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MetalForging

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FORGING
PROCESSES
DropForgingHammers
HydraulicAndMechanicalPresses
HeadingOrUpsetForging
MetalPiercing
MetalSizing
RollForging
SwagingOrRadialForging
MetalHobbing
MetalBallForging
OrbitalForging
RingForging
Riveting
MetalCoining
IsothermalForging
TrimmingOfForgedParts
HighEnergyRateForging

MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES
MetalCasting
MetalForming
MetalRolling
MetalExtrusion
MetalDrawing
SheetMetal
PowderProcesses

MetalForging

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CONTENTS
HotVs.ColdForging
ProcessClassification
OpenDieForging
Cogging
Fullering
Edging
ImpressionDieForging
PrecisionForging
FlashlessForging
MetalForgeability

MetalForgingDefects
Lubrication
ForgingDieMaterial
ForgingDieDesign
FormationOfFlash
RibsAndWebs
FilletRadius
DraftAngleInForgingDie
PartingLineLocation
MetalForgingProcessDesign

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Metalforgingisametalformingprocessthatinvolvesapplyingcompressiveforcestoawork
piecetodeformit,andcreateadesiredgeometricchangetothematerial.Theforgingprocess
isveryimportantinindustrialmetalmanufacture,particularlyintheextensiveironandsteel
manufacturingindustry.Asteelforgeisoftenasourceofgreatoutputandproductivity.Work
stockisinputtotheforge,itmayberolled,itmayalsocomedirectlyfromcastingotsor
continuouscastings.Theforgewillthenmanufacturesteelforgingsofdesiredgeometryand
specificmaterialproperties.Thesematerialpropertiesareoftengreatlyimproved.
Metalforgingisknowntoproducesomeofthestrongestmanufacturedpartscomparedto
othermetalmanufacturingprocesses,andobviously,isnotjustlimitedtoironandsteel
forgingbuttoothermetalsaswell.Differenttypesofmetalswillhaveadifferentfactors
involvedwhenforgingthem,somewillbeeasiertoforgethanothers.Varioustestsare
describedlattertodetermineforgingprocessfactorsfordifferentmaterials.Aluminum,
magnesium,copper,titanium,andnickelalloysarealsocommonlyforgedmetals.Itis
importanttounderstandtheprinciplesofmanufacturingforgedproducts,includingdifferent
techniquesandbasicmetalforgingdesign.Thefollowingwillprovideacomprehensive
overviewofthemetalforgingprocess.
Metalforging,specifically,canstrengthenthematerialbysealingcracksandclosingempty
spaceswithinthemetal.Thehotforgingprocesswillhighlyreduceoreliminateinclusionsin
theforgedpartbybreakingupimpuritiesandredistributingtheirmaterialthroughoutthe
metalwork.However,controllingthebulkofimpuritiesinthemetalshouldbea
considerationoftheearliercastingprocess.Inclusionscancausestresspointsinthe
manufacturedproduct,somethingtobeavoided.Forgingametalwillalsoalterthemetal's
grainstructurewithrespecttotheflowofthematerialduringitsdeformation,andlikeother
formingprocesses,canbeusedtocreatefavorablegrainstructureinamaterialgreatly
increasingthestrengthofforgedparts.Forthesereasons,metalforgingmanufacturegives
distinctadvantagesinthemechanicalpropertiesofworkproduced,overthatofparts
manufacturedbyotherprocessessuchasonlycastingormachining.
Metalforgingscanbesmallparts,orweighasmuchas700,000lbs.Productsmanufactured
byforginginmodernindustryincludecriticalaircraftpartssuchaslandinggear,shaftsforjet
enginesandturbines,structuralcomponentsfortransportationequipmentsuchasautomobiles
andrailroads,crankshafts,levers,gears,connectingrods,handtoolssuchaschisels,rivets,
screws,andboltstonameafew.Themanufactureofforgingdieandtheotherhighcostsof
settingupanoperationmaketheproductionofsmallquantitiesofforgedpartsexpensiveona
priceperunitbasis.Oncesetup,however,operationcostsforforgingmanufacturecanbe
relativelylow,andmanypartsoftheprocessmaybeautomated.Thesefactorsmake
manufacturinglargequantitiesofmetalforgingseconomicallybeneficial.

