongoing management of
non blast-related seismicity) on the local stress field
seismicity at the mine.
The experience of hosting a project
focused summer vacation student was a
positive one for the Beaconsfield Gold
Mine. Our continued use of MS-RAP as
a tool in the management of seismicity
has been enhanced as a result. The fact
that the summer vacation student came
in the winter when vacation was not the
focus of mine staff was a significant factor
in ensuring that maximum benefit could
be obtained by all parties concerned. In
particular, the benefit to the students
of early career international experience
cannot be over-emphasised.
Article references are available on request.
Figure 4 A plot of energy index/cumulative apparent volume
Figure
plotofofenergy
energy index/cumulative
index/cumulative apparent
Figure
3.3.AAplot
apparentvolume
volume
This is especially in the west zone of

the mine where mining is conducted
remotely (Hills, Mills, Penney and Arthur,
2008), and exclusion zones of at least 50
m are enforced. Other features within
the MS-RAP package are also regularly
interrogated to assist in the management
of seismicity, including the various graphical
analyses such as energy index/cumulative
apparent volume (Figure 3) and apparent
stress history, and mapping features such as
excavation vulnerability potential.
Real management decisions were being
made and influenced by the use of MS-RAP,
but the potential of the package was not
fully realised because a significant database
of seismic data had not been collectively
reanalysed recently. A project was ready
made, provided somebody could be
dedicated to the task for a period of a few
14
months.
The student chosen to undertake
the project was Natalie Kari, a 3rd year
mining engineering student at Laurentian
University. While Marty provided
supervising guidance from afar, a site
based introduction to the use of MS-RAP
was provided by Johan Wesseloo, ACG.
Natalie was technically an employee of
Allstate Explorations NL during her time
at Beaconsfield, and as such she technically
reported to myself.
Natalie provided the Beaconsfield Gold
Mine with a substantial analysis of its
seismic data, particularly that collected
over the 18 month period to June 2009
when stoping had recommenced in earnest
following the 2006 accident. The database
remained live for much of her stay, allowing
Natalie to observe and understand all
Peter Hills,
Tasmania Mine Joint Venture,
BCD Resources (Operations)
NL
Underground
Understanding mining-induced seismicity
at Beaconsfield Gold Mine
by Natalie Kari, Laurentian University, Canada
A project was undertaken at the

Beaconsfield Gold Mine to investigate the
current mining-induced seismicity at the
operation. The objectives of the project
were to identify all of the main seismic
sources currently active in the mine and to
rate the seismic sources with regards to:
Seismic source mechanism (the rock
mass failure mode causing the seismic
events).
Seismic hazard (the largest expected
seismic event that would be expected).
How mining activities (particularly stope
blasting) affects the rate of seismicity
from each of the seismic sources.
The ability for seismic monitoring to be
used as a re-entry tool for each of the
seismic sources.
The seismic analyses in this project were
all conducted using the ACGs MS-RAP
program (Mine Seismicity Risk Analysis
Program).
The complex geology and geological
structures of the Beaconsfield Gold Mine,
including faults, contact zones, shears,
bedding and splays, contribute to the
challenges of mining within the Tasmanian
reef. More than 8500 seismic events
were recorded at the Beaconsfield Gold
Mine between March 2008 and February
2009, including nine events larger than
local magnitude +1.0. A cluster analysis
identified 56 groups of seismic events
during this period, of which 23 were
particularly active and investigated in detail.
Each group was analysed to determine the
seismic source mechanism, seismic hazard
and the rock mass response to production
blasting in the mine. This analysis helped
to describe the character of each seismic
source and highlight the seismic sources
most likely to cause operational issues at
the mine. When higher hazard seismic
sources can be identified, a range of
seismic risk mitigation techniques can
be used to manage the hazard. Ten of
the seismic sources were found to have
a qualitative seismic hazard rating of
moderate-high to high. The seismic hazard
rating is a good indicator of the likelihood
of larger magnitude events.
having a disproportionately intense seismic

The seismic source mechanism at each
response to distant mine blasts. Identifying
seismic source, for the one year time
seismic sources that do not follow
period March 2008 February 2009,
expected trends is often an indicator of
was compared to the seismic source
locations which have a strong geological
mechanism over the last four years (June
control. These locations require particular
2005 June 2009). In almost all cases, the
vigilance with respect to monitoring and
analysis showed that the seismic source
underground inspections.
mechanism remained constant over time.
Post blast re-entry times were estimated
This is an important conclusion, as it
for 73 production blasts, using 90% of the
means that it is the local rock mass failure
total seismic energy as a re-entry criterion.
mechanism that is controlling the nature
The overall distribution of re-entry times is
of the seismicity, irrespective of the nearby
shown in Figure 1. Using this 90% of total
mining influences. When the current
seismic energy re-entry criterion, 59 of the
seismic response to mining is similar to the
production blasts had a possible re-entry
past seismic response to mining, it gives
time of less than 12 hours, with 14 blasts
greater confidence in using the current
requiring a re-entry time of more than 12
seismicity to understand future seismicity.
hours. Figure 2 shows that re-entry times
Overall, the majority of seismic source
are somewhat controlled by local seismic
mechanisms at the Beaconsfield Gold Mine
sources and vary spatially in the mine. It
are related to the volumetric fracturing
was concluded that for the Beaconsfield
associated with mining-induced stresses as
Gold Mine, a 24 hour re-entry period is
a direct response to mine blasting.
Post blast re-entry times were estimated for 73 production blasts, using 90% of the total seismic
usually conservative, although at times it
An investigation of how mining activities,
energy as a re-entry criterion. The overall distribution of re-entry times is shown in Figure 1.
be required.
suggestedblasts
that other
particularly
stopeofblasting,
affectsenergy
the rate
Using
this 90%
total seismic
re-entry may
criterion,
59 of theIt is
production
had a
such
as theaseismic
of seismicity
from
each
of the
main
possible
re-entry
time
of less
than
12 seismic
hours, with 14tools,
blasts
requiring
re-entryhazard
time ofmapping
more than
12
hours.was
Figure
2 showsThe
thatproximity
re-entry times are somewhat
controlled
by local
seismic sources
tool in MS-RAP,
be used
in conjunction
sources
conducted.
and
varyofspatially
in thesources
mine. Ittowas
there-entry
Beaconsfield
Gold
Mine,
a 24 hour
withforthe
analysis
when
making
a
of each
the seismic
theconcluded that
re-entry period is usually conservative, although at times it may be required. It is suggested that
final
decision on
following each
stopetools,
blastssuch
was as
considered.
expected,
other
the seismicAs
hazard
mapping tool
in MS-RAP,
be re-entry
used in conjunction
with the
blast. Infollowing
addition,each
it is important
that it is
seismic sources
close
proximity
re-entry
analysis in
when
making
a finaltodecision on re-entry
blast. In addition,
important
that
thisa analysis
procedure
be continued
monitor procedure
future changes
in seismological
thistoanalysis
be continued
to
mine blasts
have
higher rate
of induced
patterns
and
their
potential
effectatonfurther
re-entry times. monitor future changes in seismological
seismicity
than
stopes
located
patterns and their potential effect on redistances. However, two particular seismic
entry times.
sources did not follow this trend; often
Figure 11. Distribution

