Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Introduction
What is physic ?
Definition of physics derives from Greek word means nature.
Each theory in physics involves:
(a) Concept of physical quantities.
(b) Assumption to obtain mathematical model.
(c) Relationship between physical concepts.
directly proportional
linearly proportional
exponentially proportional
(d) Procedures to relate mathematical models to actual measurements from experiments.
(e) Experimental proofs to devise explanation to nature phenomena.
1.1 Basic Quantities and International System of Units (SI units)
> Physical quantity
A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured. Physical quantity consist of a
numerical magnitude and a unit.
Example:
250 ml (magnitude and unit)
> Basic quantity
Quantity that cannot be derived from other quantities. This quantity is important because it
can be easily produced
does not change its magnitude
is internationally accepted
> SI units
The unit of a physical quantity is the standard size used to compare different magnitudes
of the same physical quantity.
> Systems of units
Several systems of units have been in use. Example:
The MKS (meter-kilogram-second) system
The cgs (centimeter-gram-second) system
British engineering system: foot for length, pound for mass and second for time.
Today the most important system of unit is the Systems International or Sl units.
Basic Quantity and the SI Base Units
Physical quantities can be divided into two categories:
1. basic quantities and
2. derived quantities.
The corresponding units for these quantities are called base units and derived units.
Basic Quantities
In the interest of simplicity, seven basics quantities1, consistent with a full description of the
physical world, have been chosen.
Basic quantity
Symbol
Dimension
(base
Definition2
quantity
symbol)
Length
Second
Ampere
Amount of substance is a
standards-defined quantity that
measures the size of an ensemble
Mole
of elementary entities, such as
atoms, molecules, electrons, and
other particles
Mass
Time
Electric
current
Thermodynamic
temperature
Amount of
substances,
Quantity of
matter
Luminous
intensity
Iv
SI units
Base Units
There are only seven base unit3 in SI system.
SI Base
units
Symbol Definition1
Metre
"The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a
time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second."
17th CGPM (1983, Resolution 1, CR, 97)
Kilogram
kg
"The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international
prototype of the kilogram."
3rd CGPM (1901, CR, 70)
"The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the caesium 133 atom."
13th CGPM (1967/68, Resolution 1; CR, 103)
"This definition refers to a caesium atom at rest at a temperature of 0 K."
(Added by CIPM in 1997)
Mol
cd
Second
Ampere
Kelvin
Mole
Candela
Prefixes
For very large or very small numbers, we can use standard prefixes with the base units.
Prefix
Factor
tera
2
10
Symbol
10
10
10
deci
-1
10
centi
10
-2
10-9
10-12
Example 1.1
Derived quantities and derived units
Derived quantity
Quantity that derived from basic quantities through multiplication and division.
For example,
Derived quantity
Derive from base quntity of
Derived unit
Area
length x length
m2
Volume
length x length x length
m3
Density
kg m-3
Velocity
m s-1
Acceleration
m s-2
Frequency
s-1/hz
Momentum
Force
Mass x velocity
Mass x acceleration
Kg ms-1
Kg ms-2
Pressure
N m-2
Energy
Kg m2 s-2
Case two
The velocity of B relative to A = (VB VA)
= (3 10) ms
= -7 ms -1 (in backwards direction).
We observe that(VB VA) and (VA VB) are same magnitude but different direction.
(b) Sum of vectors (Resultant of)
If there are two or more vector , these vector can be add to form a single vector called
a Resultant vector.
To solve the problem involving vectors in two dimension, we usually used any one of these method
depend on the information given.
Method 1: Parallelogram of vectors
Its the drawing method. The drawing of the parallelogram need to be draw according scale and angle
given in the question. The instrument used for this drawing are:
(a) ruler
(b) protractor
(c) sharp pencil
It two vectors
and
are represented in magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides OA and
OB of a parallelogram OABC, then OC represents their resultant.
This method is used when there are information about angle and magnitudes of the vector.
Method 2: Triangle of vectors and polygon of vector
Its the drawing method. The drawing of the vectors need to be draw according scale and angle given
in the question. The instrument used for this drawing are:
(d) ruler
(e) protractor
(f) sharp pencil
Use a suitable scale to draw the first vector.