Figure:154

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HotDieVs.ColdDieForging
Mostmetalforgingoperationsarecarriedouthot,duetotheneedtoproducelargeamountsof
plasticdeformationinthepart,andtheadvantageofanincreasedductilityandreduced
strengthoftheworkmaterial.Hotdieforgingalsoeliminatestheproblemofstrainhardening
themetal.Incaseswhereitisdesirabletocreateafavorablestrainhardeningofthepart,cold
dieforgingmaybeemployed.Colddieforgingmanufacture,whilerequiringhigherforces,
willalsoproducegreatersurfacefinishanddimensionalaccuracythanhotdieforging.Some
specificmetalforgingprocessesarealwaysperformedcold,suchascoining.

ClassificationOfMetalForgingProcesses
Metalforgingprocessescanbeclassifiedbythedegreetowhichtheflowofmaterialis
constrainedduringtheprocess.Therearethreemajorclassificationsinmetalforging
manufacture.First,opendieforging,inwhichtheworkiscompressedbetweentwodiethat
donotconstrainthemetalduringtheprocess.Secondly,impressiondieforging,inwhich
cavitieswithinthedierestrictmetalflowduringthecompressionofthepart,causingthe
materialtodeformintoadesiredgeometricshape.Somematerialinimpressiondieforgingis
notconstrainedbythecavitiesandflowsoutwardfromthedie,thismetaliscalledflash.In
industrialmetalforging,asubsequenttrimmingoperationwillbeperformedtoremovethe
flash.Thethirdtypeofmetalforgingisflashlessforging.Inflashlessforgingmanufacture
theentireworkpieceiscontainedwithinthedieinsuchawaythatnometalcanflowoutof
thediecavityduringthecompressionofthepart,hencenoflashisproduced.

OpenDieForging
Themanufacturingprocessofmetalforginghasbeenperformedforatleast7,000years,
perhapseven10,000years.Themostbasictypeofforgingwouldhavebeenshapingsome
metalbystrikingitwitharock.Lattertheemploymentofdifferentmaterials,suchasbronze
thenironandsteel,andtheneedforforgedmetalproductssuchasswordsandarmor,ledway
totheartofblacksmithingorblacksmithforging.Blacksmithingisanopendieforging
processwherethehammerandanvilsurfacesserveasopposingflatdie.Bronzeforgings,
followedbyironandsteelforgings,marksomeofman'searliermanufacturingprowess.
Asimpletypeofopendieforgingiscalledupsetting.Inanupsettingprocesstheworkis
placedbetweentwoflatdieanditsheightisdecreasedbycompressiveforcesexertedbetween
thetwodie.Sincethevolumeofametalwillremainconstantthroughoutitsdeformation,a
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reductioninheightwillbeaccompaniedbyanincreaseinwidth.Figure155showsaflatdie
upsettingprocess,underidealconditions.

Figure:155

Inrealconditionsduringindustrialmanufacturing,frictionplaysapartintheprocess.Friction
forcesatthedieworkinterfaceopposethespreadingofthematerialnearthesurfaces,while
thematerialinthecentercanexpandmoreeasily.Theresultistocreateabarrelshapetothe
part.Thiseffectiscalledbarrelingininmetalforgingterms.Barrelingisgenerally
undesirableandcanbecontrolledbytheuseofeffectivelubrication.Anotherconsideration,
duringhotforgingmanufacture,thatwouldacttoincreasethebarrelingeffectwouldbethe
heattransferbetweenthehotmetalandthecoolerdie.Themetalnearertothediesurfaces
willcoolfasterthanthemetaltowardsthecenterofthepart.Thecoolermaterialismore
resistanttodeformationandwillexpandlessthanthehottermaterialinthecenter,also
causingabarrelingeffect.

