MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

PHYSICS - I A

MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

CHAPTER

Chandrashekhara Venkata Raman was born on November 7, 1888.

He carried out his experimental research in the laboratory of Indian
Association for the Cultivation of Science at Calcutta with Burning
Desire. He carried out research in acoustics and optics. On February
28, 1928, through his experiments on the scattering of light, he
discovered the Raman effect. He was the first Asian and first nonWhite to receive any Nobel Prize in the sciences. In 1941 he was
awarded the Franklin Medal. In 1954 he was awarded the Bharat
Ratna. He retired from the Indian Institute in 1948 and a year later he
established the Raman Research Institute in Bangalore, where he
worked till his death.

C.V. Raman
1888-1970

Accuracy and Precision

Methods to minimise Errors

Types of Errors

Significant Figures

2.1 I NTRODUCTI ON
We can say that we know about a physical
quantity only if we are able to measure it.
Measurement is comparison of a physical quantity
with a standard reference of same physical quantity. In
every measurement final result is a number followed
by a unit. For example length of a black board is
2.5metre .
Here metre is the unit and 2.5 is numerical value,
that is length of the black board is expressed as 2.5
times the unit of length. An accurate measurement
of physical quantities plays a very important role in
the world of science.
However inspite of great technological
advancement and sophistication in the developement
of instrumentation, no measurement can be free from
errors. Errors may be because of several reasons
both controlable and uncontrolable.
Hence a knowledge of errors is essential to
interpret the results and evaluate the measurements
on a scientific basis.
2.2. ERROR
Er r or is the amount of uncer tainity that is
pr esent i n t he measur ement made wit h a
measur ing instr ument.
It is the difference between the measured value
and the true value.
2.3. TRUE VAL UE
We can never determine exactly the real or true
value of a physical quantity due to the presence of
AKASH MULTIMEDIA

error. To minimize the errors we repeat the

observations a large number of times and take the
arithmetic mean of all the readings.
The ar ithmetic mean of a lar ge number of
repeated measurements is taken as the tr ue value
or actual value.
2.4. ARI THM ETI C M EAN
If X1, X2. . . . . . . . . XNare the results of an
experiment repeated N times, the arithmetic mean
x is given by
x x ............ x n x i
x 1 2

n
n
Arithmetic mean is the best value of x that can
be obtained from the N measurements. This is 'true'
when N is very large.
2.5. ACCURACY AND PRECI SI ON
Accur acy is a measure of the closeness of the
measur ed value to the tr ue value.
Smaller the uncertainty in the measured value,
greater is its accuracy.
Pr ecision r efer s to the agr eement among a
gr oup of measur ed values.
It does not imply anything about their relation
to the true value.
A precise value doesn't necessarily mean an
accurate value.
Eliminating systematic error improves accuracy
Repeating the experiment number of times
improves precision
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PHYSICS - I A

No measurement can be made with complete

'accuracy.' For this , it must be shown by a value
with infinite number of decimal places.
Example :
The length of a str aight line is measur ed a
number of times by a number of obser ver s. The
following are ther esults of these measur ements.
Actual length = 3.785 cm 0.001cm
1st set of measurements 3.8 cm, 3.9cm, 3.7cm
2nd set of measurements 3.478 cm, 3.479 cm,
3.478 cm, 3.478 cm, 3.479 cm
3rd set of measurements 3.55 cm, 3.65 cm,
3.45 cm, 3.35cm
4th set of measurements 3.784 cm,3.785 cm,
3.784 cm, 3.785 cm, 3.784cm
First set of measurements are accurate because
it is closest to the actual value but not precise.
Second set of measurements are not accurate
but it is most precise because the readings are
reproducible.
Third set of measurements are neither accurate
nor precise.
Fourth set of measurements are accurate as
well as precise.
2.6 CL ASSI FI CATI ON OF ERRORS
Errors creep in the observed or calculated values
due to various reasons. They are categorized under
two heads.
(a) Systematic errors
(b) Random errors
2.7. SYSTEM ATI C ERRORS
Err or that is allways unidir ectional is called
systematic er ror
If some error is occurring in the positive
direction only (or in the negative direction only) all
the time, it is systematic error.
Example :
If measured value is allways 2 units more than
true value it is systematic error. (positive)
If measured value is allways 3 units less than
true value it is systematic error. (negative)
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MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

i) I nstr umental er r or s : These ar e inher ent

er r or s of the appar atus and t he measur ing
instur ements used.
Example :
Zero-error of a measuring instrument. If a scale
is worn off at the starting end upto 0.3cm reading
and we do not notice it and treat it as zero, then every
length we measure will be always 0.3cm more than
the true value.
The instrumental error can be detected by
interchanging two similar instruments or by using
different methods for measuring the same physical
quantity.
ii) Constant err ors : When the result of a ser ies
of measur ements ar e in er r or by t he same
amount, such an er ror is called constant er ror.
These are also instrumental errors. Zero error is
a constant error.
iii) Environmental er ror s : These arise due to
external conditoins, that is, due to changes in the
evnironment. During the experimnetal measurement
there maybe changes in external conditions i.e.,
changes in temperature, pressure, humidity, wind
velocity etc. For example if a metal scale is calibrated
in winter and is used in summer as it expands in
summer the measured values will be less than true
values.
iv) Per sonal er r or s : These are entirely due to the
personal pecularities of the experimenter. Individual
bias, lack of proper setting of the apparaturs,
carelessness in taking observations (without taking
the required necesary precautions.) etc. are the causes
for this type of error. A perosn may be habituated to
hold his eyes (head) always a bit too far to the right
(or left) while taking the reading with a scale. This
will give rise to parallax error.
If a person keeps his eye-level below the level
of mercury in a barometer all the time, his readings
will have systematic error.
These errors can be mimimized by obtaining
several readings carefully and then taking their
arithmetical mean.
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MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