of re-entry
times
for 73
blasts at
Beasonsfield
Gold MineGold
in 2008
andin2009
Figure
Distribution
of re-entry
times
forproduction
73 production
blasts
at Beaconsfield
Mine
2008
and 2009.
15
limitations to all of the analyses undertaken

in this study. Sound judgment should be
undertaken when utilising the information
provided. Focus should be placed on
minimising personnel exposure to areas of
the mine where seismic hazard is greatest.
It is important that all available data and
tools continue to be utilised in order to
minimise the seismic risk.
Acknowledgments
Figure 2 Location of the blasts for which the re-entry analysis was conducted
An excavation vulnerability potential

(EVP) map was built for the Beaconsfield
Gold Mine. The EVP map identifies regions
of the mine that need particular attention
with regard to seismic risk management
procedures such as re-entry times,
enhanced ground support, etc. Other key
points have also come to light during the
course of this project:
1. The Beaconsfield Gold Mine data is
well behaved. It provides good source
parameters and locations and follows
standards and expected trends in seismic
data.
2. The seismic data gives a clear indication
of where the seismic problems are
located within the mine and where
there are no seismic problems. This is
important for future planning, and shows
that seismic monitoring is a key tool for
forecasting future problems.
3. The back-analysis shows that seismic
data identifies the areas with higher
seismic hazard, or which sources are

more prone or likely to have large
events. It is apparent that some
seismic sources are more active than
others; the seismic system shows this
clearly. It is important to note that the
most seismically active sources do not
necessarily have the highest seismic
hazard.
4. Daily analysis and management of seismic
data is fundamental to understanding
seismic risk.
5. At this time, the analysis did not show
any acceleration of event rate or
increased seismic hazard with depth
indicating that there are no obvious
problems with incrementally deepening
the mine.
6. It is recommended that one person at
the mine be dedicated to analysing the
seismic data and familiar with MS-RAP,
using it to its maximum potential.
It is important to note that there are
This project would not have been

possible without the support, insights
and direction of several people. I would
like to express my gratitude to Marty
Hudyma, Laurentian University, and
Peter Hills, Beaconsfield Gold Mine for
providing me with this opportunity and
whose supervision and direction played an
invaluable role in this project. I would like
to thank Johan Wesseloo for conducting
a site visit and help in using MAP3D. I am
also grateful to Tim Parkin, Toby Collins and
Jerome Paterson, Beaconsfield Gold Mine
for providing me with guidance during the
course of my project. Notable thanks to
Roger Hill for helping me understand the
geology of the mine.
Natalie Kari,
Laurentian University,
Canada
Natalies project, undertaken between

May and August 2009, was a joint effort
between Beaconsfield Gold NL, Laurentian
University and the ACG. Similar student
summer undergraduate projects have been
organised each year, for the last ten years,
for sponsors in the ACGs Mine Seismicity
and Rockburst Risk Management project.
Mine Seismicity and Rockburst Risk Management Project

Since its commencement in 1999, the goal
of the ACGs MSRRM research project has
been to advance the application of seismic
monitoring in the mining industry to quantify
and mitigate the risk of mine seismicity and
rockbursting. This has seen close involvement
at research sponsor sites by undertaking
detailed site seismic analysis, testing or
experimental work and providing seismic
system technical support and advice as
required.
Phase IV of this research project, entitled
16
Advancing the Strategic Use of Seismic Data

in Mines, is currently underway and aims to
develop the strategic use of seismic data and
promote an increased understanding of the
rock mass seismic response to mining. The
ACG acknowledges the generous support
and encouragement of its Phase IV research
project sponsors. Additional project sponsors
are sought.
For further information please contact
project leader, Johan Wesseloo, ACG via
acg@acg.uwa.edu.au
Tailings
the runout distances and consequences of
failure need careful consideration. These
considerations also apply to in-pit storages.
if there are underground workings below
them.
The risk of
tailings disposal
Low strength
Strength influences runout distances
and the assessed consequences of failure.
In addition, it also relates directly to
bearing capacity and the safe access over
the tailings for activities including raising
and capping. The strength of geotechnical
materials is tricky to define. It varies
with time and is dependent on the rate
of loading. Almost all tailings start out as
slurries, i.e. liquid. After deposition, some
tailings progress towards the solid state
faster than others. But this does not mean
that any tailings dam can be treated like a
waste dump.
by Keith Seddon, ATC Williams
Introduction
Management of risk
In September 2010, the ACG will host