From the end of first vector, draw a line to represent the second vector. (attaching the head with the
its tail)
Complete the triangle/polygon. The line from the beginning of the first vector to the end of the second
vector represents the sum in magnitude and direction.
Example 1.7
Example 1.8
Magnitude,
and Direction of R,
Example 7
The figure shows 3 forces F1, F2 and F3 acting on a point O. Calculate the resultant force and the
direction of resultant.
The dot product of a vector with a unit vector is the projection of that vector in the direction given by
the unit vector. This leads to the geometric formula
Furthermore,it follows immediately from the geometric definition that two vectors are orthogonal if and
only if their dot product vanishes, that is
Cross Product
The cross product is fundamentally a directed area.
whose magnitude is defined to be the area of the parallelogram?. The direction of the cross product is
given by the right-hand rule, so that in the example shown
In mathematics and physics, the right-hand rule is a common mnemonic for understanding notation
conventions for vectors in 3 dimensions. It was invented for use in electromagnetism by British
physicist John Ambrose Fleming in the late 19th century.
Unit vector
When comes into multiplying vector its easier to used component method. The basis for the
coordinate system used in vector notation is unit vector.
in mathematics, a unit vector in a normed vector space is a vector whose length is 1 (the unit length).
A unit vector is often denoted by a lowercase letter with a "hat", like this: (pronounced "i-hat"),
and . The , and is use in 3D or cartesian coordinate and : and is use in Euclidean space.
The operation on the vector will be much more faster compared to the drawing method.
A vector can be represent in component method as
from origin to point (2,3) in Euclidean space.
1.4 Metrology
Metrology is the science of measurement and its application.
Terminology related to measurement uncertainty is not used consistently among experts. To avoid
further confusions lets refer to BIPM-VIM(International Vocabulary of Basic and General Terms in
Metrology) and GUM (Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement).
1.4.1 Error
VIM define the error as below:
error (of measurement) [VIM 3, 2.16] measured quantity value minus a reference quantity
value
there are two type of error
(a) Systematic Error
Characteristics of systematic error in the measurement of a particular physical quantity:
-Its magnitude is constant.
-It causes the measured value to be always greater or always less than the true value.
Corrected reading = direct reading systematic Error
Absolute Uncertainty
Example of readings
Millimeter ruler
0.1 cm
(50.1 0.1)cm
Vernier caliper
0.01 cm
(3.23 0.01)cm
Micrometer screw
gauge
0.01 mm
(2.63 0.01)mm
Stopwatch (analogue)
0.1 s
(1.4 0. 1 )s
Stopwatch(Digital)
0.01 s
(1.452 0.01)s
Thermometer
0.5 C
(28.0 0.5)C
Ammeter (0 3A)
0.05 A
(1.70 0.05)A
Voltmeter (0 5V)
0.05 V
(0.65 0.05)V
The smaller absolute uncertainty of the instrument is contribute to the high accuracy, precision and
sensitivity of the measuring system of the experiment.