v) I mper fection in exper imental technique or

pr ocedur e : Sometimes, even when we know the
nature of the error, it cannot be eliminated due to
imperfection in experimental arrangement. For
example, in calorimetry, loss of heat due to radiation,
the effect on weighing due to buoyancy of air, etc.
These errors will always exist.
2.8. M I NI M I SATI ON OF SYSTEM ATI C
ERRORS
We can minimise systematic errors.
1) by selecting better instruments with higher
resolution.
2) by taking care to avoid personal bias.
3) by improving the experimental technique.
2.9. RANDOM ERRORS
The er r or s which ar e ir r egular whose cause
is not known, and r andom in nature in their sign
and size ar e called r andom er r or s
Unlike systematic errors these errors are at
random with respect to the sign and magnitude. They
occur irregularly - some times increasing, some times
decreasing with changing magnitudes.
These errors arise due to the random fluctuations in
experimental conditions that cannot be predicted. For
example, the random fluctuations in temperature,
voltage supply and mechanicl vibrations of
experimental sep up etc. are the causes for radnom
errors.
The diameter of a wire may be varying from
position to position along its length due to non
uniform cross section.
Hence we get random errors in the measurement
of diameter. At some places the value will be more,
at some places less with different magnitudes.
The uneven tightening of the screw in a screw
gauge at different places of a wire of uniform cross
section also results in random errors .
Thus, even when the same person repeats the same
observation, he may get different reading each time.
Example:Suppose true length of a body is 2.5cm
Same person measures it three times as
2.3cm, 2.7cm, 2.9cm, then the errors are
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PHYSICS - I A

0.2cm, +0.2cm, +0.4cm respectively

Random errors are also called indeterminate
errors.
Random errors can not be eliminated but can
be minimized by increasing the number of
observations.
The total random errors are determined by
statistical methods.
Random er r or s can not be minimized by
taking pr ecautions.
Note : Allmost all measurements contain both
systematic and random errors.
2.10. GROSS ERRORS
The gross errors are the result of sheer
carelessness on the part of the observer.
Causes for gross error are (a) neglect of the
sources of error and (b) reading the instrument
incorrectly.
Example :
1) In a tangent galvanometer experiment, the
coil is to be placed exactly in the magnetic meridian
and care should be taken so that no other magnetic
materials are present in the vicinity.
2) In the measurement of length of a pendulum
the obserever may read it as 52.4cm but may record
it as 25.4cm. This is gross error due to careless
recording.
No corrections can be applied to these gross
errors.Taking all precautions that are required, we
can minimize gross errors.
2.11. TYPES OF ERRORS
QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
The same error can be expressed in different
ways as an absolute error, a relative error or a
percentage error.
Er r or ( a): Difference between measur ed value
and actual value (or tr ue value) is called er r or
a = measured value actual value.
So it can be +ve or ve.
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MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

PHYSICS - I A

Example :
Suppose tr ue length of a body is 2.5cm
If it is measured as 2.7cm, then the error is +0.2cm
If it is measured as 2.2cm, then the error is -0.3cm
Absolute er r or (| a|) : The magnitude of the
difference between the tr ue value of the measured
physical quantity and the value of individual
measur ement is called the absolute er r or of that
measurement.
If amean = actual vale, and ai = ith observed value,
then the absolute error ( a ) in the ith observed value
is defined as : ai = ai amean
Absolute error is allways positive and has same
units as that of the quantity being measured
M ean absolute er r or ( amean)

Absolute error amean

= a
Actual value
mean
Relative error is a pure number having no units.

Relative error =

Per centage er r or = Relative er r or x 100

a
mean 100
amean
Problem : 2.1
In an experiment, the values of refractive index of glass
were found to be 1.54, 1.53, 1.44, 1.54, 1.56 and 1.45
in successive measurements. Calculate (i) Mean value
of refractive index of glass (ii) Absolute error in each
measurement (iii) Mean absolute error (iv) relative error
and (v) Percentage error.
Sol. (i) Mean value of refractive index,
mmean

1.54 1.53 1.44 1.54 1.56 1.45

1.51
6

(ii) Taking mmean as the true value, the errors in the six
measurements are

The ar ithmetic mean of all the absolute

er r or s is consider ed as the mean absolute er r or
or final absoluteerr or of the value of the physical
quantity concer ned.

1.54 1.51 = +0.03; 1.53 1.51 = +0.02;

Suppose a1 ,a2,a3,...an are measured values of a

quantity and their mean value is amean

The absolute errors are

Each individual observed value has an error

attached with it, as follows.
a1 = a1 amean

and 1.45 1.51 = 0.06

0.03, 0.02, 0.07, 0.03, 0.05 and 0.06
(iii) Mean absolute error in the value of m is
m m ean

0.03 0.02 0.07 0.03 0.05 0.06

6

0.26
0.04
6
(iv) Relative error in the valiue of m ,
mmean 0.04

0.02649 0.03
mmean
1.51
(v) Percentage error in the value of
m = 0.03 100 = 3%

a3 = a3 amean
an = an amean
n

i 1

a i
n

So we write actual value, a = amean amean.

Relative er ror.
The r elative (or pr opor tional) er r or of a
measur ed physical quantity is the r atio of the
mean absolute er r or ( amean ) to the mean value
( amean ) of the quantity measur ed.

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1.54 1.51 = + 0.03; 1.56 1.51 = + 0.05

a2 = a2 amean

amean =

1.44 1.51 = 0.07

Problem : 2.2
Readings of length of a pole are 2.63 m, 2.56 m, 2.42
m, 2.71 m and 2.80 m. Calculate the absolute errors
and relative errors and percentage errors. What do
you think of the actual value of the length and its
limits?
Sol. The mean value of length
(2.63 2.56 2.42 2.71 2.80)m
5
13.12
=
m = 2.624m = 2.62m
5

L=

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MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

PHYSICS - I A

As the lengths are measured to a resolution of

0.01m, all lengths are given to the second place of
decimal, it is proper to round off this mean length
also to the second place of decimal.

