Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ON
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS ON
SLOPING SITES
DECLARATION
Deepa Sharma
Scholar Number: 101110047
May 2014
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to gratefully and sincerely thank Dr. Manmohan Kapshe for his
guidance, understanding, patience, and most importantly, his friendship during my
dissertation research study. He encouraged me to grow as an instructor and an
independent thinker. I am not sure many graduate students are given the opportunity
to develop their own individuality and self-sufficiency by being allowed to work with
such independence.
The writing of this dissertation has been one of the most significant academic
challenges I have ever taken. Though the following dissertation is an individual work,
I could never have reached the heights or explored the depths without the help of
books published by various authors, the e-books available on the internet, the research
papers published by various authors and the various organizations and websites
providing information related to my dissertation topic.
My very special thanks to my colleagues for their support and suggestions for my
research and all the other respective sources for helping me.
II
LIST OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ....................................................................................................... I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................ II
LIST OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. II
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. V
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. VII
Chapter-1.
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1
1.1.
Justification ..................................................................................................... 1
1.2.
1.3.
Aim .................................................................................................................. 3
1.4.
Objectives ........................................................................................................ 3
1.5.
Scope ............................................................................................................... 4
1.6.
Limitations ...................................................................................................... 5
1.7.
Methodology ................................................................................................... 6
Chapter-2.
UNDERSTANDING
THE
TOPOGRAPHY
OF
SLOPING
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
Conclusion..................................................................................................... 18
Chapter-3.
SERVICES 19
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
Roads: ............................................................................................................ 26
3.5.
3.6.
3.7.
Conclusion..................................................................................................... 35
Chapter-4.
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
Conclusion..................................................................................................... 51
Chapter-5.
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.
5.5.
Conclusion..................................................................................................... 57
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 58
ANNEXURE............................................................................................................ 60
IV
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Up slope (left) and Down slope (right) (Tweed Shire Council) ................. 9
Figure 2.2: Side slope (left) and Rolling slope (right) (Tweed Shire Council) .......... 10
Figure 2.3: Building on flat site (left) and moderate slope (right) (Tweed Shire
Council)........................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 2.4: Building on steep slope (left) and extreme slope (right) (Tweed Shire
Council)........................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 2.5: Design principles that must be taken care of (HRO) .............................. 15
Figure 2.6: Over excavation and creation of artificial plateau should be avoided
(North Tipperary County Council, 2009) .................................................................... 15
Figure 2.7: Step building design (Tweed Shire Council) ............................................ 16
Figure 2.8: Standard large lot residential layout, mixed single family layout with open
spaces, mixed density layout with open spaces ( from left to right) (City of VernonHillside Guidelines 2008, 2008) .................................................................................. 17
Figure 3.1: RC moment resisting frame with unreinforced masonry infill walls (left)
and open ground storey structure (right) (Assessment Project Group of IIT Bombay,
IIT Guwahati, IIT Kharagpur, IIT Madras, IIT Roorkee, 2013).................................. 20
Figure 3.2: Cut and fill construction (left) and stilts construction (right)
Basements/Retaining walls (Tips for building on a sloped terrain, 2014) (How to
Build on a Sloping Site) ............................................................................................... 22
Figure 3.3: Basement construction on sloping sites (Tips for building on a sloped
terrain, 2014) ................................................................................................................ 23
Figure 3.4: Typical retaining wall construction, Gabion wall and rock buttress (from
left to right) (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME
ROADS BMPS) ........................................................................................................... 24
Figure 3.5: Common types of retaining structures (Slope Stabilization and Stability
of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS).................................................. 24
Figure 3.6: Construction detail for retaining wall of height upto 2 m (left) and 5 m
(right) (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS
BMPS).......................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 3.7: Typical rock wall construction for smooth backfill (left) and face with
steps (right) (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME
ROADS BMPS) ........................................................................................................... 25
Figure 3.8: Two lane road (left) and split level access road (right) (California Coastal
Commission) ................................................................................................................ 27
Figure 3.9: Single lane road with pullouts (left) and bridge (right) (California Coastal
Commission) ................................................................................................................ 28
Figure 3.10: Culvert (left) and Arizona crossing (right) (California Coastal
Commission) ................................................................................................................ 29
Figure 3.11: Balanced cut and fill for most of the construction on hill slopes (Slope
Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS) ....... 30
Figure 3.12: Full bench cuts for slopes exceeding 60% (Slope Stabilization and
Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS) ................................... 30
Figure 3.13: Through cut (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOWVOLUME ROADS BMPS) ......................................................................................... 31
Figure 3.14: Typical fill (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOWVOLUME ROADS BMPS) ......................................................................................... 31
Figure 3.15: Benched slope fill with layer placement (Slope Stabilization and Stability
of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS).................................................. 31
Figure 3.16: Reinforced fill. These can be used as an alternative for retaining wall
(Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS)
...................................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 3.17: Through fill (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOWVOLUME ROADS BMPS) ......................................................................................... 32
Figure 3.18: Contour graded slope (left) and Steep geogrid slope (right) (California
Coastal Commission) ................................................................................................... 34
VI
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 : Common stable slope ratios for varying soil/rock conditions (Slope
Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS) ....... 60
VII
Table 2 : Relation between number of levels and number of gabions for flat backfill
(Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS)
...................................................................................................................................... 61
Table 3 : Relation between number of levels and number of gabions for face with
steps (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS
BMPS).......................................................................................................................... 61
VIII
CHAPTER-1.