the First International Seminar on the
Reduction of Risk in the Management
of Tailings and Mine Waste in Perth. The
purpose of this article is to reflect on
some of the issues that contribute to that
risk. It is written from the perspective of a
consultant.
A well known website (www.wiseuranium.org/mdas.html) catalogues tailings
dam failures. In the (nearly) 30 years since
1980, it lists 52 incidents, spread across 20
different countries, and all continents. An
incident is broadly defined and includes
everything from contaminated seepage into
groundwater, and (relatively minor) spills
from broken pipes, all the way through
to overtopping during storm events,
catastrophic failure and collapse. The list
is by no means complete. Additionally,
inspection of the list shows an overrepresentation of events from North
America, mostly related to small leaks and
spills. Are the North Americans worse at
managing their operations than the rest of
the world? Or, is it more likely that they
are simply subject to greater scrutiny and
higher standards? These questions aside,
what can we learn from this list about the
risks of tailing storages?
Incidents occur across all mineral types.
Incidents occur across the full range of
company size and status.
Incidents occur in both developed and
under-developed countries.
The frequency of incidents does not
appear to be decreasing.
Tailings storage and disposal does not

rank high on the scale of overall mine
production costs. But it does weigh
heavily in terms of the overall risk to
an operation, both initially with permits
and approvals, and in relation to ongoing
operations. There is nothing like a well
publicised tailings dam incident to damage
a companys license to operate. So,
increasingly we see that management
of mine tailings is about understanding
and management of risk. The risk based
approach is not unique to tailings storages.
It is also widely used for management of
water dams and other activities.
Two examples demonstrate the trend
with respect to dam safety. The NSW
Dams Safety Committee is currently in
the process of a comprehensive re-casting
of its requirements in order to integrate
a risk based approach. And, the ANCOLD
tailings dam guidelines (originally issued in
1999) are being updated with increased
emphasis on risk. For this approach to
be effective, a core requirement for
management is to be fully committed to
the process, through adequate support and
resources.
If you have a tailings dam on your site, it

is a risk.
Fundamental hazards
There are at least four fundamental
hazards that need to be considered for all
tailings storages.
Potential energy [Gravity is a bitch]
All above ground storages place tailings
in an elevated location relative to some
position around the storage. In the event
of a breach, this potential energy may
convert to kinetic energy. This means that
Geochemistry/acid potential
Many types of tailings contain a
proportion of sulphur, which may oxidise
to form sulphuric acid. This in turn has the
potential to mobilise trace heavy metals,
and make even small amounts of seepage
a very undesirable consequence. Little can
be done to eliminate this basic hazard; the
geochemistry of the orebody is not open
to negotiation. However, in the future
possibly more attention will be given to
attempts to remove sulphides as part
of the process, and reduce the residual
hazard in the tailings. The potential for acid
production impacts both on operations
and on closure requirements for a storage.
It needs to be evaluated during the design
of all tailings dams, and may need to be
monitored routinely over the mine life.
Process chemistry
The tailings solids may prove to be
relatively benign, but it is necessary
to consider the process and how this
influences the chemistry of the decant
water. This includes processes that use
cyanide (gold tailings), high pH (bauxite
red-mud), and low pH (laterite nickel), and
elevated levels of salinity should also be
included.
Many of the decisions relating to
process chemistry are fundamental to the
feasibility and design of the whole mine
and concentration / beneficiation process,
and may be considered as constraints to
the tailings dam designer. However, when
these conditions occur, they are likely to be
powerful drivers of the subsequent design.
The author is looking forward to the day
17
that a laterite nickel process co-locates

with a bauxite refinery, and the two waste
streams are combined to neutralise each
other.
Factors contributing to risk

In risk management terminology, it is
usual to define risk as consequence x
probability of failure. Consequence relates
to hazard, and is typically measured in
terms of loss of life, or cost of remediation.
Management of risk can address both
of these components. For instance, the
consequence of a failure will be dependent
on the location and size of a dam, and
factors such as the strength of the
contained tailings. Most of these types of
issues need to be addressed during site
selection and design. It is too late to do
anything about location after a dam is built.
On the other hand, there are many issues
related to the operation and management
of a tailings dam that impact directly on
the probability of failure, whether this
is explicitly recognised during design or
not. The following discussion covers both
operation and management components,
but is slightly biased towards operational
issues.
Poor communication
Many problems stem from poor
communication, i.e. between the designer
and site management, or management
and operators. The designer (often
a consultant) may make particular
assumptions regarding the way the dam
will be operated and raised. Typically, these
matters will be covered in a design report.
But the implementation of these lies
with the mine, and personnel rarely have
time to read design reports. A common
solution is to have an operations and
maintenance manual (OM) to cover
these aspects. A good OM manual needs
to be comprehensive, structured, well
written, and be easily understood by all
users. Usually the details require input
from both the designer and the mine, and
a co-operative approach to preparation is
required.
Tailings dams are not static structures,
they are continually being raised or
modified in some way, and all OMs need
to be regularly checked and upgraded to
mirror these changes.
Bad decisions [It seemed like a good idea at
the time]
There comes a time in the life of some
storages when a decision is made that
fundamentally effects safety performance,
18
and what can be done with the storage