This means that the length is (2.62 0.11m)

i.e., it lies between (2.62 + 0.11 m) and (2.62
0.11m)
i.e., between 2.73 m and 2.51 m.

In the first measurement

2.11. COMBI NATI ON OR PROPAGATION OF

ERRORS

Error = a1 = 2.63m 2.62m = + 0.01m

Absolute error = 0.01m
Relative error = 0.01/2.62 =0.0038
Percentage error = relative error x 100 = 0.38
In the second measurement
Error = a2 = 2.56m 2.62m = 0.06m
Absolute error = 0.06m
Relative error = 0.06/2.62 =0.023
Percentage error = relative error x 100 = 2.3
In the third measurement

Suppose we want to calculate acceleration due

2 L
to gravity using the formula, g = 4 2
T
We can measure length L using scale and we
can measure timeperiod T using clock.
There may be errors in all measuring
instruments and measurements.
We should know the errors in individul
measurements of length(L) and time (T) , then combine
them to find the error in the calculation of ' g '.

Error = a3 = 2.42m 2.62m = 0.2m

Absolute error = 0.2m

So we must know how errors combine(or

propagate) in addition,subtraction, multiplication and
division.

Relative error = 0.2/2.62 =0.076

i)

Percentage error = relative error x 100 = 7.6

Suppose a physical quantity Z is sum of the

physical quantities X and Y

In the fourth measurement

Error = a4 = 2.71m 2.62m = +0.09m
Absolute error = 0.09m
Relative error = 0.09/2.62 =0.034
Percentage error = relative error x 100 = 3.4
In the fifth measurement
Error = a5 = 2.80m 2.62m = +0.18m
Absolute error = 0.18m
Relative error = 0.18/2.62 =0.068
Percentage error = relative error x 100 = 6.8
Mean or final absolute error

15 a i
5
(0.01 0.06 0.20 0.09 0.18)m

5
= 0.54m/5 = 0.108 m = 0.11m

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Combination of er r or s in case of addition

Z = X+Y
Let X and Y be the respective absolute
errors in X and Y. Then the values of X and Y will
be X X and Y Y
Let the error in Z be Z
Since Z = X+Y
Z Z ( X X ) (Y Y )
Z Z ( X Y ) X Y

M aximum possible er r or in Z is

Z X Y

(If Z =X+Y then), Maximum possible error

= absolute error X +absolute errorY

X Y
Percentage error in Z =
100
X Y
ii) Combination of er r or s in case of subtr action
Suppose a physical quantity Z is difference of the
physical quantities X and Y
Z=XY
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MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

PHYSICS - I A

Let X and Y be the respective absolute

errors in X and Y. then the values of X and Y will
be X X and Y Y
Let the error in Z be Z
Since Z = X Y

Problem : 2.5
I f L = 2.01 m 0.01m, what is 3L ?
Sol. Here, we should equate 3L with

(L + L + L) to find out the absolute error in 3L.

Thus 3L = (3 2.01) m 3 0.01 m

Z Z (X X) (Y Y)

= 6.03 m 0.03m Ans.

Z Z (X Y) X Y

M aximum possible er r or in Z is Z X Y
(If Z =X-Y then), Maximum possible error
= absolute error X +absolute errorY

X Y
100
Percentage error in Z =
X Y
Note : In both addition and subtaction maximum
possible error = sum of absolute errors
Problem : 2.3
I f L = 2.06 cm 0.02 cm
B = 1.11 cm 0.03cm
What are (L + B) and (L B) equal to ?
Sol. L + B = 3.17 cm 0.05 cm

L B = 0.95 cm 0.05 cm
Please note that actual values i.e. 2.06 cm and 1.11 cm
are added in case of (L + B) and subtracted in case of
(L B), but absolute errors are added in both cases.
* Problem : 2.4
Two objects A and B are of lengths 5 cm and 7cm
determined with errors 0.1 cm and 0.2 cm respetively.
What is the error in determining (a) the total lenth and
(b) the difference in their lengths ?
Sol . a = 5cm, a = 0.1cm
b = 7 cm, b = 0.2cm

If x = a + b is the total length, then

x = a + b = 0.1 + 0.2 = 0.3 cm and x = ( 5+7) 0.3

= (12 0.3) cm.
If 'x' is the difference between the lengths,
then x = a + b = 0.3cm and

x 5 7 0.3 2 0.3 cm
Note : I f a ' constant' is multiplied with an obser ved/
measured value, the result will have its absolute err or
equal to 'constant' times the absolute er r or in the
obser ved / measur ed val ue. T hi s means, t he
percentage err or in the r esult will remain unchanged.

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Problem : 2.6
If L 1 = 2.02 m 0.01 m, L 2 = 1.02m 0.01 m, determine
L 1 + 2L 2
Sol. L1 + 2L2 = L1 + L2 + L2

= (2.02m0.1m) + (1.02m0.01m) + (1.02 m 0 .01m)

= 4.06 m 0.03 m

iii)
Combi nat i on of er r or s i n case of
multiplication
Suppose a physical quantity Z is the product of
the physical quantities X and Y
Z = XY
Let X and Y be the respective absolute
errors in X and Y. then the values of X and Y will be
X X and Y Y
Let the error in Z be Z
Z = XY
logZ = logX +logY
differentiating both sides
dZ dX dY