INTRODUCTION
The housing we build today will not only help to shape our environment in the
immediate future, it will also be determining the environmental quality of spaces. This
study describes the contributions to quality and sustainability of the design of new
residential developments on sloping sites.
The context given in the report is aimed at achieving attractive and functional places
through better design, better construction techniques and services, proper use of
building materials, suitability of landslopes for different buildings to promote:
1. The wider context of the local setting, the characteristics of the site for
development
2. More sustainable patterns of living and working
3. More effective integration between topography and built up
4. The creation of attractive places in which people are happy to live, work and
take their leisure.
5. Greater responsiveness to site and setting in the layout of new development to
achieve a better balance between requirements and other factors.
The creation of attractive residential environments with a genuine sense of place is a
prerequisite to achieving sustainability. The quality of where we live depends not just
on the design of buildings, but on their layout and landscaping, the arrangements
made for access, and in particular, how they relate to their surroundings. It is intended
to encourage the interconnection of design considerations of the setting, landscape
design, circulation patterns and buildings to form a coherent design structure.
1.1. Justification
In global context, each and every piece of land should be praised to its individuality.
At designing point of view, each site has got its own potential in terms of its richness,
fertility, texture, ability to bear, nearby features like deep valleys, water bodies,
hillocks, ridges and soaring mountains.
Designing of building on sloping sites while avoiding the cut and fill construction
techniques is cumbersome process because of change in ground levels. But spaces
should be carved out respecting the character and physical behavior of site, thus
1
achieving the better functional space. These techniques are only employed when
necessary.
Designing on sloping spaces is a move away from typical standards of flat sites to a
more integrated and functional approach to achieve high quality and sustainable
designs. Most of the sloping sites due to its beautiful and admiring surrounding
features, the user can enjoy the nature upto its full expanse.
Spaces designed in sloping sites may differs from those of in flat or less sloping sites
(where presence of contours can be neglected) in terms of their approach, dimensions,
geometry, proportions, views, etc. Those spaces may prove inconvenient or
exhaustive for physically challenged people, but that can also be avoided by following
some design criteria, thus making the space more functional and universal.
The execution principles, services utilized for construction of buildings are quite
different from those adopted in flat sites. Also the ambient climatic conditions reaches
extreme in most of the regions having uneven landforms. These places are also
vulnerable to other natural calamities like seismic activities, storms, snowfall, hail,
etc.
Some of the buildings are constructed using locally available materials and techniques
which may not be prevailing in other regions because there, the transport of building
materials proves laborious.
So, the study would help architects/ designers to get the complete idea of
perspective of spaces and designing according to the requirement of user and
exploring the site upto its full extent.
1.3. Aim
The main purpose of the study is to contribute to the methodologies and principles
employed for carving out spaces in sloping sites. The study is also intended to
contribute to the better understanding of terrain and opportunities for creating spaces
which have greater responsiveness to site.
To establish design principles for different typologies of residential buildings on
sloping sites.
1.4. Objectives
Residential development on sloping sites must complement the scenic hillside
character by integrating unique or special natural features such as landforms, rock
outcroppings, viable existing stands of trees and vegetation, ravines, water features,
hilltops and ridgelines; protect wildlife habitat; avoid unstable or hazardous sites and
protect lives and property from hazardous conditions, such as rock falls, storm runoff,
erosion, etc.; provide safe year round access for residents, visitors and service
providers;
1. Suitability of land slopes for different buildings and design criteria
Sloping landforms can be classified on the basis of direction of slope and amount of
slope. Each site has its individuality on which a particular type of arrangement of
spaces can be done. This further requires analysis of some of the other parameters. A
thorough investigation and assessment of ground conditions and stability is essential
to determine whether a site is suitable for building on, where the best place may be to
locate a building and the type of structural system that will be required.
