Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
The Introduction
Guidelines in writing the introduction. The introduction of a thesis should contain a
discussion of any or all of the following:
1.
Presentation of the Problem. The start of the introduction is the
presentation of the problem, that is, what the problem is all about.
This will indicate what will be covered by the study. Example: Suppose
that the investigation is about the teaching of science in the high
schools of Province A. The discussion may start with this topic
sentence: There is no other period in world history when science has
been making its greatest impact upon humankind than it is today.
(Prolong the discussion citing the multifarious and wonderful benefits
that science is giving to humanity today. Later, in connection wit
science, the topic for inquiry may be presented as the teaching of
science in the high schools of Province A during the school year 19891990 as perceived by the science teachers and students.)
2.
The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that needs
a solution. Example: The teaching of science in the high schools of
Province A has been observed to be weak as shown by the results of
the survey tests given to the students recently. The causes must be
found so that remedial measures may be instituted. (The discussion
may be prolonged further)
3.
Rationale of the study. The reason or reasons why it is necessary to
conduct the study must be discussed. Example: One of the Thrust of
the Department of Education, Culture and Sports and of the
government for that matter is to strengthen the teaching of science. It
is necessary to conduct this inquiry to find out how to strengthen the
instruction of science in the province. (This may be prolonged)
4.
5.
A desire to have deeper and cleared understanding of a situation,
circumstance, or phenomenon. If the teaching of science in the high
schools of Province A is the topic, the researcher must explain his
Theoretical Framework
This is the foundation of the research study. These are highly related theories and
principles that were established and proven by authorities which are very useful to the
present study. Almost all research studies that were conducted in the past were based on
universally accepted theories and principles.
Theoretical Framework means relating to or having the characteristic of the theory.
Theoretical Framework, therefore, refers to the set of interrelated construct, definitions, and
prepositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among
variables. The theoretical framework becomes the basic of the research problem. It explains
the phenomena upon which the thesis investigation hopes to fill the vacuum in the stream
of knowledge.
Pursuing the linkage between the theory and the problem at hand, the researcher
views theoretical framework as an organized body that explains what has been done and
what has been said on the topic or problem being investigated. Moreover, the body of
knowledge establishes relationships among the variables concerned. The present study is
the missing link to the body of knowledge. Accordingly, if and when the research study is
consummated , the gap of missing link disappears since the study will have closed the gap.
The theoretical framework is now more complete until another researcher discovers another
gap, inconsistency, or weakness which will be the object of another investigation.
WHAT DATA MUST BE OBTAINED FROM A THEORY?
1. The name/s of author/s of the theory must be taken including the place and the time
/ year when he or she postulated such a principle or generalization.
2. Next, copy exactly the part or parts of the theory that are relevant to your study.
Make sure you will use a parenthetical reference to recognize the parts copied.
3. Finally, you will have to make a synthesis by relating to your findings what the
theory has to say about the phenomenon being studied. (Salvador et al.)
Conceptual Framework
From the review of related literature and studies, the researcher may formulate a
theoretical scheme for his research problem. This scheme is a tentative explanation or
theoretical explanation of the phenomenon or problem and serves as the basis for the
formulation research hypotheses. Thus, the conceptual framework consists of the
investigators own position on a problem after his exposure to various theories that have
bearing on the problem. It is the researchers new model which has its roots on the previous
models which the researcher had studied. (Sanchez, pp. 14-15)
The conceptual framework becomes the central theme, the focus, the main thrust of
the study. It serves as a guide in conducting investigation. Briefly stated, the conceptual
framework for the teaching of science can be: The effectiveness of a science instructional
program depends upon the qualifications of the teachers, the effectiveness of their methods
and strategies of teaching, the adequacy of facilities, the adequacy of supervisory
assistance, and the elimination of the problems hampering the progress.
Currently, however, most theses do not have a discussion of their conceptual
frameworks. Very few thesis writers endeavor to include an explanation of their conceptual
framework in their theses.
Paradigm.
A paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual
framework. It depicts in a more vivid way what the conceptual framework wants to convey.
Following are examples of a paradigm for the conceptual framework for the teaching of
science as mentioned above. A paradigm may take different diagrammatic forms.
Example 1
Inputs
Process
Outputs
Qualified
teachers
Science
Superior
science
knowledge
Instructional
and
Effective
methods
Adequate
facilities
skills
Adequate
Supervisory
assistance
Figure 8.
Program
of
2.
3.
The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the entity to
which the data belong.
4.
The population or universe from which the respondents were selected.
This must be large enough to make generalizations significant.
5.
The period of the study. This is the time, either months or years,
during which the data were gathered.
Example: This investigation was conducted to determine the status of the teaching of
science in the high schools of Province A as perceived by the teachers and students
in science classes during the school year 1989-1990. the aspects looked into were
the qualifications of teachers, their methods and strategies, facilities forms of
supervisory assistance, problems and proposed solutions to problems.
General purpose:
To determine the status of the teaching of science.
Subject matter:
The teaching of science.
Topics (aspects) studied: Qualifications of teachers. Their methods and strategies,
facilities, form of supervisory assistance, problems and proposed solutions to the
problems.
Population or universe: teachers and students
Locale of the study: High schools of province A.
Period of the study: School year 1989-1990.
Limitations of the Study
Limitations of the study include the weaknesses of the study beyond the control of
the researcher. This is especially true in descriptive research where the variables involved
are uncountable or continuous variables such as adequacy, effectiveness, efficiency, extent,
etc. The weaknesses spring out of the inaccuracies of the perceptions of the respondents.
For instance, library facilities may be rated as very adequate by 50 students, fairly adequate
by 30 students, inadequate by 20 students, and very inadequate by 15 students. Certainly,
with these ratings, not all of them could be correct in their assessment. Some could have
inaccurate if not entirely wrong perceptions.
Importance or Significance of the Study
Guidance in explaining the importance of the study. The rationale, timeliness, and/or
relevance of the study to existing conditions must contain explanations or discussions of any
or all of the following:
1.
2.
3.
5.
Definition of Terms
Guidelines in defining terms:
1.
2.
3.
The researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics
of the term defined. Thus, a house of light materials may be defined as
one with bamboo or small wooden posts, nipa, buri, or nipa walls; split
bamboo floor and cogon or nipa roof. This is also an operational
definition.
4.
5.
6.
Chapter 2
The following are the characteristics of related literature and studies that should be
cited: (Repeated for emphasis)
1.
The materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because
of the rapid social, political, scientific, and technological changes.