Z
X
Y
Z X Y

Maximum relative error

Z
X
Y
In multiplication (Z=XY), Maximum relative error

Z X Y

Z
X
Y

iv) Combination of er r or s in case of division

Suppose X,Y, Z are physical quantitie such that
X
Z
Y
Let X and Y be the respective absolute
errors in X and Y. then the values of X and Y will be
X X and Y Y
Let the error in Z be Z
X
Z
Y
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MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

logZ = logX logY

differentiating both sides
dZ dX dY

Z
X
Y
Z X Y

Maximum relative error

Z
X
Y
In division Z X Maximum relative error
Y

Z X Y

Z
X
Y

Note : Both in multiplication and division Maximum

r elative er r or in the result is the sum of the relative
errors of the quantities being multiplied or divided.
Similarly Both in multiplication and division
Maximum per centage error in the result is the sum
of the percentage errors of the quantities being
multiplied or divided.
* Problem : 2.7
The length and breadth of a rectangular object are
25.2 cm and 16.8cm respectively and have been
measured to an accuracy of 0.1cm. Find the relative
error and percentage error in the area of the object.
Sol. Area A = l b
l = 25.2 cm and l = 0.1cm
b = 16.8 cm and b = 0.1cm
A b
Relative error in area A b
0.1 0.1

25.2 16.8

= 0.004 + 0.006 = 0.01

A

100 0.01 100

A
Percentage error (a = 1%.
* Problem : 2.8
In an experiment to determine the value of acceleration
due to gravity g using a simple pendulum, the measured
value of length of the pendulum is 31.4cm known to 1
mm accuracy and the time period for 100 oscillations
of pendulum is 112.0s known to 0.01s accuracy. Find
the accuracy in determining the value of g.
Sol. (Accuracy is to be taken as the error involved)

l = 31.3 cm and l = 1mm = 0.1cm

112.0
= 1.12s and T = 0.01s
100
2
Formula for g is g 4 2
T

T=

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PHYSICS - I A
g
T
2
T
g
0.1
0.01
2
=
= 0.003 + 0.02 = 0.023
31.4
1.12

Relative error in determining g is 0.023 and percentage

error = 0.023 100 = 2.3%
Problem : 2.9
I f L = 20.04 m 0.01 m
B = 2.52 m 0.02 m
What are the values of (L B) and (L / B)?
Sol. Given errors are absolute errors, while the rule says that
percentage errors are to be added. Hence, the first step
will be to convert the given absolute errors into
percentage errors.
0.01
L = 20.04 m
100%
20.04
= 20.04 m 0.05%

B = 2.52 m

0.02
100%
2.52

= 2.52 m 0.79%
L B = (20.04 2.52)m2 (0.05 + 0.79)%
= 50.50 m2 0.84%
This is the result. However, since the data given in the
question was in terms of absolute errors, so we should
give our result also in absolute errors.
0 .8 4
L B = 50.50 m2
50.50m2
100
= 50.50 m2 0.42 m2 Ans.
Note : The result should be rounded to which place of decimal
is explained later in this chapter.
Similarly,
20.04 m
L
=
(0.05 + 0.79)%
2.52 m
B
0 .8 4
= 7.95 0.84% = 7.95
7.95
100
= 7.95 0.067.

v) Combination of er r or s in case of a quantity

r ised to differ ent power s
Suppose the physical quantity z depends on
the quantity x as z=kxn where k is a constant and n
is a real number
Let x and z be the respective absolute errors
in x and z.
Let z kx n
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MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

PHYSICS - I A

log z = log k + n log x

Differentiating both sides
z
x
n
z
x
If

Z kX n

Maximum relative error

Maximum error in the measurement of density

d
M
L
100 =
100 +3
100
d
M
L
= 3 + (3 2) = 3+ 6 = 9%
Z
X
n
Z
X

Percentages error in z = n times percentage error

in x
p

A .B
Cr
Where A, B, C and Z are variables, and p, q
and r are constants.

Similar ly Let Z =

log Z = p log A + q log B r log C

Differentiating both sides
dZ
dA
dB
dC
= p.
+ q.
r..
Z
A
B
C
Z
A
B C
p
q
r
Z
A
B
C
Maximum fractional error in Z is
Z
A
B
C
p
q
r
Z
A
B
C
Note : All quantities are positive
Maximum %error in Z =
p (%error in A) + q(%error in B)+ r(%error in C)
Problem : 2.10

Maximum error in the measurement of density = 9%

* Problem : 2.12
Error in the measurement of radius of a sphere is 1%.
Find the error in the measurement of volume.
r
100 =1%
Sol.
r
3
Volume of sphere V = r 3
4
Error in the measurement of volume
V
r
100 = 3
100 = 3 1 =3%
V
r
* Problem : 2.13
An experiment measures quantities a, b, c and then x is
ab2
calculated as x 3 . I f the percentage error in a, b,
c
c are 1% , 3% and 2% respectively, find the
maximum percentage error in x.
Sol. Here
a
b
c
100 = 1%,
100 = 3%,
100 = 2%
a
b
c
ab2
x= 3
c
Maximum percentage error in x is
x
a
b
c
100 =
100 + 2
100 + 3
100
x
a
b
c
= 1 + (2 3) + (3 2) = 13%

One side of a cube is measured as a = 4.03 1 %.

What is its volume ?
Sol. Volume = a3 = (4.03 m 1%)3

Maximum percentage error in x is 13%

= 4.033 m3 (3 1)%
= 65.45 m3 3 %

* Problem : 2.14
The percentage error in the mass and speed are 2%
and 3% respectively. How much will be the maximum
error in kinetic energy calculated using mass and velocity ?

* Problem : 2.11
We know that the density of a cube can be measured
by measuring its mass and length of its side. I f the
maximum errors in the measurement of mass and
length are 3% and 2% respectively, what is the
maximum error in the measurement of the density of
the cube ?
M
L
100 = 3%,
100 = 2%
M
L
M
Mass(M)
Density d = V =
Length(L)3

Sol. Here

d=

M
L3

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Sol.