Figure:156

Anothercommonopendieforgingprocessperformedinindustrialmetalforgingmanufacture,
involvesusingflatdietoroundaningot.Withtheuseofmechanicalmanipulators,awork
pieceiscompressedandrotatedinaseriesofstepseventuallyformingthemetalintoa
cylindricalpart.Thecompressionsaffectthematerialoftheforging,closingupholesand
gaps,breakingdownandreformingweakgrainboundaries,andcreatingawroughtgrain
structure.Asthisopendieforgingprocessprogressesthematerialofthepartwillbealtered
fromtheoutsidefirst,progressinginward.Itisimportantthatwhenmanufacturingametal
forgingbythisprocess,thepartisworkedsignificantlyenoughtochangethestructureofthe
materialinthecenteroftheworkpiece.Largeshaftsformotorsandturbinesareforgedthis
wayfromcastingots.
Cogging,ordrawingout,isoftenusedinmanufacturingindustry.Coggingisanopendie
forgingprocessinwhichflatorslightlycontoureddieareemployedtocompressawork
piece,reducingitsthicknessandincreasingitslength.Inacoggingoperation,theforgingis
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largerelativetothesizeofthedie.Thepartisforgedinaseriesofsteps.Aftereach
compressionofthematerial,theopendieadvancealongthelengthoftheworkpieceand
performanotherforgingcompression.Thedistancethedietravelforwardontheworkpiece
betweeneachforgingstepiscalledthebite,andisusuallyabout40to75percentofthewidth
ofthedie,inindustrialpractice.Agreaterreductioninthethicknessoftheforgedpartcanbe
accomplishedbydecreasingthewidthofthebite.Coggingallowsforsmallermachinerywith
lesspowerandforcestoformworkofgreatlength.Oftenincommercialmanufactureofmetal
products,coggingmaybejustonemetalforgingprocessinaseriesofmetalforgingprocesses
requiredtoformadesiredpart.Sometimesformedproductssuchasmetalfencesmaybe
produceddirectlyfromcogging.

Figure:157

Atypicalopendieforgingprocessperformedinmetalforgingmanufactureisfullering.
Fulleringismostlyusedasanearliersteptohelpdistributethematerialoftheworkin
preparationforfurthermetalforgingoperations.Thisoftenoccurswhenamanufacturing
processrequiresseveralforgingoperationstocomplete.Themetalforgingprocessdesign
sectionwilldiscussthisconceptlater.Infullering,opendiewithconvexsurfacesareusedto
deformtheworkpiece.Theresultistocausemetaltoflowoutofoneareaandtobothsides.

Figure:158

Edgingisalsoanopendieforgingprocessoftenusedinmanufacturingpractice,topreparea
workforsequentialmetalforgingprocesses.Inedging,opendiewithconcavesurfaces
plasticallydeformtheworkmaterial.Edgingactstocausemetaltoflowintoanareafrom
bothsides.Edgingandfulleringbothareusedtoredistributebulkquantitiesofthemetal
forging'smaterial.

Figure:159

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ImpressionDieForging
Impressiondieforgingmanufactureinvolvescompressionofaworkpiecebytheuseof
impressiondie,(amold),thatcontaincavitiesthatacttorestricttheflowofmetalwithinthe
dieduringthedeformationofthework.Themetalwillfillthespacewithinthediecavityasit
isplasticallycompressedintothemold.Closingofthemoldcompletesthedeformation,hence
impressiondieforgingisalsoreferredtoascloseddieforging.Theforgedmetalpartwillnow
havethegeometricdimensionsofthemold,providedacompletefillingofthediecavity
occurredduringtheprocess.Theoperationofforcingmetaltoflowintoandfillthe
impressionsinthediewillalsoalterthegrainstructureofthemetal.Thecreationoffavorable
grainstructurethroughcontrolledmaterialdeformationshouldalwaysbeaconsiderationin
thedesignofanimpressiondieforgingprocess.
Onecharacteristicofimpressiondieforgingmanufactureistheformationofflashorfin
aroundtheforgedpart.Duringthedesignofthemetalforgingoperation,thevolumeofthe
startingworkpieceismadeslightlyhigherthanthatofthecloseddiecavity.Asthedieclose,
andtheworkmetalflowsintoandfillsthecontoursoftheimpression,someexcessmaterial
willflowoutofthedieandintotheareabetweenthetwodie.Thiswillformathinplaneof
metalallaroundtheworkatthepartingline,(wherethetwodiemeetwhentheyclose),ofthe
forgedproduct.Flashistrimmedfromtheforginginalatterprocess.