Discoveries in historical and archeological research have also changed
some historical facts. Researchers in education and psychology are
also making great strides. So, finding fifteen years ago may have little
value today unless the study is a comparative inquiry about the past
and the present. Mathematical and statistical procedures, however, are
a little more stable.
2.
Materials must be as objective and unbiased as possible. Some
materials are extremely one sided, either politically or religiously
biased. These should be avoided.
3.
Materials must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have
some military to or bearing on the problem researched on should be
cited.
4.
Materials must not too few but not too many. They must be sufficient enough
to give the researcher insight into his problem or to indicate the nature of the present
investigation. The number may also depend upon the availability of related materials. This is
especially a problem with pioneering studies. Naturally, there are few related materials or
even none at all. Ordinarily, from fifteen to twenty-five may do for a masters thesis and
from twenty and above for a doctoral dissertation, depending upon their availability and
depth and length of discussions. The numbers, however, are only suggestive but not
imperative. These are only the usual numbers observed in theses and dissertations
surveyed. For an undergraduate thesis about ten may do.
B.
2.
By topic. In this case, if different authors or writers have the same
opinion about the same topic, the topic is discussed and cited under
the names of the authors or writers. This is a summary of their
opinions. This is to avoid separate and long discussions of the same
topic.
Example: It has been found out that praise is an important aid
in learning of children. (Enriquez, 1981)
3.
Chronological. Related materials may also be cited chronologically, that is,
according to the year they were written. Materials which were written earlier should be cited
first before those which were written later. This can be done especially when citation is by
author or writer. If citation is by topic, chronological citation can be done in the footnote.
C.
What to Cite
Chapter 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Generally, the research design is explained in this chapter. Among those topics
included in the research design which need to be given some kind of explanations are the
following:
Methods of Research
Population, Sample Size, and Sampling Technique
Description of Respondents
Research instrument
Data-Gathering Procedure
Statistical Treatment of Data
Methods of Research
The method of research used whether historical, descriptive or experimental should
be explained briefly. The procedural part of the method, its appropriateness to the study,
and some of its advantages should be given attention and should be well discussed.
Example: Suppose the descriptive method of research was used in the study of the
teaching of science in the high schools of Province A. Briefly the discussion follows:
The descriptive method of research was used in this study. Descriptive method of
research is a fact-finding study with adequate and accurate interpretation of the findings. It
describes what is. It describes with emphasis what actually exist such as current conditions,
practices, situations, or any phenomena. Since the present study or investigation was
concerned with the present status of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province
A, the descriptive method of research was the most appropriate method to use. (This can be
elaborated further)
Population, Sample size and Sampling Technique
The researcher describes how he selected places, products, situations, and
respondents. If regions were used, the different regions of the country are included in his
first list. The next question is: how did the researcher select the sample regions included in
the study? Are the selected regions representative of all the regions that make up the
Philippines? If barrios in a particular province were the focus of the study, how did the
researcher select the few barrios representative of all the barrios? On the other hand, if
ethnic groups were used, how did he arrive at the majority and minority ethnic groups of
the particular national survey? The researcher should describe how he went about selecting
the sampled places and sampled products and respondents in this part of the methodology.
The Sampling Design
Before the collection of data starts in any research project, the proportion of the
population to be used must have been determined already and the computation of the
sample must have been finished. So, what the researcher has to do here is to write about
the complete procedure he used in determining his sample. Among the things that he
should explain are:
a.
The size of the population;
b.
The study population;
c.
The margin of error and the proportion of the study population used;
d.
The type or technique of sampling used whether pure random
sampling, cluster sampling or a combination of two or more
techniques;
e.
f.
The researcher must explain very clearly how he selected his sample. He must be
able to show that his sample is representative of the population by showing that he used
the appropriate technique of sampling. This is very important because if it appears that his
sample is not representative, his findings and conclusions will be faulty and hence, not valid
and reliable.
To be able to discuss and explain very well his sampling procedures, the researcher
must review sampling procedures in Chapter 12. Everything about sampling has been
discussed in that part of the book.
Description of Respondents
The respondents are described as a small group or as a big group. Characteristics
may include sex, age level, socio-economic status, marital status, level of intelligence,
education, type of community (urban or rural, barrio or town), ethnic group, and other
characteristics sought by the researcher to describe his respondents. These characteristics
of respondents could be presented in table form.
Research Instrument
Instrument used for gathering data are described under Research Methodology. The
various aspects of the instruments are mentioned. Items in each instrument are described
too. If validation of the test was made, this is also mentioned. In some studies, several
instruments are used. These could be related following the order of administration. It is
desirables that writers mention how these instruments were used in the study. Could it be
that Instrument 1 is intended to shed light on Hypothesis 1; Instrument 2 on Hypothesis 2;
and so forth?
If the instrument is lengthy, this is generally placed in the appendix. Such placement
has to be mentioned in the text and labeled as Appendix A,B, or C, as the case maybe.
This part describes the tools used to measure the variables. In most cases, this
means detailing the survey used. If a researcher developed a survey on his own or modified
one which is in the literature, he needs to include this plus the cover letter in the appendix.
If he is using a well- researched questionnaire, reference it clearly. (Salvador et al.)
Data-Gathering Procedure
The method of collecting data and the development of the instrument for gathering
data must also be explained.
Example: the method of collecting data used was the normative survey. This is
concerned with looking into the commonality of some elements. Since the present research
is a status study, the normative survey was the most appropriate method to use in
gathering data.
The instrument used to collect data was the questionnaire. This was used because it
gathers data faster than any other method. Besides, the respondents were teachers and
students and so they are very literate. They could read and answer the questionnaire with
ease.
Questionnaire method
Interview method
Empirical observation method
Registration method
Testing method
Experiment method
Library method
Chapter 4
In this chapter, the researcher makes his analysis, presentation, and interpretation
of his data.
Analysis
Analysis is the process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent parts of
categories according to the specific questions under the statement of the problem. This is to
bring out into focus the essential features of the study. Analysis usually precedes
presentation.
Example: In the study of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A,
the whole study may be divided into its constituent parts as follows according to the specific
questions:
1.
Educational qualifications of the science teachers
2.
Methods and strategies used in the teaching of science
3.
Facilities available for the teaching of science
4.
Forms of supervisory assistance
5.
Differences between the perception of the teachers and those of the
students concerning the teaching of science
6.
Problems encountered in the teaching of science
7.
Proposed solutions to the problems
8.
Implications of the findings
Each constituent part may still be divided into its essential categories. Example: The
educational qualifications of the teachers may further be subdivided into the following:
1.