Uncertainty
(Absolute/actual)
Vernier caliper
0.01 cm
ii
iii
iv
vi
1.52
1.54
1.53
1.54
1.53
Or
is in the mean value.(of the repetition reading)
2. Fractional and percentage Uncertainty,
(a) The fractional Uncertainty of R :
(b) The percentage Uncertainty of R :
3. Consequential Uncertianties/Uncertainty- to state the Uncertainty of a derive quantities
Given
R 1 DR1 = Data Absolute Data Uncertainty = 51.2 0.1
R 2 DR2 = Data Absolute Data Uncertainty = 30.1 0.1
(a) Addition
W = R1 + R2 = 51.2 + 30.3 = 81.3
DW = DR1 + DR2 = 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2
So W DW = 81.3 0.2
(b) Subtraction
S = R1 R2 = 51.2 30.3 = 21.1
DS = DR1 + DR2 = 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2
So S DS = 21.1 0.2
(c) Product
P = R1 R2 = 51.2 30.3 =1541.12
From
P DP = 1541.12 7.71
(d) Quotient
From
Q DQ = 1.70 0.01
Working example:
1. Aim : to determine the value of B
2. Theory :
B is given by
Quantity
Instruments
Uncertainty
(Absolute/actual)
a,b
meter ruler
1 cm
Stopwatch(Digital)
0.01 s
B = 7.8 x 10-11 m3 s
(b) Find the uncertainty of B
1. Fisrt check the equation for addition and subtraction, by applying 1.4.3 no 3 (b) , subtraction so (a
b) = (0.180.02)m
2. Second calculate the percentage uncertainties in each of the 4 terms:
Term
Magnitude and
uncertainty
Fractional
Uncertainty
Uncertainty
percentage
(a b)
= (0.180.02)m
11%
3%
= (4.28 0.05) s
1.2%
= (3.70.1) x 103 s
3%
The Uncertainty in (a b) is now very large, although the readings themselves have been taken
carefully. This is always the effect when subtracting two nearly equal numbers.
The percentage Uncertainty in d2 will be twice the percentage Uncertainty in d;
The percentage Uncertainty in
root is a power of
This gives:
Uncertainty
Example 8
The diameter of a cone is (98 1)mm and the height is (224 1 )mm. What is:
(a) The absolute Uncertainty of the diameter.
(b) The percentage Uncertainty of the diameter.
(c) state the volume of the cone and its uncertainty. Give your answer to the correct number of
significant number.
Example 9
Discuss the ways of minimizing systematic and random Error
Example 10
The period of a spring is determined by measuring the time for 10 oscillations using a stopwatch.
State a source of:
(a) Systematic Error
(b) Random Error
1.4.4. Method to find Uncertainty/Uncertainty from a graph
Figure 1
where n is the number of points plotted.
1. The usual quantities that are deduced from a straight line graph are
(a) the gradient of the graph m, and the intercept on the y-axis or the x-axis
(b) the intercepts on the axes.
First calculate the coordinates of the centroid using the formula
, are then drawn. For a straight line graph where the intercept is not the origin , the
three lines drawn must all pass through the centroid. Here also we can find
and
4. To find the Uncertainty for the gradient and intercept used this equation
and
Working Example
1. Aim
To determine the acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum.
2. Theory : the theory of the simple pendulum, the period T is related to the length l, and the
acceleration due to gravity g by the equation
Uncertainty
(Absolute/actual)
Millimeter ruler
0.1 cm
Stopwatch (analogue)
0.1 s
Table 1
(a) Name or symbol of each quantity and its unit are stated in the heading of each column. Example:
Length and cm, and T(s). The Uncertainty for the primary data, such as length and t time for 50
oscillations, is also written. Example: (l 0.05) cm and (t 0.1)s.
(b) All primary data, such as length and time, should be recorded to reflect the precision (absolute
uncetainty) of the instrument used.
For example, the length of the pendulum l is measured using a metre rule. hence it should be
recorded to two decimal places of a cm, that is 10.00 cm, and not 10 cm or 10.0 cm.
The time for 50 oscillations t is recorded to 0.1 s, that is 32.0 s and not 32 s.
The average value of t is also calculated to 0.1 s. The average value of 31.9 s and 32.0 s is recorded
as 32.0 s and not 31.95 s.
(c) The secondary data such as T and T2, are calculated from the primary data. Secondary data
should be calculated to the same number of significant figures as I hat in the least accurate
measurement. For example, T and T2, are calculated to three significant figures, the same number of
significant figures as the readings of t.
(d) For a straight line graph, there should be at least six point plotted. If the graph is a curve, then
more points should be plotted, especially near the maximum and minimum points.
Note that the graph is plotted with the assumption that the origin (0, 0) is a point.
The x-coordinate of the centroid =
=
= 50 cm
Graph 1
from the equation
Hence a graph of T 2 against l is a straight line, passing through the origin, and gradient,
Maximum gradient,
Minimum gradient,
Absolute Uncertainty in the gradient,
Fractional Uncertainty in the gradient