Figure:160

PrecisionForging
Moderntechnologicaladvancesinthemetalforgingprocessandinthedesignofdie,have
allowedforthedevelopmentofprecisionforging.Precisionforgingmayproducesomeorno
flashandtheforgedmetalpartwillbeatornearitsfinaldimensions,requiringlittleorno
finishing.Thenumberofmanufacturingoperationsisreducedaswellasthematerialwasted.
Inaddition,precisionforgingcanmanufacturemorecomplexpartswiththinnersections,
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reduceddraftangles,andclosertolerances.Thedisadvantagesoftheseadvancedforging
methodsarethatspecialmachineryanddieareneeded,alsomorecarefulcontrolofthe
manufacturingprocessisrequired.Inprecisionforging,theamountofmaterialinthework,as
wellastheflowofthatmaterialthroughthemoldmustbeaccuratelydetermined.Other
factorsintheprocesssuchasthepositioningoftheworkpieceinthecavitymustalsobe
performedprecisely.

FlashlessForging
Flashlessforgingisatypeofprecisionforgingprocessinwhichtheentirevolumeofthework
metaliscontainedwithinthedieandnomaterialisallowedtoescapeduringtheoperation.
Sincenomaterialcanleavethemoldasthepartisforged,noflashisformed.Likeother
precisionforgingprocesses,flashlessforginghasrigorousprocesscontroldemands,
particularlyintheamountofmaterialtobeusedintheworkpiece.Toolittlematerialandthe
diewillnotfillcompletely,toomuchmaterialwillcauseadangerousbuildupofforces.

Figure:161

MetalForgeability
Metalselectionmustbeconsideredcarefullyinforgingmanufacture.Theabilityofametalto
experiencedeformationwithoutfailureorcrackingisanimportantcharacteristictoconsider
initsselectionasamaterialforaforgingprocess.Inmetalforgingindustry,severaltestshave
beendevelopedtotryandquantifythisability.Theamountofdeformationaparticularmetal
cantoleratewithoutfailureisdirectlyrelatedtothatmetal'sforgeability.Thehigherthe
amountofdeformation,thehighertheforgeability.
Onepopulartestinvolvescompressingacylindricalworkstockbetweentwoflatdie.Thisis
calledupsettingthework,thusthistestiscalledtheupsettingtest.Inanupsettingtest,the
workstockiscompressedbyflatopendie,reducingtheworkinheightuntilcracksform.The
amountofreductioncanbeconsideredameasurementofforgeability.Upsettingtestscanbe
performedatdifferenttemperaturesanddifferentcompressionspeeds.Testingvarious
temperaturesandstrainrateswillhelpdeterminethebestconditionsfortheforgingofa
particularmetal.
Anothercommontestusedinmodernindustryiscalledthehottwisttest.Inahottwisttest,a
roundbaristwistedinonedirectionuntilmaterialfailureoccurs.Theamountofrotationis
takenasaquantitativemeasurementofmetalforgeability.Thistestisoftenconductedona
materialatseveraldifferenttemperatures.Othertestsarealsousedinindustrialmetalforging
manufacture.Impacttestingissometimesusedtogaugetheforgeabilityofamaterial.Cracks
inthemetalarethecommoncriteriaforfailureformosttests,however,forgeabilitytestscan
alsodetermineothernegativeeffectsthatamaterialmayexhibitunderdifferentconditionsof
stress,strainrate,andtemperature.