Degrees earned in pre-service education
2.
Majors or specializations
3.
Units earned in science
4.
Teachers examinations and other examinations passed
5.
Seminars, conferences, and other special trainings attended for the
teaching of science
6.
Books, journals, and other materials in science being read
7.
Advanced studies
8.
9.
Bachelor of Arts
Bachelor of Science in Education
Master of Arts
Etc.
The other constituent parts may also be similarly divided and subdivided. The data
are then grouped under the categories or parts to which they belong.
Classification of data. Classification is grouping together data with similar
characteristics. Classification is a part of analysis. The bases of classification are the
following:
a.
Qualitative (kind). Those having the same quality or are of the same
kind are grouped together. The grouping element in the examples
given under analysis is qualitative. See examples under analysis.
b.
Quantitative. Data are grouped according to their quantity. In age, for
instance, people may be grouped into ages of 10-14, 15-19, 20-24,
25-29, etc.
c.
Geographical. Data may be classified according to their location for
instance; the schools in the secondary level in Province A may be
grouped by district, as District 1, District 2, District 3, etc.
d.
Chronological. In this, data are classified according to the order of
their occurrence. Example: The enrolments of the high schools of
Province A may be classified according to school years, as for,
instance, enrolments during the school years 1985-86, 1986-87,
1987-88.
Cross-classification. This is further classifying a group of data into subclasses. This is
breaking up or dividing a big class into smaller classes. For instance, a group of students
may be classified as high school students as distinguished from elementary and college
students. Then they are further subdivided into curricular years as first, second, third, and
fourth years. Each curricular year may still be subdivided into male and female.
Arrangement of data or classes of data. The bases of arrangement of data or groups
of data are the same as those of classification.
a.
Qualitative. Data may be arranged alphabetically, or from the biggest
class to the smallest class as from the phylum to specie in classifying
animals or vice versa, or listing the biggest country to the smallest one
or vice versa, or from the most important to the least important, or
vice versa, etc. Ranking of students according to brightness is
qualitative arrangement.
b.
Quantitative. This is arranging data according to their numerical
magnitudes, from the greatest to the smallest number or vice versa.
Schools may be arranged according to their population, from the most
populated to the least populated, and so with countries, provinces,
cities, towns, etc.
c.
Geographical. Data may be arranged according to their geographical
location or according to direction. Data from the Ilocos region may be
listed from north to south by province as Ilocos Norte, Abra, Ilocos Sur
and La Union.
d.
Chronological. This is listing down data that occurred first and last
those that occurred last or vice versa according to the purpose of
presentation. This is especially true in historical research. For instance,
data during the Spanish period should be treated first before the data
during the American Period.
Classification, cross-classification and arrangement of data are done for purposes of
organizing the thesis report and in presenting them in tabular form. In tables, data are
properly and logically classified, cross-classified, and arranged so that their relationships are
readily seen.
Group-derived Generalizations
One of the main purposes of analyzing research data is to form inferences,
interpretations, conclusions, and/or generalizations from the collected data. In so doing the
researcher should be guided by the following discussions about group-derived
generalizations.
The use of the survey, usually called the normative survey, as a method of collecting
data for research implies the study of groups. From the findings are formulated conclusions
in the form of generalizations that pertain to the particular group studied. These conclusions
are called group-derived generalizations designed to represent characteristics of groups and
are to be applied to groups rather than to individual cases one at a time. These are
applicable to all kinds of research, be they social, science or natural science research. There
are several types of these but are discussed under four categories by Good and Scates.
(Good and Scates, pp. 290-298) The key sentences are of this author.
1.
Generally, only proportional predictions can be made. One type of
generalization is that which is expressed in terms of proportion of the cases in a group,
often in the form of probability. When this type is used, we do not have enough information
about individual cases to make predictions for them, but we can nevertheless predict for a
group of future observations. As to individual event, however, we can say nothing;
probability is distinctly a group concept and applies only to groups.
Quality control in manufacturing is an example. Based on the recognition that
products cannot be turned out as precisely as intended, but that so long as a given
proportion of the cases fall within assigned limits of variation, that is all that is expected. In
the biological field, certain proportions of offspring, inherit certain degrees of characteristics
of parents, but individual predictions cannot be made. In the social field, in insurance
especially, based on demographic and actuarial data, life tables indicate life expectancies of
groups but nothing whatsoever is known about the life expectancy of any particular
individual.
Here is another example. Suppose in a certain school offering civil engineering, it is a
known fact that all through the years, bout 70% of its graduates with an average of 2.0 or
its equivalent or higher pass the licensing examination for civil engineers. On this basis, we
can predict that about 70% of the graduates of the school with an average of 2.0 or higher
will pass the next licensing examination for civil engineers but we cannot predict with
certainty the passing of a particular graduate even if his average grade is 1.25.
2.
The average can be made to represent the whole group. A second type of
group-derived generalization results from using the average as a representation of the
group of cases and offering it as a typical result. This is ignoring the individuals comprising
the group or the variation existing in the group but the average represents the whole group.
Generally, the mean and the median are used to denote the averages of scale position but
other statistical measures such as the common measures of variation, correlation,
regression lines, etc. are also structurally considered as averages. These are group
functions conveying no sure knowledge about any individual case in the group.
3.
Full frequency distribution reveals characteristics of a group. As a third type
of knowledge growing out of the study of the groups, we have the full-frequency distribution
the most characteristics device, perhaps of all statistical work. Perhaps, too the most
inferential characteristics of frequency distribution are shape and spread. Frequency
distributions carry the implication of probability. One implication is as follows. Suppose the
heights of a Grade I pupils are taken and then grouped into a class frequency distribution,
using height as the trait or basis of distributions in groups. Then the suppliers of chairs and
tables for the pupils will be able to know the number of chairs and tables to suit the heights
of the pupils.
Here is another example which enables us to know certain characteristics of a group.
Suppose a test is given to a group of students. Then their scores are grouped into a class
frequency distribution. If the standard deviation, a measure of variability, is computed and
it is unusually large, then we know that the group is heterogeneous. If the standard
deviation is small, the group is more or less homogeneous. If the distribution is graphed and
the curve is bell-shaped, the distribution is normal, that is, there is an equal number of
bright and dull students with the average in the middle. If the curve is skewed to the right,
there are more dull students than bright ones, and if the distribution is skewed to th left
there are more bright students than dull ones.
4.