in the future. This is typically something
like changing the method of raising, or the
previous water management procedures,
or the method and location of tailings
discharge. It is not always a fully informed
or considered decision. It may be taken
under the stress of requirements to reduce
costs in the short term, or delay the
requirement for a raise, without regard to
longer term consequences. So if anyone
ever has a decision like this to make, please
put your guns back in their holsters, discuss
it with your consultant, and think through
the long term consequences, and the
implications for safety.
Water management [Soil particles and water
are natural enemies.With tailings you have
both together]
Many operational problems associated
with tailings dams, and many of the
recorded incidents can be traced directly
to water issues. Excessive water can affect
dam safety in a number of independent
ways:
Overtopping (followed by erosion and
breach).
Increased seepage leading to piping or
internal erosion.
High seepage (phreatic) surfaces in
embankments, resulting in reduced
stability.
Water balance and storm water
management in a tailings storage is usually
addressed as part of the design. Either
appropriate freeboard levels are set to
ensure that there is an adequate void space
left in the storage to retain decant and
storm water at safe levels, or a high level
emergency spillway is incorporated into
the design.
Some believe that if tailings dams contain
deleterious substances (solids and/or
process water) then provision of a spillway
is incompatible, in that it admits that
there may be discharge events, however
infrequent these may be. Alternatively, it
is a far better thing to accept that in an
extreme event there may be a discharge
of some water (most likely highly diluted
by all the storm runoff), rather than put
the security of the whole storage at risk
of overtopping and failure. At least two
major failures of tailings dams (Baia Mare,
Romania in 2000, and Merriespruit, South
Africa in 1994) could have been avoided by
the inclusion of emergency spillways.
Excess water in a dam may be the
result of a single, isolated, extreme
rainfall event. However, it is more likely
to be a combination of events relating to
accumulated water over an extended wet

period. Either extreme rainfall occurs on
top of already high pond levels, or the
mine simply has too much water on the
site. If excess water is accumulating in a
tailings dam, it may be that the original
water balance, for the site as well as just
the tailings dam, needs to be re-evaluated.
In addition, if water balance is an issue,
provisions for monitoring to include
records of all water flows associated with
the tailings storage (i.e. flow meters on the
pumps, and records of storage volumes)
should be included in the design and the
OM, and should be assessed either as part
of routine surveillance, or as a specially
commissioned study.
Capacity problems [Were running out of
space in the tailings dam and have to do
something fast]
This situation that shouldnt happen,
but frequently does. The problem is that
existing safe design, construction and
operating procedures may be compromised
in the process. The cause is basically a
lack of planning, and oversight of the
development of the storage. Underlying
reasons may include:
An increase in the mine resource
without any commensurate adjustment
to storage capacity.
Increase in throughput without
recognising that this will fill the storage
faster.
Incorrect density of deposited tailings in
the storage used in design (this should
always be checked during production).
Raise construction delayed (as a cost
saving measure), for too long.
Failure to appreciate the length of
time required for the sequence of
investigation, design, approvals, tendering,
mobilisation and construction that may
be associated with works to raise a
storage, or start a new one.
Whole of life planning
Development (and periodic updating) of
a whole of mine life plan for tailings storage
is an excellent way of focusing on the
forward requirements for tailings storage.
Site selection and investigation
There is no doubt that some tailings
dams are built on sites that are less
than ideal. This includes sites with poor
foundation conditions, locations where
seepage quality is a risk to groundwater,
and sites where excessively high
embankments are required to achieve
the necessary storage volume. In many
Tailings
cases these sites are dictated by existing
topography and/or lease boundaries, and
are often the result of choosing the least
bad option. It is important to appreciate
that even if the starter dam is relatively
modest, the final storage may grow to be a
major structure. A full and comprehensive
geotechnical and hydrogeological
investigation should be carried out as part
of the initial feasibility studies to enable
the viability of the final structure to be
established.
Construction issues
Construction control, or the lack of it,
can have a major impact on the adequacy
of tailings dams. This applies particularly to
raises, where both the construction and
supervision may be largely undertaken
by the mine. The design will have been
prepared on the expectation of certain
standards of foundation preparation,
material selection and placement etc. It
is important that these standards should
be achieved, and close and continued
involvement by the designer throughout
construction is essential. Many regulatory
authorities recognise this and include a
requirement for an acceptable sign off
of construction, and also of design changes
during construction.
Other operational issues
Other items that impact on safety and
risk are:
Tailings deposition management: this is
often integrally linked to pond locations

and beach development, and has major
implications for the ongoing safe
operation of the storage.
Monitoring and surveillance: monitoring
is the collection of data that relates to
the performance of a dam, e.g. seepage
flows, water levels, filling rate and
storage levels, settlement and movement
etc. There needs to be provision for
these data to be reviewed at appropriate
intervals, and the significance of the
readings evaluated. Surveillance is the
ongoing process of evaluation and
assessment of the safety of a dam based
on data obtained from inspections and
monitoring, and is seen as a very valuable
contribution to risk identification and
reduction. Many regulatory authorities
now require regular surveillance reports
to be prepared on tailings dams with
significant or high failure consequences.
Some mining companies have similar
internal requirements.
Dust: dust from a tailings storage is
sometimes a major environmental
headache. One of the perceived fixes
for this is to pond water on the tailings.
This should not be attempted without
consideration of the consequences.
Why is there a risk associated with this?

Primarily because of a failure to plan. Many
of the things that are needed for closure
should have already been done well before.
What are the revegetation requirements?
What cover is required to get things to
grow (schedule cover trials)?
What is the final landform and capping
design?
Where is the material for this going to
come from?
Planning for closure should be
incorporated in initial design, and should
continue throughout operations.
Corporate memory
Site personnel often take valuable
knowledge with them when they do go.
In some cases the consultant has better
records of a site history than the mine,
but no mine should rely on them. All sites
should maintain a library/archive that
contains copies of all reports, records etc.,
relating to each of its tailings storages. If a
site is ever sold, these documents should
be required by the new owner as an
integral part of due diligence.
Closure planning
Eventually, all tailings storages have to
be closed, and the costs of closure can
be significant, especially when the time is
now, not still 10 years down the track.
Keith Seddon,
ATC Williams
19
Mine tailings solution:

ACGEIGG alliance is
your one-stop shop
The ACG and the Environmental
Inorganic Geochemistry Group, Curtin
University seek to demystify the
complexities surrounding the hazards and
challenges of mine tailings by providing
a one-stop shop for your total mine
tailings research, education and training
requirements.
Australian Centre for

Geomechanics
Through its further education courses,
publications, training products and research
activities, the ACG has established itself
as a leading provider of mine tailings
geotechnology, information and best
practice. Since 1992, under the direction
of Associate Professor Richard Jewell and
UWA Professor of Mining, Andy Fourie,
ACG has researched and documented
the hazards and challenges of mine waste
management.
More than 1,000 mine tailings
professionals have attended our
education courses; including the series
of international seminars on paste
and thickened tailings (now in its
thirteenth year). The ACG has produced
internationally reputed publications such
as the Paste and Thickened Tailings A
Guide and Handbook on Mine Fill, and
with industry sponsorship developed stateof-the-art training products such as the
Tailings From Concept to Closure; Best
Practices for Tailings Disposal A training
DVD for owners and operators of tailings
storage facilities.
Tailings From Concept to Closure training DVD

available from www.acg.uwa.edu.au/shop
20
Our industry-supported research

projects have included Metallurgical Mine
Tailings Rehabilitation, Saline Tailings Disposal
and Decommissioning and the current An
Effective Stress Approach to Mine Backfill.
The ACG has provided industry with
the tools and knowledge to improve the
stability and safety of mine tailings storage
facilities, mitigate geotechnical and stability
hazards, explore rock drainage and the
safe and efficient use of mine waste in
the backfilling of mining voids. The ACG
has addressed the broader issues of
tailings behaviour for a number of mining
companies.
geochemical analysis and characterisation

of mining waste, water quality and AMD,
including trace element analysis, carbonsulphur determination, high performance
ion chromatography, fluoride selective
electrode, anodic stripping voltammetry,
gravimetric and grain-size determination,
diatom and pollen analysis.
Environmental Inorganic
Geochemistry Group, Curtin
University of Technology
EIGG comprehensively examines acid
mine drainage one of the greatest
hazards facing more than 60% of gold
mining operations, as well as coal and
metalliferous mines.Via its designated
analytical facilities and innovative testing,
EIGG is able to characterise waste and to
provide a comprehensive picture of current
environmental quality, as well as predictive
analysis of potential acid mine drainage
and pollution risk offering avoidance and
remediation strategies.
EIGG has direct experience of assisting
industry with tailings and waste rock
management protocols for mine closure.
EIGG was established in 1998 and is
directed by Associate Professor Ron
Watkins. It researches the geochemical
background and pollution of the natural,
mining and built environment. It focuses on
assessing the geochemical environment and
providing solutions to current and potential
pollution problems.
EIGG has an international profile with
research projects undertaken in 10
countries, as well as WA and Victoria.
It has active research programmes
in a range of fields of environmental
geochemistry, including mining pollution
and rehabilitation, hydrogeology, urban
geochemistry, geochemistry and health
(medical geology), past environments and
climate change.
It has comprehensive facilities for the
The EIGG laboratories provide a full range of

mine waste characterisation and environmental
geochemical analysis
Together, the ACG and EIGG can

provide operations with a comprehensive
analytical support to tailings and mine
waste management combining all aspects
of mechanical, structural and geochemical
security.
Ron Watkins
Department of Applied
Geology, Curtin University
Andy Fourie
The University of
Western Australia
Paste
Increasing value in mining operations
through the application of paste
by Nick Slade and Stephen Wilson, Golder Paste Technology (Europe) Ltd; Florencio Felipe,
Xstrata Copper, Mount Isa Copper Operations; Frank Palkovits, Golder Paste Technology Ltd
Introduction
Mineral waste
The creation of mineral waste by
metaliferous mining is inevitable and in
most situations leads to 90 to 99% of the
amount of material extracted from the
ground requiring disposal. Many years ago
waste may have been disposed of without
controls, creating what we would describe
as environmental and health hazards.
Mining companies face a range of factors
which form a very different environment
in which to manage the same waste today.
These include more ethical operating
practices towards the environment and
local communities, increasing regulation
with respect to the environment, scarcity
and cost of water and a realisation that
longer term liabilities are therefore higher
than they once were for remediation of a
mining project.
More recently, waste has been disposed
of in a fashion aimed at reusing whatever
can be beneficial to the mine. Examples
include reusing process water and using
tailings to form backfill in underground
mines. Scientific and engineering advances
have lent themselves to helping manage the
mining waste streams more efficiently and
productively.
to the beneficiation of the ore into a saleable product beyond the mill. This often means
more effort and money is spent on analysis and investment in the process of getting the ore
out of the ground and through the mill, with less emphasis and consideration of the waste
management options.
Often capital cost constraints can limit the resources available to develop or improve an
operation. Consequently, it is not uncommon that management of a milled waste is often
undertaken by conventional slurries tailings disposal and where it is used as backfill is often
through conventional cemented hydraulic fill. This is the simpler and more conventional
option but does not necessarily afford the best value for the business.
Financial analysis
Given that discounted cash flow and Net Present Value (NPV) are the most commonly
used indicators of a projects financial strength, a thorough financial examination of waste
management solutions for a project should be undertaken. This is important as the lowest
capital cost option may not be the most value adding option to the project or operation.
The merits of analysing a project over its lifecycle can be said to be a more strategic
assessment than that purely focused on operating cost or technical simplicity.
A financially favourable alternative to conventional slurry disposal and hydraulic backfill is
to engineer the material to a paste for both applications.
Paste and slurry

A technically correct appreciation of paste is commonly said to include the following
characteristics:

Non-settling mixture of solids and water.