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DefectsInMetalForging
Inspectionisanimportantaspectofmetalforgingmanufacture.Allpartsshouldbechecked
fordefectsafterthemanufacturingprocessiscomplete.Defectsofmetalforgedproduct
includeexteriorcracking,interiorcracking,laps,coldshuts,warpingofthepart,improperly
formedsectionsanddeadzones.Crackingbothinteriorandexterioriscausedbyexcessive
stress,orimproperstressdistributionasthepartisbeingformed.Crackingofaforgingcanbe
theresultofpoorlydesignedforgingdieorexcessmaterialintheworkpiece.Crackscanalso
becausedbydisproportionatetemperaturedistributionsduringthemanufacturingoperation.
Highthermalgradientscancausecracksinaforgedpart.
Lapsorfoldsinametalforgingarecausedbyabucklingofthepart,lapscanbearesultof
toolittlematerialintheworkpiece.Coldshutsoccurwhenmetalflowsofdifferent
temperaturesmeet,theydonotcombinesmoothly,aboundarylayer,(coldshut),formsat
theirintersection.Coldshutsindicatethatthereisaproblemwithmetalflowinthemoldas
thepartisbeingformed.Warpingofaforgedpartcanhappenwhenthinnersectionscool
fasterthantherestoftheforging.Improperlyformedsectionsanddeadzonescanbearesult
oftoolittlemetalintheworkpieceorflawedforgingdiedesignresultinginincorrectmaterial
distributionduringtheprocess.
Ingeneral,defectsinpartsmanufacturedbymetalforgingcanbecontrolledfirstbycareful
considerationofworkstockvolume,andbygooddesignofboththeforgingdie,(mold),and
theprocess.Themainprincipleistoenacttherightmaterialdistributions,andtheright
materialflowtoaccomplishthesedistributions.Diecavitygeometryandcornerradiusplaya
largerollintheactionofthemetal.Forgingdiedesign,andforgingprocessdesignwillbe
discussedinlatersections.

LubricationInIndustrialMetalForging
Manufacture
Frictionalforceswithinthemold,betweentheworkandthesurfacesofthediecavity,havea
largeinfluenceovertheflowofmaterialinametalforgingoperation.Lubricantsareusedin
industrialmetalforgingproductioninordertolowerfrictionalforces,andenactasmoother
flowofmetalthroughthemold.Inaddition,theyareusedtoslowthecoolingoftheworkand
reducetemperaturegradients,inhotforgingmanufacture,servingasathermalbarrierbetween
themetalworkandthedie.Lubricantsalsohelpkeepthemetalanddiesurfacesfromsticking
togetherandassistintheremovalofthemetalforgingfromthedie.Commonlubricantsused
inmodernforgingindustryinclude,water,mineraloil,soap,sawdust,graphite,molybdenum
disulfide,andliquidglass.

ForgingDieMaterial
Theexactmaterialusedtomakeaforgingdie,(mold),isdependantuponallthedetailsofthat
particularmetalforgingprocess.Ingeneral,aforgingdiemustbetough,possesshighstrength
andhardnessatelevatedtemperatures,goodshockresistance,resistancetothermalgradients,
hardenabilityandabilitytowithstandabrasivewear.Duringthemanufactureofahotforged
part,theforgingdieisusuallypreheatedbeforetheoperationbegins.Preheatingforgingdie
reducesthermalcyclingthatcancausecracksinthedie.
Metalforgingdiearehardenedandtempered.Forgingdiedimensionsmustaccountfor
shrinkageofthework,aswellasextramaterialallowancesforthefinishingofthepart.The
abrasivewearpresentinhotforgingoperationsisduelargelytothescaleontheworkstock.
Muchofthescalecanberemovedfromtheblankimmediatelyafterheatinginthefurnace,
priortotheforgingofthepart.Adequatelubricationcanalsogreatlymitigatewear.
Sometimesaforgingdiemaybeassembledusingdifferentdiesections.Thesesections,called
dieinserts,aremanufacturedseparatelyandmaybeofdifferentmaterials.Complexcavities
canbeproducedeasierwithdieinserts,alsodifferentsectionsoftheforgingdiecanbe
individuallyreplaced.
Somefactorstoconsiderwhendeterminingthematerialcompositionofaforgingdieare,type
ofoperation,numberofdieforgings,sizeofforgedparts,complexityofforgedparts,typeof
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machinerytobeused,temperaturethatthemetalwillbeforgedat,andthecostofmaterials.
Forgingdiearemadefromtoolsteelsthat,dependinguponprocesscriteria,arealloyedwith
variouslevelsofoneormoreofthesematerials,chromium,molybdenum,vanadium,and
nickel.Dieblocksarecastfromthealloy,forgedthemselves,thenmachined,andfinished.