100 = 2% ,
100 = 3%
m

1
2
Kinetic energy. E = m
2

Maximum error in kinetic energy

E
m

100 =
100 + 2
100
E
m

Maximum error in kinetic energy

= 2% + 2 3%= 2% + 6% =8%
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MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

* Problem : 2.15

* Problem : 2.18

I n the measurement of a physi cal quanti ty

X

A2 B
1
C 3 D3

.The percentage errors introduced in the

measurement of the quantities A, B, C and D are 2%,

2%, 4% and 5% respectively. Then the minimum
amount of percentage of error in the measurement of
X is contributed by which quantity ?
Sol. X =

PHYSICS - I A

A2 B
1
C 3 D3

A
B
C
D
% 2%,
% 2%,
% 4%,
% 5%
A
B
C
D

X
A
B 1 C
1 D
=2
+
+
+
X
A
B
3 C
3 D
X
100
Percentage error in X =
X
A
B
1 C
D
=2
100 +
100 +
+3
A
B
3 C
D
1

2 2 + 2 + 4 3 5 22.34%
3

The minimum amount of error is contributed by C.

I n an experiment of simple pendulum the error in

measurement of length of the pendulum L and time
period T are 3% and 2% respectively. What is the
L
maximum percentage error in the value of 2 ?
T
l
T
100 = 3%,
100 = 2%
Sol.
L
T
Maximum percentage error in the value of
L
T

L
T
100 + 2
100
L
T
= 3 + (2 2)

=3+4
L
Maximum percentage error in the value of 2 = 7%
T
* Problem : 2.19
The measured mass and volume of a body are 2.42 g
and 4.7 cm3 respectively with possible errors 0.01g,
and 0.1 cc. Find the maximum error in density.
Sol. Density, d =

Mass(m)
Volume(V)

Here m = 2.42 g,

m = 0.01 g

* Problem : 2.16
Dimensi onal formul a for a physical quantity X is
M 1L 3T 2. The error in measuring the quantities M, L
and T respectively are 2% , 3% and 4%. What is the
maximum percentage error that occurs in measuring
the quantity X ?
Sol. X = M1 L3T-2
dM
dL
dT
100 = 2%,
100 = 3%,
100 = 4%
M
L
T
Maximum percentage error in
M
L
T
X=
100 + 3
100 + 2
100
M
L
T
2 3 3 (2 4) 2 9 8
Maximum error in X 19%
* Problem : 2.17
I n Poiseuilles method of determination of viscosity,
what is the physical quantity that requires greater
accuracy in measurement ?

Pr 4
Sol. Formula =
8Vl
the inner radius of the capillary tube appears with a 4th
power in the equation. So if there is an error it becomes
4 times. Hence inner radius must be measured with high
accuracy.

AKASH MULTIMEDIA

v = 4.7 cm V = 0.1 cc
Maximum error in density
d
m
V
100 =
100 +
100
d
m
V
0.01
0.1
=
100 +
100
2.42
4.7

= 0.413% + 2.127%
Maximum error in density = 2.54%
* Problem : 2.20
A rectangular metal slab of mass33.333g hasits length
8.0cm, breadth 5.0cm and thickness 1mm. The mass is
measured with accuracy up to 1mg with a sensitive
balance. The length and breadth are measured with a
vernier calipers having a least count of 0.01cm. The
thickness is measured with a screw gauge of least count
0.01mm. Calculate the percentage accuracy in density caluclulated from above measurements.
Sol. The precentage error itself gives us the percentage ac-

curacy.

d=

mass(M)
M

length() breadth(b) height(h) bh

The relative error is given by

d M b h

d M b h

48

PHYSICS - I A
Given l = 8.0 cm and = 0.01cm;
b = 5.0 cm and b = 0.01cm
h = 1mm and h = 0.01mm and
M = 33.333g and M = 1mg = 0.001g
M 0.001

Hence,
M 33.333
0.01 b 0.01
h 0.01

and

8.0 b
5
h

The percentage error is given by

M b h

100

b
h

MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

2.12. SI GNI FI CANT FI GURES

The digit s of a number r epr esenting a
measur ement that are definitely known, plus one
mor e digit added at the end which is estimated
are called significant digits or significant figur es.
Example : Suppose least count of a scale used to
measure length of a rod is 0.1 cm.
Suppose one end of the rod is coinciding with
zero of the scale and the other end is in between two
marks reading 14.5 cm and 14.6 cm.

0.001 0.01 0.01 0.01

100
33.333 8.0
5
1

So length of the rod is more than 14.5cm but less

than 14.6cm

= 0.003+0.125+0.2+1.0 = 1.328.

One observer may think that the correct

measurement is perhaps 14.52 cm

1.328 1.3
The percentage error is 1.3%
* Problem : 2.21
The error in the measurement of the length of a
simple pendulum is 0.1% and the error in the time
period is 2%. What is the possible percentage of error
in the physical quantity having the dimensional formula
LT2.
Sol. Percentage error in LT2 is
T
L
a
2.
100
L
T
0.1 2 2

100 4.1%
100 100

* Problem : 2.22
The heat generated in a circuit is dependent on the
resistance, current and time of flow of electrical current.
If the errors measured in the above are 1%, 2% and 1%
respectively, what is the maximum error in heat ?
i 2 RT
j
Maximum error in measuring the heat