A group itself generates new qualities, characteristics, properties, or aspects
not present in individual cases. For instance, there are many chairs in a room. The chairs
can be arranged in a variety of ways. However, if there is only one chair, there can be no
arrangement in any order. Hence, order and arrangement are group properties and they
represent relationships within a group, properties which can arise only if there are two or
more cases.
Other group properties that exist only in groups are cooperation, opposition,
organization, specialization, leadership, teaching, morale, reciprocal sharing of emotions,
etc. which vanish in individual cases.
Two or more categories of generalization may be added at this point.
1.
A generalization can also be made about an individual case. For instance, a
high school graduating student is declared valedictorian of his class. We can generalize that,
that student is the brightest in his class. This is a group-derived generalization because it
cannot be made if there is only one student. Here is another example. A teacher declares
that Juan is the best behaved pupil in her class. This is a group-derived generalization
because this statement cannot be made if there is only one pupil. There are many instances
of this kind.
2.
In certain cases, predictions on individual cases can be made. It has been
mentioned earlier that, generally, only proportional predictions can be made. However, in
correlation and regression studies, one variable can be predicted from another. Take the
case of the civil engineering graduate taking the licensing examination by the use of
regression equations. The accuracy of prediction is high if (1) there is linearity in the
relationship of the two variables if graphed, (2) the distributions in the two variables are
normal or not badly skewed, and (3) the spread or scatter of the two variables is the same
for each column or row in the correlation table. The process involves a complicated
statistical book especially that of Garrett, pp. 122-146 for linear correlation and pp. 151-165
for regression and prediction.
Specializations (Majors)
History
Mathematics
English
AB
BSCE
BSE
MA
Totals
11
1111 1
Total
Science
1111 1111 11
1111
11
3
11
4
21
4
31
11
25
27
59
Figure 1
How to tally data (responses) gathered through a questionnaire. Tallying responses
to a questionnaire in a talligram follows. Suppose a questionnaire gives the following data:
a.
Teacher A is an AB graduate with a science major. Enter a tally in the
cell which is the intersection of the AB row and the Science column.
The tally is a short vertical bar. See Entry (1) in Figure 1.
b.
Teacher B is an AB graduate with a science major. Enter a tally in the
cell which is the intersection of the AB row and the Science column.
See Entry (2) in Figure 1.
c.
Teacher C is a BSE graduate with a science major. Enter a tally in the
cell which is the intersection of the BSE row and the Science column.
See Entry (3) in Figure 1.
d.
Teacher D is a BSE graduate with mathematics major. Enter a tally in
the cell which is the intersection of the BSCE row and the Mathematics
column. See Entry (4) in Figure 1.
e.
Teacher E is a BSCE graduate with mathematics major. Enter a tally in
the cell which is the intersection of the BSCE row and the Mathematics
column. See Entry (5) in Figure 1.
f.
Continue the process until all the data needed are entered.
AB
BSCE
BSE
MA
Totals
Specializations (Majors)
English
1
History
11
11
11
Mathematics
1111
1
1111
1111 1111 1111
1
25
Totals
Science
1111 1111 11
1111 1111 111
11
27
21
4
31
3
59
Figure 2
Figure 2 may now e\be converted into a statistical table for data presentation.
Generally, all quantified data are tallied first in talligram which are then converted into
statistical tables for data presentation using Hindu-Arabic numerals in the cells in place of
tallies.
Presentation of Data
Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and meaningful
categories and classifications to make them amenable to study and interpretation. Analysis
and presentation put data into proper order and in categories reducing them into forms that
are intelligible and interpretable so that the relationships between the research specific
questions and their intended answers can be established. There are three ways of
presenting data; textual, tabular, and graphical.
Textual Presentation of Data
Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or numbers to describe data.
The main aims of textual presentation are to focus attention to some important data and to
supplement tabular presentation.
The disadvantage, especially if its too long, is that it is boring to read and the reader
may not even be able to grasp the quantitative relationships of the data presented. The
reader may even skip some statements.
Example: The following refers to the degrees earned by 59 science teachers in the
hypothetical study of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A:
Of the 59 science teachers, 21 or 35.59 percent have earned a bachelor of Arts
degree with education units, four or 6.78 percent have earned a Bachelor of Science in Civil
Engineering degrees with education units, 31 or 52.54 percent a Bachelor of Science in
Education degree, and three or 5.08 percent a Master of Arts degree.
According to government regulations, all the teachers are qualified to teach in the
high school. (This is already a finding, interpretation, or inference)
Table Number
Title
(Head note)
Stub Head
Row
Label
Master Caption
Column
Caption
Entry
Column
Caption
Entry
Column
Caption
Entry
Column
Caption
Entry
Total
The above illustration of a table is only a simple one. There are tables that are very
complicated. For instance, the column captions may further be subdivided into sub-column
captions which in turn may still be subdivided. This happens when the subject matter of the
table is classified, then the first classifications are further sub classified, and so on.
1.
Table Number. Each table should have a number, preferably in Arabic, for
reference purposes. This is because only the table numbers are cited. The number is written
above the title of the table. Tables are numbered consecutively throughout the thesis
report. If there is only one table the number is unnecessary. See table 1 for illustration.
2.
Usually, however, only the first two elements are mentioned in the title, and
occasionally only the subject matter. This is possible if the time period of the study as well
as the locale and respondents are well discussed in the scope and delimitation of the study.
Only the beginning letters of the important words in the title are capitalized. If the title
contains more than one line, it should be written like an inverted pyramid. See Table 1
below.
Table 1
Degrees and Specializations of the Teachers
Degrees
Earned a
AB
BSCE
BSE
MA
Totals
Fb
1
English
%
1.69
3.39
5.08
Specializations (Majors)
History
Mathematics
F
%
F
%
2
3.39
6
10.17
4
6.78
2
3.39
14
23.73
1
1.69
4
6.78
25
42.37
Totals
Science
F
%
12
20.34
13
2
27
22.03
3.39
45.76
F
21
4
31
3
59
%
35.59
6.78
52.54
5.08
99.99c
3.
Headnote or Prefatory Note. This is written below the title and it is usually
enclosed in parentheses. It explains some things in the table that are not clear. Suppose a
table entitled Monetary Values or Properties of the High Schools in Province A is to be
constructed and the entries in the table are in rounded millions of pesos. If the amount to
be entered is six million pesos, the entry is only 6, instead of entering 8,000,000 the entry
is only 8, etc. The Headnote that should be written below the title should be written below
the title should be Millions of Pesos. So, the entry of 6 is read six million pesos, the entry
of 8 should be read eight million pesos, etc.
4.