ForgingDieDesign
Forgingdiedesignwillalwaysdependonthefactorsandrequirementsofthemanufacturing
process.However,therearesomegeneralprinciplestoconsiderforgoodforgingdiedesign.
Duringtheforgingprocessmetalisflowingunderpressuretofilltheimpressionwithinthe
diecavity,(mold).Similartothemetalcastingprocessofdiecasting,inmetalforging,an
increaseinpressureonthemetalwithinthediewillincreasetheabilitytofillthediecavity
completely.Onemaindifferencebetweentheprocessesisthatindiecastingthemetalis
liquid,whileinforgingtheworkisasolidmetalaboveorbelowitsrecrystallization
temperature.Smaller,thinner,longer,andmorecomplexsectionscanbeproducedwithmore
pressure,buttoomuchpressurewithinthediecavityisbadbecauseitcandamagethedieand
machinery.
Theformationofmetalflashisanimportantpartofimpressiondieforgingmanufacture.First,
flashprovidesawayforexcessmaterialfromtheworkstocktoexittheforgingdie.Ifthis
materialcouldnotescapeduringthecompressionthebuildupofpressure,asthevolumeof
workmetalexceededthevolumeofthediecavity,couldeasilycrackthedie.Flash,while
allowingmaterialtoescape,doesincreasethepressurewithinthediecavity.Flashmusttravel
throughanarrowpassage,calledland,beforeitopensupintoagutter.
Asitflowsthroughland,thefrictionbetweenthemetalflashandthematingsurfacesresists
furtherflowofmaterialoutofthediecavity,increasingpressurewithintheforgingdie.In
addition,thecoolingoftheflashfromthematingsurfacesincreasesresistancetoflowof
materialoutofthedie,thusalsoincreasingpressurewithinthediecavity.Alongerlandwill
causethemetalflashtohavetoflowfurtherunderresistance,increasingthediepressure.
Decreasingthewidthoflandwillalsoincreasepressurewithintheforgingdiebyincreasing
thecoolingrateoftheflash,asthetemperaturegoesdownthemetal'sresistancetoflowgoes
up.Moreresistancetometalflowwillcauseathinnerlandtocreatehigherdiepressure.The
pressurewithintheforging'sdiecavityisoftencontrolledbyvaryingthewidthofland.

Figure:162

Oneofthemainprinciplestorememberwhendesigningaforgingdieforaspecific
manufacturingprocessisthatwhiledeformationofthemetalisoccurring,thematerialwill
tendtoflowinthedirectionofleastresistance.Propermetalflowwithinthedieisimportant
inensuringacompletefillingofthediecavity,preventingdefects,andincontrollingthegrain
structureoftheforgedpart.Frictioninthedieisanimportantconsiderationinmetalforging
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manufacture.Frictionwillacttoresistthemovementofthematerialandincreasetheforces
requiredtofillthediecavityduringtheprocess.Moreforces,inturn,meanmorestressand
wearonthemoldandequipment.
Anothercriticalfactorinthemovementofmaterialwithinthediecavityduringtheformingof
thepart,istheinteriorgeometryofthediecavity.Thesizeoftheforgedpart,workmaterial,
complexityoftheforgedpart,sizeandthicknessofdifferentpartfeatures,anddistance
differentareasarefromthepartingline,aresomeoftheimportantfactorsconcerningthe
structureoftheforgingdie.Basicallythinnermorecomplexfeatureswillbemoredifficultto
fillcompletely,aswouldareasfurtherfromthepartinglineoroutofthewayofthe
predominantflowofmetal.
Thinportionsofametalforgingarecalledribsandwebs.Aribisasectionthatruns
perpendiculartotheforgingplaneasdeterminedbythepartingline.Longnarrowribsare
hardertofillandrequiremoreforces,increasingthewidthofalongribwillbetterfacilitate
thefillingoftheribwithmaterialduringtheprocess.Awebisaportionofthemetalforging
thatrunsparalleltotheforgingplane.Thethicknessofwebscanbeminimizedasmuchas
practical.Whendesigningaforgingdie,webthicknessshouldnotbetoosmallorelsethere
maybetroublecompletelyfillingthewebwithmetal.Websthataretoothinmayalsocool
fasterthantherestofthemetalforging,theresultingshrinkagecouldcausetearsorwarping
ofthepart.