Sol. Heat H =

H
i
R
T
100 = 2
100 +
100+
100
H
i
R
T
Here J is a constant.
Giventhat

R
i
T
100 = 1%,
100 = 2%
100 = 1%
R
i
T
H
100 = 2 2 + 1 +1 = 4 + 1 + 1
H

Maximum error in heat = 6%

AKASH MULTIMEDIA

Here 1,4 and 5 are reliable and last digit 2 is guesswork and thus not reliable.
So in 14.52 cm there are 4 significant figures.
The last significant figure is called the 'first
doubtful figure' or the 'least significant figure'. It is
also called 'uncer tain digit'. It is 2 in 14.52 cm.
Rules to count Significant Figur es :
1) All non-zero digits in a given number are
significant without any regard to the location of the
decimal point if any.
6,482 has four significant digits
648.2 or 64.82 or 6.482 all have the same
number (four) of significant digits.
2) All zeros occurring between two non-zero
digits are significant without any regard to the
location of decimal point if any.
206008 has six significant figures.
206.008 or 2.06008 has also got six significant
digits.
3) If the number is less than one, all the zeros to
the right of the decimal point but to the left of the
first non-zero digit are not significant.
In the number 0.000608 the three zeros to the
right of decimal point and upto 6 are not significant.
The zero that is conventionally placed before decimal
point is obviously not significant. The given number
has three significant figures. The zero between 6 and
8 is significant from rule 2.
49

MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

4(a) All zeros to the right of a decimal point are

significant if the number is more than one. 60.00
contains four significant digits.
4(b) All zeros to the right of the last non-zero
digit after the decimal point are significant.
0.007800 has four significant figures. The zero
between decimal point and 5 is not significant from
rule-3. But the zeroes after eight are significant.
Otherwise it would have been reported as 0.0078,
only with two significant digits.
5(a) All zeros to the right of the last non-zero
digit in a number having no decimal point are not
significant.
4060 contains three significant figures as the
zero to the right of six is not significant.
40,6000 has also got only three significant
figures.
5(b) However, there is an exception to rule 5(a).
All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit in a
number having no decimal point will be significant
if they come from an actual measurement.
Suppose a distance measured in metres is
reported as 4.500 m having four significant figures.
Expressed in cms it will be 450 cm. It has only two
significant figures. To have four significant figures,
we should express it as 450.0 cm. Similarly, if we
want to express the value in km, we have to write
the result as 0.004500 km and not as 0.0045 km.
When expressed in mm, the value becomes 4500
mm. It has only two significant figures from rule
5(a). Now arises a problem. We cannot write 4500
mm in any way as we have done with cm and km to
have four significant figures.
To avoid such ambiguity, we write the number
in scientific notation as powers of 10. Now 4500
mm is written as 4.500103 mm and by rule 4(a) the
number has 4 significant figures. Similarly the result
is expressed as 4.500 102cm and 4.500 103 km.
Note : Very large and very small quantities of physical
measurement are usually expressed in scientific
notation to denote accuracy of measurements.
AKASH MULTIMEDIA

PHYSICS - I A
* Problem : 2.23
Write down the number of significant figures in the
following.
(i) 0.007

(ii) 2.64 1024 (iii) 0.2370

(iv) 6.320

(v) 6.032

(vi) 0.0006032

Sol. (i) 0.007 has one significant figure.

(ii) 2. 64 1024 has three significant figures.

(iii) 0.2370 has four significant figures.
(iv) 6.320 has four significant figures,
(v) 6.032 has four significant figures.
(vi) 0.0006032 has four significant figures.

2.13. ROUNDI NG OFF THE NUM BER

The process of omitting the non-significant digits
and retaining only the desired number of significant
digits, incorportating the required modifications to
the last significant digit is called 'rounding off the
number'.
Rules for Rounding off Number s :
i) The preceding digit is raised by 1 if the
immediate insignificant digit to be dropped is more
than 5.
Ex : 5728 is to be rounded off to three significant
figures. Here 8 is the nonsignificant digit to be
dropped and is more than 5. Hence 5728 = 5730.
ii) The preceding digit is to be left unchanged if
the immediate insignificant digit to be dropped is less
than 5.
Ex : 5728 is to be rounded off to two siginificant
figures. Here the immediate or first nonsignificant
digit to be dropped is 2(along with 8 also) and is less
than 5. Hence 5728 = 5700. In the above two example
1 and 2, zeros are to be placed in the places of digits
dropped. Otherwise the values will change drasticaly.
iii) If the immediate insignificant digit to be dropped
is 5 then there will be two different cases (a) If the
preceding digit is even, it is to be unchanged and 5
is dropped.
Ex : 6.7258 is to be rounded off to two decimal places
(or three significant figures). The digit to be dropped
here is 5(along with 8) and the preceding digit 2 is
even and hence to be retained as two only.
6.7258 = 6.72
50

PHYSICS - I A

(b) If the preceding digit is odd, it is to be raised

by 1.
6.7158 is to be rounded off to two decimal
places (or three significant figures). As the preceding
digit 1 is odd, it is to be raised by 1 as 2.
6.7158 = 6.72
In the above two example 3(a) and 3(b) zeros
should not be placed in places of decimal digits
dropped. Otherwise the number of significant digits
will drastically change.
* Problem : 2.24
Round off to 3 significant figures:
(i) 20.96 (ii) 0.0003125
Sol. (i) 20.96 has four significant figures. The fourth significant figure is more than 5 and hence on rounding off to
three significant figures, the given measurement will
become 20.9 + 0.1 i.e., 21.0.

(ii) 0.0003125 has four significant figures. The fourth

significant figure is 5 and hence on rounding off to
three significant figures, the given measurement will
become 0.000312 or 3.12104. This is because 2 before 5 is an even number.