Exhibiting minimal water bleed when left idle.
Meaningful slump (ASTM, 2008) measures no more than 253 mm.
With no critical flow velocity.
Percent solids dependent on particle size distribution and other factors.
Enabling semi-dry waste management.
Drivers for change
Slurry
Drivers for change are always ultimately

financial. The recognition of costs as much
as opportunities presented by not requiring
as much fresh water in a mine, or the
benefits added by using the tailings waste
as backfill for the mining process, lead to
changes in attitude, operations and the
financial position of a business.
Influences on the decisions mining
companies make with regard to managing
waste are driven by the business
characteristics and culture of the company.
These can include: how its business goals
relate to the short or longer term value of
the company, what approach it chooses to
take to manage financial risk, and its cash
flow status.
It is not uncommon that mining
companies focus managing costs rationally
on the parts of the business which lead
Figure 1 shows what the slump looks like for the differing natures of material and as this
is the most simple and common test for evaluation it is worthy of note.
Paste 177 mm slump
Paste 253 mm slump
Slurry no slump
Figure 1 Examples of the slump cone test for differing tailings slumps
For a typical metaliferous tailings the main differences in solids and water content are indicated in Table 1.
For a typical metaliferous tailings the main differences in solids and water content are
indicated in Table 1.
Table 1 Indicative solids and water parameters for slurry and paste materials
Table 1 Indicative solids and water parameters for slurry and paste materials
Material Type
Slurry
Paste
Solids Content (%wt)

40
70
Free Water (ltr/100 tonnes)

50,000
5,000
Paste application benefits

Surface disposal benefits
Recent technology development has supported

application
for tailings
disposal
as a paste.
21 Some respo
Australianthe
Centre
for Geomechanics
December
2009 Newsletter
mining companies and regulators today are looking at more holistic waste management approaches.
Surface disposal benefits

Recent technology development has
supported the application for tailings
disposal as a paste. Some responsible
mining companies and regulators today are
looking at more holistic waste management
approaches.
Approaches which take that move
towards minimising waste generation
are fundamentally important to manage
efficient operations with respect to
development and closure capital costs and
operational costs. The knock-on effects of
resource consumption and waste disposal
that were previously considered as free
are now of major financial significance to
worldwide mining activities and operations.
The immediate and long-term liability
of waste materials and the associated
water run-off can amount to a major
portion of the cost to a business and
can present significant obstacles in the
permitting of disposal sites. Minimising this
cost and liability (risk) through reduced
surface disposal volumes and hazards, and
innovative surface storage brings benefits
to any project. This is particularly so in
relatively dry (hot or cold) climates or
highly populated areas as these place
higher value / cost on consumption of
water and the value of socio-economic and
environmental impact.
As the majority of mines and mining
projects fall into this situation they are
increasingly important financial drivers,
especially for larger scale projects.
In summary, the key risk reducing and
value adding benefits to depositing tailings
as a paste, rather than a slurry, include:
Smaller tailings disposal footprint (up to
40%); with a steeper beach angle (up to
5 degrees).
Smaller dam engineering.
Lower water consumption.
Negligible bleed water release.
No critical velocity required to avoid
settling.
Reduced closure cost (10 to 75%
depending on the characteristics of the
waste).
Reduced operating risk liability.
Reduction in contamination/leachate
potential.
Potential to not require impervious liner
and monitoring systems (saving A$17-22/
m2).
Principal Sponsor
Backfill benefits
to almost all methods utilising backfill:

Reduction in the volume of material
placed as waste on surface in a
deposition facility.
Permits the generation of a larger size
ore reserve in the underground mine.
An increase in productivity as a result of
reduced production cycle time.
These elements can lead to significant
operational cost savings and revenue
enhancements.
Paste application as backfill yields
opportunities to reduce risk and add value
by:
Increased mining productivity.
Reduced cycle time and cement
consumption.
Full range of plant tailings can be utilised.
Simplified stope preparation.
Improved underground mining
conditions (less water, slimes, pumping).
Reduced surface disposal volume.
Value and cost

Shareholder value
If the business driver or goal is
shareholder value and the used
representation is NPV (Runge, 1998),
then it is appropriate to consider this
during evaluations of all key potential
expenditures to ensure that value based
decisions are made.
Net present value
Intuitively, where the NPV is increased
for a project, even with increased capital
expenditure, basic theory suggests the
project will make a financial return and the
project should go ahead. In practice there
are limitations to this theoretical outcome,
such as available capital within the business
or indeed the capital finance market place,
as has been witnessed in 2009, or the risk
associated with the mining project. In such
cases, the financial imperative for a project
may not just be a positive NPV, but it may
also be the return on the investment,
the payback period or the inherent risk
involved in the project as compared to
other projects the business is assessing.
Net present cost
Net Present Cost (NPC) is also used.
This reflects the discounted cash flow and
time cost of the expenditure and is used
in isolation from the NPV because the
revenue data was either not relevant to
the analysis or did not change. In relevant
examples, NPV has been stated where the
revenue did change as part of the analysis.
The disposal of tailings as backfill to an

underground mine brings three clear gains
22
Financial case example

Surface disposal in South America
A large mine in South America has an
opportunity to increase the value of its
asset with the application of paste tailings
disposal rather than a conventional
slurry tailings facility. The mine is a large
operation producing approximately
150,000 tpd of tailings with a tailings
solids concentration around 55% wt. By
thickening the tailings towards 70% wt
solids, significant gains are identified. The
project outcome highlighted the following
key benefits from the application of paste
for tailings deposition:
Virtually eliminating water re-handling
associated with the tailings deposition.
Reduction in water consumption.
Reduction in water abstraction.
Prolonging the life of the existing facility.
Opportunity to increase production (by
increasing tailings capacity).
Reduce deposited tailings liquefaction
potential.
These aspects provide a range of savings,
notably in water abstraction and rehandling, to the operation. The key financial
gains in this example are:
Operating costs reduced by A$30M to
40M per annum.
NPC cost reduction of 40% for the life
of the tailings deposition system.
Recognising this opportunity for the
business, the operation is advancing its
project work towards the use of paste for
the deposition of its tailings.
Conclusions
As indirect and direct costs to mining
operations become greater and the focus
on delivery of sustainable projects is
linked to business success, the case for
paste applications is clear in a variety of
situations. Consideration of a range of
key internal and external factors clearly
suggests whether the application of paste
is warranted for analysis and study on a
new project or existing operation. Strategic
perspectives of the project and business
must also be examined to ensure value is
maximised.
Nick Slade,
Golder Paste Technology
(Europe) Ltd, UK
Paste application benefits
Mine closure
Corporate (ir)
responsibility: what is it
really worth when times
are tough?
by Sonia Finucane, Bioscope Environmental Consulting Pty Ltd