Stub. The stub contains the stub head and the row labels. The stub head tells
what the stub contains, the row labels. Each row label describes the data contained in that
row. In the table given as example, Table 1, Degrees is the stub head and below it are the
degrees which are the row label: AB, BSCE, BSE, and MA. In the AB row all the teachers
listed there are AB graduates, in the BSCE row all BSCE graduates, in the BSE row, all BSE
graduates, and in the MA row, all MA graduates. Totals may be considered as part of the
stub.
5.
Box Head. The box head contains the master caption, the column captions,
and the column sub captions. The master caption describes the column captions and the
column captions in turn describe the sub column captions. In Table 1, the master caption is
Specializations (Majors). The column captions are English, History, Mathematics, Science,
and Totals. The sub captions are F (frequency), and % (percent). The F indicates the
number of teachers under it and the symbol % indicates the proportion of the number under
F to the total, 59.
6.
Main body, field or text. The main body, field or text of the table contains all
the quantitative and/or proportional information presented in the table in rows and in
columns. Each numerical datum is entered in the cell which is the intersection of the row
and the column of the datum. For instance, the 14 teachers who are BSE graduates and
who majored in mathematics are centered in the cell which is the intersection of the BSE
row and the mathematics column.
7.
Footnote. The footnote which appears immediately below the bottom line of
the table explains, qualifies, or clarifies some items in the table which are not readily
understandable or are missing. Proper symbols are used o indicate the items that are
clarified or explained. In Table 1, a is used to indicate that all the teachers have enough
education units, b is used to indicate that all percents were computed with 59 as the base,
and c is used to indicate that the total percent does not equal 100.00 due to the rounding
off of the partial percents to two decimal places.
The footnote is not necessary everything in the table is clear and there is nothing to
clarify or explain.
8.
Source note. The source note which is generally written below the footnote
indicates the origin or source of the data presented in the table. In Table 1, the sources of
the data are the Principals Offices. The purposes of placing the source note are:
a.
To give credit or recognition to the author of the table or the
source or sources of the data;
b.
To allow the user to secure additional data from the same
source;
c.
To provide the user a basis for determining the accuracy and
reliability of the information provided by the table; and
d.
To protect the maker of the table against any charge of
inaccuracy and unreliability.
The source note is not necessary if the sources of the data are the respondents to a
questionnaire or interview schedule.
Ruling and spacing in tables. Ruling is done in a table to emphasize or make clear
relationships. There are no fixed standard rules to follow in ruling and spacing tables.
Emphasis and clarity are the determining factors. However, the following guidelines are
generally followed in the construction of tables for a thesis report:
1.
The table number is not separated by line from the title. It is written
two spaces above the title.
2.
The title is separated from the rest of the table by a double line placed
two spaces below the lowest line of the title.
3.
The stub, master caption, captions, sub-captions, and totals are
separated from one another by vertical and horizontal lines.
4.
The rows and columns are not separated by lines. Major groups,
however, are separated by single lines. For purposes of clarity, rows
are separated by a double space and the columns are separated by as
wide a space as possible.
5.
6.
There is always a line, either ingle or double, at the bottom of the
table.
Unity in a table. There should always be unity in a table. To achieve this, presenting
too many ideas in a single table should be avoided. One subject matter is enough, one that
can be divided into categories which in turn can be divided into common classifications. In
Table 1, for instance, the subject matter is degrees and majors. Degrees are divided into
similar categories such as AB, BSCE, BSE, and MA. The sub classes such as English, History,
Mathematics, and Science are common to the degree categories.
Textual presentation of tabular data. Generally, there should be a textual
presentation of table which precedes the table or the table may be placed within the textual
presentation. The table and its textual presentation should be placed as near as possible to
each other. Textual presentation is mixing words with numbers in statements.
There are two ways of making a textual presentation of a table:
1.
All the items in the table are textually presented. This manner enables
the reader to comprehend the totality of the data even without
consulting the table. This is alright if the data are not so many.
However, if the data are so numerous, reading becomes boring and
the reader may even skip some of the items.
2.
Only the highlights or important parts of the data are textually
presented.
The basic principles that should be remembered in the textually presentations of a
table are:
1.
The textual presentation of a table should be as complete as possible
so that the ideas conveyed in the table are understood even without
referring to the table itself.
2.
Textual Presentation is generally followed by interpretation, inference
or implication. This is done after the data from the table have been
textually presented.
3.
Findings in the present study should be compared with the findings of
other studies as presented in the related literature and studies. This
enables the researcher to make some generalizations if there are
enough data to support such generalizations.
Following is the textual presentation of Table 1:
(Complete) Table 1 shows that there were 59 science teachers in the high schools of
Province A. of this number, 21 or 35.59 percent were AB graduates. Of the AB graduates,
one or 1.69 percent majored in English, two or 3.39 percent in History, six or 10.17 percent
in Mathematics, and 12 or 30.34 percent in Science.
There were only four or 6.78 percent who were BSCE graduates, all majoring in
Mathematics.
There were 31 or 52.54 percent who were BSE graduates and of this number, two or
3.39 percent majored in English, the same number in History, 14 or 23.73 percent in
Mathematics, and 13 or 22.03 percent in Science.
Summarizing the majors, three or 5.08 percent were majors in English, four or 6.78
percent in History, 25 or 42.37 percent in Mathematics, and 27 or 45.76 percent in Science.
Summarizing the majors, three or 5.08 percent were majors in English, four or 6.78
percent in History, 25 or 42.37 percent in mathematics, and 27 or 45.76 percent in Science.
(Only the highlights) Of the 59 teachers, the AB and BSE graduates constituted the
most number. Twenty-one or 35.39 percent were AB graduates and 31 or 52.54 percent
had BSE degrees or a total of 52 or 88.13 percent. Of the majors, 27 or 45.76 percent of
the teachers were majors in Science, 25 or 42.37 percent in Mathematics, and three or 5.08
percent in English and four or 6.78 percent in History.
Findings. Findings are the original data, quantitative or otherwise, derived taken
from the original sources and which are results of questionnaires, interviews, experiments,
tests, observations and other data gathering instruments. Data presented in tables and their
textual presentations are examples of findings. Findings do not directly answer the specific
questions asked at the beginning of the investigation or the explicit hypotheses but the
findings provide the bases for making the answers. Hence, the main functions of the
findings are to provide bases for making the conclusions.
Implication, inference, interpretation. These three terms are synonymous if not
exactly the same in meaning. They are used interchangeably. Each is a statements of the
possible meaning, probable causes and probable effects of a situation or condition as
revealed by the findings plus a veiled suggestion to continue the situation if it is good or to
adopt some remedial measures to eradicate or minimize its bad effects. Those who are to
be benefited and those who are going to suffer the bad effects should also be mentioned.