Figure:163

Astheworkmaterialfillsthediecavity,theflowofmetalwillhavetochangedirections
dependinguponthepart'sgeometry.Smooth,largefilletedturnswillallowthemetalflowto
changedirectionswhileadheringtothedie'sdimensions.Ifcornerswithinthemetalforging
aretoosharpthenthematerialmaynotcompletelyfollowthepathofthosecorners,resulting
invacancies,laps,orcoldshuts.Sharpcornerswillalsoactasstressraiserswithinthedie
cavity.Goodforgingdiedesignshouldprovideadequateenoughfilletandcornerradiusto
allowforeasymetalflow.

Figure:164

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Figure:165

Draftangle,inmetalmanufacturingprocesses,isthetaperaroundtheinternalandexternal
sidesofapart.Draftangleisnecessarytoincludeintheforgingdiedesigninordertoallow
theremovaloftheworkfromthedieaftertheparthasbeenforged.Thelargerthedraftangle,
thebetteritwillfacilitatethemetalforging'sremoval.Asthemetalforgingcools,itshrinks
awayfromtheoutersurfacesofthediecavity,thereforeexteriordraftanglesareusuallymade
smallerthaninteriorangles.
Ingeneral,easiertoforgemetals,suchasaluminumandmagnesium,requirelessdraftangles
thanhardertoforgematerials,suchassteel,nickel,andtitaniumalloys.Ofteninmetal
forgingoperations,thereisanejectortohelppushthepartfromthediecavity.However,
ejectorsarenotusedindropforging.Draftangleeffectsthecomplexityoftheforgingthat
maybeproduced.Thegreaterthedraftangle,themoreitlimitsmetalforgingcomplexity.
Someprecisionforgingoperationsproduceaforgedpartwithnodraftangle.Commondraft
anglesusedinmanufacturingindustryare3,5,7,and10degrees.

Figure:166

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Similartothepatterninmetalcasting,thesizeofthediecavityinmetalforgingmanufacture
shouldaccountforthesizeofthepart,shrinkageofthepartduringcooling,andallowances
formachiningandotherfinishingoperationsthatmayfollowthemetalforgingprocess.
Locationofthepartinglineisofprimaryimportanceinmetalforgingdiedesign.Theparting
line,whichdefinestheforgingplaneoftheoperation,isalargedeterminantinhowmetal
flowsthroughthedieduringtheforging'scompression.Thepartinglinedictateswhereflash
willbeformed,andeffectsthegrainstructureofthemanufacturedpart.Itiseasiertofill
sectionsclosertothepartinglinethanfurtheraway.Indeterminingapartinglinethe
maximumperipheryofthemetalforgingshouldbeconsidered.

Figure:167

Figure167showsametalforgingwiththreepossiblelocationsforapartingline.Thelocation
ofthepartinglineofCwillbetterfacilitatetheflowofmetalthroughthediecavity,since
unlikeAorB,locationCmakesuseofthemaximumperipheryoftheforging.Itiseasierto
fillmaterialneartheforgingplanethaninthefurtherrecessesofthediecavity.Inadditionto
beingamajorfactorintheflowofmetalduringtheforgingprocess,thelocationoftheparting
lineisalsocriticalintheformationofthegrainstructureoftheforgedwork.Thepartingline
actstodisruptthemetal'sgrainstructure.