This question was posed as part of a
break-out session during the ACG and
Centre for Land Rehabilitations (CLR)
Fourth International Mine Closure
Conference held in Perth in September
2009. This session provided delegates with
a forum to explore corporate responsibility
in relation to mine closure, using a
hypothetical mining project as a case study.
The hypothetical project comprised a
remote greenfields gold mine owned by a
mid-sized mining company. It was proposed
that the mine would have a fly in fly out
workforce of about 300 employees and an
operational life of 50 years.
A technical panel provided perspectives
from different groups of stakeholders.
The panel comprised Darren Murphy
(SKM), Graham Cobby (WA Department
of Minerals and Petroleum), Mark Batty
(Western Australian Local Government
Association), Kado Muir (Aboriginal
Heritage Consultants and Traditional
Owner), and Cathy Gupanis (Paladin
Energy). The session was facilitated by
Sonia Finucane with assistance from Don
Burnside (URS Australia) and Talitha Santini
(CLR).
The first part of the break-out session
examined corporate responsibility during
the permitting phase of the hypothetical
project. Initial discussion examined the
type of closure commitments that would
be reasonable for the proponent to make
at this early stage of the project life. Key
topics included what should take priority
in making closure commitments and how
the company should balance the need
of regulators and other stakeholders
for certainty in closure outcomes with
the need for continual improvement
for a project with a long mine life. It
was concluded that there was a need
for proponents to agree with their
stakeholders on mine closure targets for
both environmental and social factors, but
that gaining alignment on priorities could
be difficult.
There was also discussion about the role
of government and other stakeholders in
guiding proponents on what information on

closure planning should be provided during
the environmental impact assessment
phase, including closure cost estimates. It
was noted that developing closure cost
estimates during the permitting phase was
important but could be difficult, particularly
for those projects expected to have a
mine life of many decades as there was a
decreasing level of accuracy in the closure
cost estimate with increasing length of
mine life. It was also noted that the focus
of closure cost estimates developed at
this stage of a project was usually on
decommissioning and rehabilitation, with
little or no allowance made for the socioeconomic aspects of mine closure.
This second scenario examined
corporate responsibility when a company
was faced with unexpected or unplanned
closure. Under this scenario, the mine had
obtained environmental and other permits
and had been operating successfully for five
years when an unexpected and significant
drop in commodity prices occurred. This
forced the mine into temporary shutdown
and, despite the companys earlier good
intention, it appeared that the only solution
was to close the mine permanently. The
company had prepared a closure plan as a
condition of its environmental approval and
had established a closure provision, but this
was considered to be insufficient to pay for
full project closure so early in mine life.
In discussing this scenario, a number of
topics including what the company should
do to demonstrate corporate responsibility
when faced with unexpected closure were
considered. Is corporate responsibility
something to be spoken about only in good
times? What is it really worth when times
are tough? Unexpected closure usually
triggers a review of company priorities and
responsibilities, the extent of closure risks
and liabilities, and the adequacy of closure
provisions and bonds. During discussion on
this point, the importance of stakeholder
engagement during these reviews was
recognised and it was commented that if it
was difficult to get stakeholder alignment
on closure objectives and procedures

during the environmental permitting stage,
it could be even more difficult to obtain
alignment when unexpected or unplanned
closure occurs. Consequently, companies
needed to manage this process carefully.
A consistent theme throughout the
break-out session was how to address the
socio-economic aspects of mine closure.
It was felt that the social conversation
is still an externality, with little or no
consideration of the socio-economic
aspects in closure planning and cost
estimates. This was even more evident
when unexpected closure occurred,
as many of the social and community
benefits of a mining project often took
a number of years to be realised and
these opportunities were reduced or lost
altogether when a mine ceased operations
prematurely. Where community assets
(such as health or recreational facilities)
were in development, when unexpected
closure occurred there was concern about
who would be responsible for completing
and maintaining these assets. Often, this
responsibility falls to local government
authorities acting on behalf of the
community. Therefore, it was suggested
that life-cycle costing be undertaken
when a mining company first proposed
development of community assets so that
local government and the community
understood the cost of completing and
maintaining these assets in the event of
unexpected or unplanned mine closure.
Ground Control Groups Update

Eastern Australia Ground
Control Group
A meeting was held in October 2009

in Tasmania on Ground vibrations
blasting and seismicity, and its effect on
ground support. The meeting was well
attended by more than 65 members and
Dr Phil Dight, ACG Winthrop Professor
Geotechnical Engineering presented a
talk on microseismicity and the influence
of rock fracturing on deep open pits. For
details regarding the next meeting, please
visit www.eagcg.org
Ground Control Group (WA)
The group met last month at the WA
School of Mines, Kalgoorlie to discuss
paste fill. A survey on the future of the
group is being undertaken and can be
obtained from the GCGWA secretary
via emjones@barrick.com
23
ACG Event Schedule*