Implication, inference, or interpretation has at least four elements, namely,
condition, cause, effect, and continuance or remedial measure.
(1)
Statement of the condition or situation. The condition or situation is
stated based upon the findings, whether satisfactory or unsatisfactory.
(2)
Probable cause of the condition. Usually, also every condition has a
cause but, there must be also a logical and valid relationship between
the condition and its cause.
(3)
Probable effects of the condition. Usually, also every condition has an
effect, either bad or good. However, there must also be a logical and
valid relationship between the condition and its effect and this must be
clearly given.
(4)
A veiled suggestion for continuance or remedial measure, if the
possible effect is bad. If the effect of condition is good, then there
must be a hint for the continuance of the existence of the condition.
However, if the effect is deleterious there must be some suggestions
for the adoption of measures aimed at minimizing the harmful effects.
The interpretation of Table 1 and its textual presentation is as follows: All the science
teachers were qualified to teach in the high school as per regulation. Unfortunately, more
than half of them were not science majors and therefore cannot teach science. Taking all
other things equal, a teacher with a science major can teach better than one with a nonscience major. Consequently, it can be assumed that the teaching of science in the high
schools of Province A is weak. As a result, the students and the whole country will suffer
and the whole consequences will be far-reaching. There is a need to encourage the teachers
who are non-science majors to increase their science units by attending evening or summer
courses or by attending more science seminars.
Graphical Presentation of Data
A graph is a chart representing the quantitative variations or changes of a variable
itself, or quantitative changes of variable in comparison with those of another variable or
variables in pictorial or diagrammatic form.
The quantitative variations or changes in the data may refer to their qualitative,
geographical, or chronological attributes. For instance, if the number of teachers teaching
science in the high schools of Province A is graphed according to their degrees, the graphing
is qualitative; if their number is graphed according to their assignments in the towns where
the high schools are located, the graphing is geographical; and if their number is graphed
according to school year, the graphing is chronological.
Purpose of graphing. The purpose of graphing is to present the variations, changes,
and relationships of data in a most attractive, appealing, effective and convincing way.
Advantages of the graphic method. (Bacani, et al., pp. 54-55) According to Bacani,
et al. the following are the advantages of the graphical method:
1.
It attracts attention more effectively than do tables, and, therefore, is
less likely to be overlooked. Readers may skip tables but pause to look
at charts.
2.
The use of colors and pictorial diagrams makes a list of figures in
business reports more meaningful. (Also in thesis reports)
3.
It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative data. The wandering of a
line exerts a more powerful effect in the readers mind than tabulated
data. It shows what is happening and what is likely to take place.
4.
Graphs enable the busy executive of a business concern to grasp the
essential facts quickly and without much trouble. Any relation not seen
from the figures themselves is easily discovered from the graph.
Illustrations, including attractive charts and graphs, are now
considered by most businessmen as indispensable accompaniment to
good business reports.
5.
Their general usefulness lies in the simplicity they add to the
presentation of numerical data.
Limitations of graphs. (Bacani, et al., pp. 55) If there are advantages there are also
disadvantages of the graph. Some of these are:
1.
2.
3.
Charts require more skill, more time, and more expense to prepare
than tables.
4.
5.
Graphs can be made only after the data have been tabulated.
Types of graphs or charts. Graphs may be classified into the following types:
1.
Bar Graphs
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
2.
Linear Graphs
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3.
4.
Pictograms
5.
Statistical maps
6.
Ratio charts
5.
Classes, categories, or time series are indicated at the X-axis and the
scale units are indicated at the Y-axis.
6.
Symmetry of the graph. The whole chart or graph should be about
square; otherwise the length should be a little greater than the height.
The chart should be placed on the page in such a way that the margins
at the left and at the right should be about the same, or the margin at
the left is a little wider.
7.
Footnote. The footnote, if there is any, should be placed immediately
below the graph aligned with the left side of the graph.
8.
Source. The source of data, if there is any, should be written just
below the footnote, if there is any, but it should be above the graph
number.
An example of a vertical bar graph is figure 3, the data of which are taken from the
following table, Table 2.
Table 2
Enrollment of Pagasa High School
1985-1986 to 1989-1990
(By Curricular Year)
Curricular
Years
I
II
III
IV
Total
Source:
1985-1986
F
%
85
36
57
24
53
23
40
17
235
100
School
1986-1987
F
%
144
46
77
24
49
16
45
14
315
100
Years
1987-1988
F
%
173
41
132
32
69
16
46
11
420
100
1988-1989
F
%
192
38
148
29
114
22
56
11
510
100
Principals Office
1989-1990 Total
F
% F
%
221 34 815 38
179 28 593 28
138 22 423 20
102 16 289 14
640 100 2120 100
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1985-1986
Source:
1986-1987
1987-1988
1988-1989
1989-1990
Principals Office
Figure 3
Example of a horizontal bar graph is Figure 4.
Enrolment of Pagasa High School
1989-1990
(By Curricular Year)
Curricular
Year
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
IV
III
II
I
Source:
Principals Office
Figure 4
c.
Grouped (Multiple or Composite) Bar graph. The grouped bar graph is used in
comparing two or more categories of a variable during a specified period or over successive
periods of time when the subgroups of the categories have common attributes. Figure 5
shows the comparison of the enrolments over five successive years of the curricular years of
the students of Pagasa High School, Table 2.
Enrolment of Pagasa High School
1985-1986 to 1989-1990
(By Curricular Year)
NumberoofoStudents
250
200
150
First year
Second year
Third year
100
Fourth year
50
1985-'86
Students
Source:
1986-'87
1987-'88
1988-'89
1989-'90
Principals Office
Figure 5
d.
Table 3
Financial Operations of Pagasa High School
1985-1986 to 1988-1989
(In Thousands of Pesos)
Results of
Operations
1985-1986
School Years
1986-1987 1987-1988
1988-1989
Total
Earnings
310
450
470
600
1830
Expenses
250
390
510
510
1660
60
60
90
210
Profits
Loss
40
40
Source:
Treasurers Report
Profits and Loss of Pagasa High School
1985-1986 to 1988-1989
Thousands
Of Pesos
90
60
30
0
30
60
90
1985-1986
Source:
1986-1987
1987-1988
1988-1989
Treasurers Report
Figure 6
e.
Subdivided (or Component) bar graph. Subdivided bar graphs are used to
show the variations or changes of the component parts of a whole and the whole itself.