2.14. RUL ES FOR ARI THM ETI C OPERATIONS WITH SI GNIFICANT FI GURES
Because of the errors involved in measurements,
the measured values of physical quantities have
limited number of significant figures. To obtain many
physical quantities we have to make arithmetic
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division etc.) of the measured quantities. To obtain
linear momentum, we have to multiply mass with
velocity. To obtain velocity we have to divide
distance travelled with time taken. Now, any reuslt
of such operation should also indicate the errors
involved in the original measured values. The result
can never be more accurate than the original
individual measured values.
So the final r esult of ar ithmetic oper ations
should never have mor e significant figur es than
the least number of signigicant figur es in the
original components.
This results in the following rules.
AKASH MULTIMEDIA

MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Rule 1: In addition or subtraction the final r esult

should r etain only that many decimal places as
ar e ther e in the number with the least decimal
places.
Note : In addition and subtraction, the rule is in terms
of decimal places (and not in terms of significant
figures)
Rule 2: I n multiplication or division, the final
r esult should r etain only that many significant
figur es as ar e ther e in the or iginal number with
the least number of significant figur es.
2.14.1. EXPL ANATI ON OF THE RUL ES
i)

Addition and subtraction

In addition or subtraction of numbers, before

performing the operation we must identify the
number with the least number of digits after
decimal point (say n ) and round off other numbers
to one extra digit in the decimal part (say n + 1). The
final result is again rounded off , such that it contains
same number of decimal places as that of the number
with least number of decimal places (say n) among
all other numbers.
* Problem : 2.25
Find the value of 2.2 + 4.08 + 3.125 + 6.3755.
Sol. Out of all the four numbers 2.2 has got the least number
of decimal places one.
Hence we should retain only two decimal places in the
remaining numbers. Hence 4.08 remains as it is 3.125 is
to be rounded off as 3 : 12 (as 2 before 5 is even)
6.3755 is to be rounded off as 6.38 (as 7 before 5 is
odd). Now adding 2.2 + 4.08 + 3.12 + 6.38 = 15.78.
Finally we should have only one decimal place and
hence 15.78 is to be rounded off as 15.8.
* Problem : 2.26
A stick has a length of 12.132 cm and another stick
has a length of 12.4 cm.
(a) I f the two sticks are placed end to end, what is
their total length ?
(b) I f the two sticks are placed side by side, what is
the difference in their lengths ?
Sol . (a) Let lengths of the sticks are named as
l 1 = 12.132cm, l 2 = 12.4 cm
Here l2 has one decimal place and l1 has to be rounded
off to have only two decimal places
l 1 + l 2 12.13 + 12.4 = 24.53.

51

MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

This is to be rounded off to have one decimal place
only.
The total length is 24.5cm
(b) l 1 = 12.132, l 2 = 12.4.
l 1 - l 2 = 12.4 - 12.132
Here 12.4 has only decimal place and hence 12.132
should have only two decimal places.
l 1 - l 2 = 12.4 - 12.13 = 0.27
This should be rounded off to have only one decimal
place.
l 1 - l 2 = 0.3
Hence difference of their lenghts is 0.3cm
* Problem : 2.27
Find the value of 44.8 21.235.
Sol. Only one decimal place is there in 44.8. Hence the other
number is to be rounded off to have two decimal places.
21.235 = 21.24 (as 3 before 5 is odd).
Now 44.8 21.24 = 23.56.

Finally this is to be rounded off to one decimal place

44.8 21.235 = 23.6.
* Problem : 2.28
Solve with due regard to significant figures.
(i) 46.7 - 10.4 =

(ii) (3.0 108) + (4.5 106) =

Sol. (i) 46.7 - 10.04

Here 46.7has one decimal place, and 10.04 hastwo decimal places.
46.7 - 10.04 = 36.66.
The result should have only one decimal place.
The result is 36.7.
ii) 3.0 10

= 0.03 10

+ 4.5 10

-6
+ 4.5 106 = 4.53 10

Here 4.5 10-6 has only one decimal place and 0.03
10-6can have two decimal places.
This result should be rounded off to one decimal place.
(3.0 108) + (4.5 106) = 4.5 10-6

ii)

M ultiplication and division

In multiplication or division of numbers,

before performing the operation we must identify the
number with the least number of significant figures
(say n) and round off other numbers to one extra
digit (say n + 1). The final result is again rounded
off, such that it contains same number of significant
AKASH MULTIMEDIA

PHYSICS - I A

figur es (say n)as that of the number with least

number of significant figures among all other
numbers.
Note : The final result of arithmetic operations should
never have more significant figures than the least
number of signigicant figures in the original
components.
iii) I n square root value of the given number,
ther e can be same number of significant figur es
that are present in the given number.
Example : 58.97 7.679
iv) I n case of Tr anscendental Functions:
Transcendental functions have the same number of
significant figur es as their arguments.
Non-algebraic functions like sine, sin 1
exponential and logarithmic functions are called
transcendental functions.
Arguments are quantities on which some
operation is performed e.g. in case of sin 30, 30 is
argument; in case of log x, x is argument, etc.
Example :
sin (60) = 0.89
sin (60.0) = 0.886
sin (60.00) = 0.8660
sin (60.000) = 0.86603
* Problem : 2.29
Find the product of 1.2, 2.54 and 3.257 with due regard
to significant figures.
Sol. Out of the three numbers 1.2 has got the least number of
significant figures two. We should round off the other
numbers to 2 + 1 = 3 significant figures and carry the
multiplication. 2.54 has three significant figures and
hence needs no rounding off. 3.257 is to be rounded off
to 3.26.

1.2 2.54 3.26 = 9.93648. But the result should be

limited to the least number of significant digits that is
two digits only.
The final answer should be written as 9.9 after rounding off.
* Problem : 2.30
Find the value of /53.2 with due regard to significant
figures.

52

PHYSICS - I A
Sol. Out of the two numbers 53.2 has three significant digits. So p should be written with 3 + 1 = 4 significantent
figures.
= 3.1415 = 3.142 (as 1 is odd it is raised by one).
3.142
0.0590601
Now
53.2
This is to be rounded off to three significant figures
0.059060 = 0.0591
* Problem : 2.31
2.31 Find out the results of the following operations.
(i) 117.3 0.0024
(ii) 9.27 41
(iii) 42 0.041
(iv) 124.2 + 52.487
(v) 124.2 52.487
(vi) 58.97
(vii) (17.5)2
Sol. (i) 0.0024 has 2 significant figures. Hence 117.3 is
rounded off to have 2 + 1 = 3 significant figures. It
becomes 117 only.
Now 117 0.0024 = 0.2808
This is to be rounded off to have two significant figures
only. The result is 0.28.