Practical Rock Mechanics in Mining Short Course
Perth, 2425 March 2010
Preconditioning Workshop
Perth, 19 April 2010
Second International Symposium on Block and Sublevel Caving
Advanced Mine Seismicity Seminar
Perth, 811 June 2010
Rheology Workshop
Perth, 2223 June 2010
Open Pit Rock Mass Modelling Seminar
Perth, 2930 July 2010
Ground Support for Underground and Open Pit Mines (Basic Level) Short Course
Perth, 2526 August 2010
Tailings Workshop
Perth, 28 September 2010
First International Seminar on the Reduction of Risk in the Management of Tailings

and Mine Waste
Perth, 29 September
1 October 2010
Blasting for Stable Slopes (Open Pit)
Perth, 1719 November 2010
In-Pit Waste Storage and Management Seminar
Perth, 89 December 2010
14th International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings
* The ACG event schedule is subject to change. For event updates, please visit www.acg.uwa.edu.au/events_and_courses
ACG Underground Drilling and Blasting A safety training DVD

for underground metalliferous mine workers
All underground mine workers will be exposed to drilling and blasting processes. The aim of this new DVD is to provide workers with the critical
knowledge on drilling and blasting to aid appreciation of the importance of these mining processes and their related hazards. The DVD will feature
an introduction to the rock breaking process in mining and a description of explosives and how they work. The second part of the DVD will cover
development drilling and blasting practices; while the third part will cover production drilling and blasting. The ACG acknowledges the project sponsors
generous support.
The ACG invites your organisation to sponsor this new training DVD. Contact the ACG for more information.
For many mining companies, ACG training products have become an integral and essential component of their training programmes. For the full list of the
ACGs successful suite of geotechnical mine worker training DVDs, please visit www.acg.uwa.edu.au/training_products.
Festive Greetings
24
The ACG team wishes you and your

family a very merry Christmas and a
happy New Year. We thank you for your
support and encouragement during 2009
and look forward to an exciting 2010.
Our office will be closed from Wednesday
23rd December 2009, reopening on
Wednesday 6th January 2010.
Australian Centre for Geomechanics PO Box 3296 Broadway, Nedlands, Western Australia, AUSTRALIA 6009
Ph + 61 8 6488 3300 Fax +61 8 6488 1130 acginfo@acg.uwa.edu.au www.acg.uwa.edu.au
ACG December 2009 Newsletter

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Minelco (2007), From the Minelco selection, www.minelco.com
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Newman, T., Hustrulid, W., and Quinteiro, C (2008), Sublevel caving trial - blasting of an ore slice against caved rock at the Kiruna
mine, Proceedings, MassMin 2008, Lule, Sweden
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Series B, Number 32, March 29, 1962, pp 8-15
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in-pit placement of waste
by Raymond Yost, Rio Tinto Minerals Boron Operations, USA
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Siefke, J. W., 1982, Slope Stability, internal memorandum.
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Summer vacation students in winter

by Peter Hills, Tasmania Mine Joint Venture, BCD Resources (Operations) NL
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of Mining & Metallurgy: Melbourne. Pp. 199-206.
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through the application of paste
by Nick Slade and Stephen Wilson, Golder Paste Technology (Europe) Ltd; Florencio Felipe, Xstrata Copper,
Mount Isa Copper Operations; Frank Palkovits, Golder Paste Technology Ltd
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evolution.

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NEWSLETTER

AUSTRALIAN CENTRE FOR GEOMECHANICS

First International Seminar on

The Captain's pit in Malmberget. Photo courtesy of LKAB

Sublevel caving past and

by William Hustrulid, University of Utah; and the

The sublevel caving technique according to

and rational way, there are good possibilities

Continued from page 1

Figure 1 Composite section view of the sublevel

The scale was small, certainly by todays

LKAB being a leader in this regard. Figure

principles which served as the design

Australian Centre for Geomechanics December 2009 Newsletter

area. It was decided to install markers in the

the sides of the fan indicating that the ore

Figure 5 Fan geometry for the Kiruna sublevel cave

Table 3 Summary of some important

Figure 7 Contour plots showing the percent

Recently, comprehensive marker studies

installed at each particular location.

drift width is 3.5 m, the flow width to

Figure 8 Section showing the rings with the draw

performed. As noted by Quinteiro et al.

Australian Centre for Geomechanics December 2009 Newsletter

esult from the Ridgeway Mine marker studies is shown

Figure 9 Silo type of flow pattern. Kvapil (1955),

The average primary flow width/drift

Australian Centre for Geomechanics December 2009 Newsletter

Rd = damage radius (m)

Sublevel cave layout rules based upon marker test input

Implications for future sublevel

caving. However, it is very important that

Future possibilities to maintain/

The results of the marker

Australian Centre for Geomechanics December 2009 Newsletter

68 October | Santiago - CHILE

Figure 11 New possibilities for large-scale sublevel caving

In closing, the authors believe that

This edited article is from the paper

Australian Centre for Geomechanics December 2009 Newsletter

Pontificia Universidad Catlica

orebody that was deposited as an evaporate

The changing profile of risk associated

article is to discuss the background to that

foundation material (basalt), generally

Australian Centre for Geomechanics December 2009 Newsletter

1) Estimating the probability of an outcome

Figure 1 Pit topography at year 2010

Probability of failure 5.0% (with seismic load).

Figure 2 Pit topography for ultimate pit

Probability of failure 81.20% (with seismic load).

Modelling post-failure runout

To illustrate the interplay of the

A combination of numerical modelling and empirical evaluation was used to develop

Risk in the most general sense,

Figure 3 Topography for failure at 2010 for 30 million tonne dump

Australian Centre for Geomechanics December 2009 Newsletter

horizontally. By determining the total ETMs necessary to move a quantity o

At the other end, the clean-up costs

Article references are available from the ACG.

additional equipment, accelerating stripping

Australian Centre for Geomechanics December 2009 Newsletter

ACG Open Pit Rock Mass