Cross-comparison of the proportionate distribution of the different parts can be made easily.
Figure 7 is an example of a subdivided bar graph showing the earnings, expenses, and
profits and loss of the Pagasa High School for a number of years.
700
600
500
Earnings
400
Expenses
300
Profit
200
Loss
100
0
1985-1986
Source:
1986-1987
1987-1988
1988-1989
Treasurers Report
Figure 7
f.
Age Groups
Frequency
20-21
18-19
16-17
14-15
12-13
53
162
211
150
64
________
N = 640
Source:
Principals Office
Cumulative
Frequency
Upward
640
587
425
214
64
Cumulative
Frequency
Downward
53
215
426
576
640
200
150
100
50
0
12-13
Source:
14-15
16-17
Age in Years
18-19
20-21
Principals Office
Figure 8
2.
Linear graphs. Linear graphs are good devices to show variations of values
over successive periods of time. Changes in the data are indicated by the linear curves.
Advantages of linear graphs or charts. The advantages of the linear graph or chart
are the following: (Bacani, et al., p. 67)
a.
The curve shows data as continuous line; hence, it is continuous in its effect.
b.
The wandering line of the curve tells the whole story. At a glance one can
see just what the situation is and what is likely to happen.
c.
Construction. Linear graphs are constructed in much the same way as many other
graphs are. A slight difference lies in the process of locating the intersections of the abscissa
representing a class or category of a variable and the ordinate representing the magnitudes
of the classes or categories of the variable. The intersections of the abscissa and the
ordinate are marked by bold dots and then joined successively by either straight lines or
curved lines to show the variations of a variable or the variable in relation to that of
another.
a.
Time series linear charts. (single line) Time series linear single line charts
depict the variations of a variable over a period of time. Generally, the abscissa represents
the periods of time and the Y-axis represents quantitative values of the variable. The
intersections of the X-axis representing time and the Y-axis representing magnitude are
located and marked and then joined successively by straight or curved lines. The resulting
line, a broken straight line or a curved line, shows the variations of the variable. An
example of this chart is Figure 9 which shows the enrolment of Pagasa High School for five
school years. See table 2 for exact data.
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1985-1986
Source:
1986-1987
1987-1988
1988-1989
1989-1990
Principals Office
Figure 9
b.
Time series composite or multilinear charts. These charts are used when
comparisons are made between or among categories of the same variables or variations of
two or more variables over periods of time. Figure 10 is an example comparing the
enrolments of the curricular years over a period of five years in the Pagasa High School.
Exact data are found in Table 2.
First Year
Second Year
Third Year
Fourth
Year
200
150
100
50
0
1985-1986
Source:
1986-1987
1987-1988
1988-1989
1989-1990
Principals Office
Figure 10
c.
Frequency polygon. The frequency polygon is used to graph class or grouped
frequency distributions. The X-axis represents the classes and the Y-axis represents the
frequencies of the classes. In plotting the interactions of the abscissas and ordinates, the
midpoints of the classes are used as abscissas. The linear curve starts from the midpoint of
the empty class just before the class with a frequency and ends at the midpoint of the
empty class just after the highest class with a frequency. Figure 11 is an example
presenting the age distributions of Pagasa High School students, school year 1989-1990.
The graph is based on data from Table 4.
250
200
150
100
50
0
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Ages in Years
Source:
Principals Office
Figure 11
d.
The ogive. The ogive is used to graph cumulative frequencies (partial sums of
frequencies), either cumulative frequencies upward (from lower classes to
upper classes) or cumulative Frequencies downward (from upper classes to
lower classes). The items graphed may be absolute frequencies or derived
frequencies (percents). Figure 12 gives examples of ogives showing the
cumulative frequencies of students classified according to age. Data are taken
from Table 4.
400
300
200
100
Ogive
Downward
0
12
14
16
18
20
22
Ages in Years
Source:
Principals Office
Figure 12
e.
Band Chart. A band chart is form of line graph of the time series variety. It
shows the proportional variations of the component parts of a whole over a
period of time. The percent equivalents of the components are the ones
plotted but absolute values may be used through rarely. The bands
representing the proportional changes may be colored or cross-hatched
differently to increase the clarity of the variations. Figure 13 is an example
which is based on data in Table 2. It shows the proportional or percent
changes of the students in the four curricular years.
In constructing the band chart, the largest component at the beginning of the period
is placed at the bottom, followed by the second largest component, etc. If percents are used
the band chart is a rectangle. If actual values are used, the upper line boundary of the chart
will be irregular.
100%
90%
80%
Axis Title
70%
60%
Fourth year
50%
Third year
40%
Second year
First year
30%
20%
10%
0%
1985-1986
Source:
1986-1987
1987-1988
1988-1989
1989-1990
Principals Office
Figure 13
3.
One hundred percent graphs or charts. One hundred percent graphs or charts
show the comparison of the proportional sizes of the component parts that make up the
whole, the whole being made equivalent to 100%. It is the percent equivalent of the
component parts that are portrayed in the graph. The percent equivalent of each component
part is found by dividing it by the total of the component parts and multiplying the result by
100%. There are two types or kinds of 100% charts: a.) the 100% bar or rectangular chart
and b.) The pie chart or circle graph. These are to graph budgets, enrolments, sales, etc.
a.
The 100% bar graph or rectangular chart. Usually, the bar graph is erected
vertically and the whole height is equivalent to 100%. The bar is subdivided
into segments whose number is equal to the number of component parts. The
size of each segment is proportional to the percent of the component part it
represents. The segments are arranged according to size with the largest
segment at the bottom. Each segment is labeled by the value and percent it
represents, the percent inside and the value outside. See example below,
Figure 14.
Suppose the following are the expenditures of the Pagasa High School
during the school year 1987-1988: (see Table 3)
Administration (Salaries)
Instruction (Salaries)
Facilities (Including building)
Miscellaneous
Total
P
P
P
P
P
60,000.00
310,000.00
100,000.00
40,000.00
510,000.00
11.76%
60.79%
19.61%
7.84%
100.00%
Miscellaneous
P40,000.00
7.84%
11.76%
Administration (Salaries)
P60,000.00
Facilities (Including Building)
P100,000.00
19.61%
Instruction (Salaries)
P310,000.00
60.79%
Source:
Treasurers Report
Figure 14
b.
The Pie Chart or circle Graph. The circle graphs has the same principles and
functions as the rectangular chart. It is also equated to 100% and because the circle has
3600, 1% is equated to 3.6 so that 60% must be equal to 2160 (3.6 x 60). Graphing again
the expenses of Pagasa High School in 1987-1988 using the circle graph, it is done as in
Figure 15 below.