Figure:168

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Figure168alsoshowsthreepossiblepartinglinelocationsforametalforging.Theplacement
ofthepartinglineinAandBactstodisruptthegrainstructureofthemetalattheplane
throughwhichitpasses.LocatingthepartinglineatthetopoftheforgingasinCeliminates
theruptureoftheforging'sgrainstructure.Alsothisparticularlocationofthepartinglinewill
allowfortheentireimpressiontobeformedinonedie,whiletheotherdiecanbeflat.Design
ofthedieasinCisbothmoreeconomicalandprovidessuperiorgrainstructureofthemetal
forging.

ForgingProcessDesign
Inmodernmanufacturingindustry,metalpartsofcomplexgeometryareoftenforged
completelywiththeneedforonlyminorfinishingoperations.Thesepartscannotbe
manufacturedwithasingleforging.Theworkstockistakenthroughaseriesofmetalforging
operationsthat,insteps,alterthegeometricshapeofthematerialuntilthefinalprocess
createsthedesiredforging.Inthesetypesofdesignsequenceseachoperationmustbeplanned
insuchawayastopreparetheworkpieceforthenextforgingprocess.Togethertheseriesof
metalforgingoperationsthatarerequiredtocreateapart,makealargersingleprocessand
eachindividualforgingoperationhasitsplacewithinthelargerprocess.
Whendesigningacomplexmetalforgingprocess,greatconsiderationshouldbetakenwith
eachstepandhowitrelatestothefinalproduct.Also,designthechosenpathforthe
redistributionoftheworkmaterialfromthestartoftheprocesstotheendofthelaststep,
concentratingonsmoothmetalflow.Forgingdesign,ingeneral,shouldfirstaccomplisha
roughredistributionofthematerial,thenthemoredetailedimpressiondieforgingoperations,
andfinallyfinishingoperations.Inadditiontoprovidingasmoothtransitionofmaterialthe
forgingprocesses,asawhole,shouldbedesignedtoproduceacontrolledgrainstructurein
thefinalproduct.Whenchoosingapathformaterialredistribution,ametalforgingdesign
shouldconsiderhowthisparticularmethodofmetaldeformationwilleffectandchangethe
grainstructureofthepart.Itisdesirablethatthefinalproductcontainafavorablegrain
orientationthroughoutthestructureofitsmaterial.Suchagrainstructureshouldstrengthen
thepart,particularlywithrespecttothatpart'sapplication.

Figure:169

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Opendieforgingoftenplaysarollintheearlystages,providingageneralmassredistribution
oftheworkmetal.Beforethemoredetailedimpressionforgingscanshapethework,metal
mustbeformedinsuchawayastoplacehigherconcentrationsofmaterialinregionsthatwill
requiremorematerial.Fulleringandedgingofthemetal,discussedintheopendieforging
section,areveryimportantopendieforgingprocessesusedtoaccomplisharoughtransferof
material.Fulleringandedgingwillsqueezemoremetalintosomeareasofthework,while
causingotherareastohavelessdependingontheneedsoftheprocess.Figure170showstwo
roughforms,onewassubjecttofulleringtheothertoedging,thenatureofthedifferent
processesshouldbeapparent.

Figure:170

Impressiondieforgingoccursaftertheroughformhasbeenshaped.Thiscloseddieforging
processwillcreatethegeometricfeaturesofthepartonthework.Theflowofmetalmustbe
carefullydesignedbothbeforeandduringthisphase.Finishingprocesses,suchassizing,
createlessbutveryaccurategeometricchangetotheforginginthefinalstagesofpart
manufacture.Figure171showsthedifferentstepsinthemetalforgingprocessusedto
manufactureacomplexpart.

Figure:171

Mostindustrialmetalforgingproductswillbeprocessedbyfurthermanufacturingoperations
thatwillimparthighertolerancesanddimensionalaccuracythanforgingmanufacturealone.
Theseoperations,(suchasmachining),althoughmoreaccuratethanforging,donotproduce
thestrongermaterialofforgedmetalwork.Bycombiningdifferenttypesofprocessessuchas
machiningandmetalforging,amanufacturercanutilizethebenefitsofbothprocesses,
creatingveryaccurateparts,goodsurfacefinishandsuperiormechanicalproperties.

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