(ii) 41 has only 2 significant digits. Hence 9.27 can

have 2 +1 = 3 significant digits. It has 3 significant
digits only. No need for rounding off.
9.27
0.2260975 This is to be rounded off to two
41
significant digits. The result is 0.23.
(iii) Both number have two significant digits.
42 0.041 = 1.722. This is to be rounded off to 2 significant digits. The result is 1.7.
(iv) As this is a sum, we have to consider decimal
places. 124.2 has only one decimal place. Hence 52.487
is to be rounded off to 1 + 1 = 2 decimal places.
It becomes as 52.487 = 52.49
Now 124.2 + 52.49 = 176.69. This is to be rounded off
to one decimal place. The result is as 176.69 = 176.7.
(v)

Here again, we have

MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

* Problem : 2.32
The mass of 1.2 cm3of a certain substance is 5.74g.
calculate its density with due regard to significant figures.
Sol. Mass, m = 5.74 g, volume, v = 1.2 cm3
m
5.74 g
density, d =
=
v
1.2 cm 3
5.74 has significant digits and 1.2 has two significant
digits.
no need for rounding off.
5.74
d=
= 4.783333.
1.2
This is to be rounded off to two significant digits.
The density of the given substance is 4.783 = 4.8 g cm3
* Problem : 2.33
I f a circular piece of tin has a measured radius of 2.6
cm, then what is its circumference ?
Sol. r = 2.6 cm

Circumference of circular disc = 2r

= 2 3.1428 2.6
Here 2.6 has onley 2 significant digits. Hence in the
abovemultiplication value shoud be written with
2 +1 = 3 significant figures.
= 3.1428 = 3.14

Circumference = 2 3.14 2.6

= 16.328
This is to be rounded off to 2 significant digits. Circumference is 16cm.
* Problem : 2.34
The diameter of a sphere is 4.24 m. Calculate itssurface
area with due regard to significant figures.
Sol. Diameter d = 4. 24 m

Radius r =

d
4.24
=
= 2.12
2
2

124.2 52.487 = 124.52.49 = 71.71. This is to be

rounded off to one decimal place

surface area of sphere = 4 r2

The result is 71.7.

= 4 3.1428 2.12 2.12

(vi)
58.97 = 7.679. This has got the same number
of significant digits (4) as 58.97. But for square roots
its is customary to have the number of significant figures one less than the number that is, 7.68.

In the above multiplication 2.12 has 3 significant

figures.

(vii) (17.5)2 = 306.25. The original number 17.5 has

only 3 significant digits. And hence the result will be
306 (Here we have to consider the significant figures).

Surface area = 4 3.143 2.12 2.12 = 56.50

AKASH MULTIMEDIA

Hence 3.1428 is rounded off to have 3 + 1 = 4 significant

figures. It becomes 3.143.
56.50 this to be rounded off to have 3 significant figures.

Area is 56.5m2
53

MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

* Problem : 2.35
Each side of a cube is measured to be 7.203m. What is
(i) the total surface area and (ii) the volume of the
cube to appropriate significant figures ?
Sol. Length of a side = 7.203 m

(i)

PHYSICS - I A

4)

What are random errors? Distinguish between

radom errors and systematic errors

5)

What is meant by significant figures? How are

these counted?

6)

State the different types of errors present in a

measurement.

7)

Define the terms (i) mean absolute error

(ii) relative error and (iii) percentage error. How
are they calculated?

8)

Round off to 3 significant figures giving the

rules followed (i) 25.87 (ii) 0.05134.

Total surface area = 6a2

= 6 7.203 7.203 = 311.29

this to be rounded off to 4 significant figures as 7.203

as 4 significant figures.

Total surface area is 311.3 m2

(ii)

Volume of the cube = a3

= 7.203 7.203 7.203

1)

What is an error? What are constant errors?

This is to be rounded off to 4 significant figures as

7.203 as 4 significant figures.

2)

Mention different kinds of errors.

3)

Explain briefly what are systematic errors.

The volume = 373.7 m3.

4)

What are the causes for environmental errors?

5)

What type o f errors are met wit h in a

calorimetric
experiment?

6)

What are gross errors? Give an example.

7)

What are random errors? Give an example

8)

Distiguish between accuracy and precision.

9)

What is mean absolute error? State its formula.

= 373.71

* Problem :2.36
The length of a rod is 2.5 cm and diameter is 2.5 mm.
Find the volume of the rod with due consideration to
significant figures.
Sol. l = 2.5 cm,

diameter = 2.5 mm = 2.5 101 cm = 0.25 cm

Radius, r = 0.125 cm
Volume of the rod = r 2 l

10) What is relative error? State its formula.

= 3.1428 0.125 0.125 2.5

11) What is absolute error? State its formula

Here 2.5 has two significant figures. Round off the remaining numbers to 2 + 1 = 3 significant figures.

12) Are all the significant figures reliable? Give an

example.

Volume of the rod = 3.14 0.125 0.125 2.5

13) What is rounding off a number?

= 0.1226.

14) What are significant figures ? Give an example.

This has to be rounded off to two significant figures.

Volume of the rod0.12 cm3

Asseses Your self

1)

Ver y Shor t Answer Questions

Shor t Answer Questions

How do the random errors differ from systematic

errors?

2)

What is rounding off a number and what are

the rules to be followed in it?

3)

What are the rules for arithmetic operations with

significant figures?

AKASH MULTIMEDIA

1.

By taking precautions, can we minimize the

random errors ?

Ans. No
2.

Why is that for both very small as well as very

large (in addition to ordinary) quantities, the
physical measurements are usually in scientific
notation, with powers of ten ?
Ans.To denote precesion and accuracy of the
measurement.
54