0
11.76%
19.60%
Source:
60.79%
Treasurers Report
Figure 15
4.
Construction. First, make a scale, that is, each picture or symbol must represent a
definite number of units. So, to find the number of pictures or symbols to represent a
magnitude, divide the magnitude by the number of units represented by each picture or
symbol. The pictures and symbols must be of the same size and arranged in a row of rows.
The symbols should suggest the nature of the subject matter of the data being presented.
For instance, an army may be presented by pictures of soldiers; population by pictures of
persons; Car registration by pictures of automobiles; money in circulation by pictures of
money bills or peso coins; etc. Figure 16 is an example showing the enrolment of Pagasa
High School from 1985-1986 to 1989-1990. The graph is based on Table 2.
Enrolment of Pagasa high School
1985-1986 to 1989-1990
1985-1986
Legend:
1986-1987
1987-1988
1988-1989
1989-1990
Source:
= 50
2.
3.
The probable effect of the condition. Most likely, there is also a probable
effect of the condition and there must be a logical relationship between the
condition and its probable effect. The logical effect of the lack of enough
qualified teachers to teach science is that, taking all other things equal, the
science teachers in the high schools of Province A are not as effective as when
all the science teachers are fully qualified. It is understandable that a fully
qualified science teacher has more science knowledge and skills to impart to
his students than a non-qualified science teacher. Hence, the students would
suffer adversely.
4.
5.
The entity or area involved or affected. In the example cited above, it is the
teaching of science in the high schools of Province A that is affected. Hence,
the topic for discussion must be entitled Implications of the Findings to the
Teaching of Science. Some researchers use the title Implications to
Education which is too broad and vague. The area directly affected by the
unfavorable or favorable conditions discovered in the study should be cited
more specifically.
Chapter 5
This is the last chapter of the thesis and the most important part because it is here
where the findings, and the whole thesis for that matter, are summarized; generalizations in
the form of conclusions are made; and the recommendations for the solution of problems
discovered in the study are addressed to those concerned.
Summary of Findings
Guidelines in writing the summary of findings. The following should be the
characteristics of the summary of findings:
1.
There should be e brief statement about the main purpose of the study, the
population or respondents, the period of the study, method of research used,
the research instrument, and the sampling design. There should be no
explanations made.
Example. (Using the hypothetical study of teaching science in the high
schools of Province A). This study was conducted for the purpose of
determining the status of teaching science in the high schools of
Province A. The descriptive method of research was utilized and the
normative survey technique was used for gathering data. The
questionnaire served as the instrument for collecting data. All the
teachers handling science and a 20percent representative sample of
the students were the respondents. The inquiry was conducted during
the school year 1989-90.
2.
The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity demands that each
specific question under the statement of the problem must be written first to
followed by the findings that would answer it. The specific questions should
follow the order they are given under the statement of the problem.
Example. How qualified are the teachers handling science in the high
schools of province A?
Of the 59 teachers, 31 or 53.54 percent were BSE graduates and three
or 5.08 percent were MA degree holders. The rest, 25 or 42.37
percent, were non-BSE baccalaureate degree holders with at least 18
education units. Less than half of all the teachers, only 27 or 45.76
percent were science majors and the majority, 32 or 54.24 percent
were non-science majors.
3.
4.
Only the important findings, the highlights of the data, should be included in
the summary, especially those upon which the conclusions should be based.
5.
Findings are not explained nor elaborated upon anymore. They should be
stated as concisely as possible.
6.
Conclusions
Guidelines in writing the conclusions. The following should be the characteristics of
the conclusions.
1.
Conclusions
are
inferences,
deductions,
abstractions,
implications,
interpretations, general statements, and/or generalizations based upon the
findings. Conclusions are the logical and valid outgrowths upon the findings.
They should not contain any numeral because numerals generally limit the
forceful effect or impact and scope of a generalization. No conclusions should
be made that are not based upon the findings.
Example: The conclusion that can be drawn from the findings in No. 2
under the summary of findings is this: All the teachers were qualified to teach
in the high school but the majority of them were not qualified to teach
science.
2.
3.
Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry.
However, no conclusions should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects
of the findings.
Example: From the findings that the majority of the teachers were
non-science majors and the facilities were less than the needs of the
students, what have been factually learned are that the majority of the
teachers were not qualified to teach science and the science facilities
were inadequate.
It cannot be concluded that science teaching in the high schools of
Province A was weak because there are no data telling that the science
instruction was weak. The weakness of science teaching is an indirect
or implied effect of the non-qualification of the teachers and the
inadequacy of the facilities. This is better placed under the summary of
implications.
If there is a specific question which runs this way How strong science
instruction in the high schools of Province A as is perceived by the
teachers and students?, then a conclusion to answer this question
should be drawn. However, the respondents should have been asked
how they perceived the degree of strength of the science instruction
whether it is very strong, strong, fairly strong, weak or very weak. The
conclusion should be based upon the responses to the question.
4.
Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, ye they
convey all the necessary information resulting from the study as required by
the specific questions.
5.
6.
Conclusions should refer only to the population, area, or subject of the study.
Take for instance, the hypothetical teaching of science in the high schools of
Province A, all conclusions about the faculty, facilities, methods, problems,
etc. refer only to the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A.
7.
2.
income of the entire alumni group. This is the result of a built-in sampling
bias.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Limited information furnished by any one ratio. A ratio shows only a partial
picture in most analytical work. Suppose the only information that we have
about a certain establishment is that the ratio does not show the kinds of
employees leaving and why they are leaving. We do not know whether the
losses of employees are caused by death, retirement, resignations, or
dismissals. We can only surmise but we cannot conclude with definiteness
that the causes of the 20% employee turnover are death, retirement, poor
working conditions, poor salary, etc. Avoid as much as possible making
conclusions not sufficiently and adequately supported by facts.
7.
II.
III.
IV.
Conclusions (Generalizations)
1.
Are the conclusions based upon the findings?
2.
Do they answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the
investigation?
3.
Are they logical and valid outcomes of the study?
4.
Are they stated concisely and clearly and limited only to the subject of the
study?
V.
Recommendations
1.
Are the recommendations based upon the findings and conclusions?
2.
Are they feasible, practical, and attainable?
3.
Are they action-oriented? (They recommend action to remedy unfavorable
condition discovered)
4.
Are they limited only to the subject of the study but recommend further
research on the same subject?
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