2. How sloping landforms can be best accomplished for getting functional and risk
free spaces
Sloping sites are generally prone to soil erosion, landslides, debris flow, seismic
activities, etc. These are also burdensome for physically challenged people. But
incorporating some of the design criteria, spaces can be made more functional and
risk free. Natural character of the hillside should be preserved as well as provide
scenic views from a hillside site.
3. Design principles, construction techniques, materials and services
Design solutions/construction techniques like step building design, cut/fill
construction techniques, raising the building on stilts/poles, retaining wall
construction, drainage issues, seepage problems should be incorporated which
respects the site potential upto its full expanse and lessen the impact of seismic
loading and other dynamic loadings.
4. Scope of landscaping on sloping sites
Landscapes on sloping sites will certainly take a little more thought and effort than for
a normal flat site but the results can be very interesting by playing with change in
levels, creating stepped appearance, terracing, tiering, etc. The biggest concern is
usually the risk of erosion. Additionally, planting and maintaining plants on inclines
can be a difficult undertaking. However, there are many ways to successfully
landscape a slope and create an attractive incline.
1.5. Scope
The study is intended for use in the design of all the proposals for residential
buildings of all typologies in global context having uneven terrains from small scale
housing projects to major housing projects on large sites satisfying the climatic
4
conditions, culture and heritage of the region and also respecting the landform.
Nevertheless, the principles in the report will be used by architects as a basis for
assessing any proposal.
The study also have emphasis on landscaping features(decks, patios, pavers, pergolas,
entryways, walkways, plants, retaining walls, lighting, water bodies, etc.), process of
landscaping in slopes, hardscaping and softscaping.
Preservation of slopes or hillside erosion control, importance of heights and
proportions, designing open spaces, protection of existing trees, and other important
natural and topographical features is also included in report.
Study also includes construction of houses using modern building materials and
techniques as well as vernacular materials and techniques.
The study also includes the construction technologies, materials, services (water
supply, sewage disposal, gas, electricity, lighting and telecommunication) and study
about vehicular and pedestrian networks.
Seismic vulnerability assessment of building types is also included in study.
Cost factors are not taken into consideration in this study.
The study also not includes designing in largely steep slopes, inaccessible sites, places
having frequent landslides, other natural calamities like heavy snowfall, hail storm,
etc.
The study also not includes the interior designing of the spaces and elements (wall
treatments, finishes, flooring, ceiling, etc.)
1.6. Limitations
The study will be helpful for architects and designers for proposals of all types of
residential buildings but not commercial, industrial, recreational buildings like
shopping malls, large office buildings, sports complexes and stadiums.
The study includes information about construction techniques and materials employed
for particular type of landform but not project management and construction
management of execution, materials, time taken for execution, labours and cost.
The scope of study could be very vast and very much extensive in nature involving all
constructional techniques and structural aspects. But, sighting the specific need and
the other constraints such as time etc., we should draw a limit to our area of
exploration. No live case studies are done because of time constraint.
1.7. Methodology
The study encompasses the information on topics from detailed research referring
journals, documents, literature reviews, case studies, in each and every objective of
the study.
Detailed analysis of the visual character of the local setting, topography, field patterns
(using topographical survey techniques), landmarks, historic features and nature
conservation interests is done to provide a source of inspiration for the design.
Maps and aerial photographs can provide useful indicators of visual character and
help to highlight the character of the local landscape or townscape.
Topographic survey is done to get the necessary data to produce a topographic map of
the earths surface. This map will include contour lines, location of natural features,
such as streams, gullies, and ditches and man-made features like bridges, culverts,
roads, fences, etc. which are needful for detailed planning. The best practical method
of presenting topography is by means of contour maps.
Analysis of the local landscape and townscape is important to help relate the
development more sensitively to its surroundings. Such analysis should include
patterns of landscape and townscape, spatial characteristics and building forms, and
the results should be illustrated on plan.
The analysis also includes the visual characteristics of building forms and related
elements, such as: aspect and orientation; proportion; the balance of solid to void; the
shapes and details of roofs, chimneys, windows and doors and the materials used.
reviews
CHAPTER-2.
Up slope
Down slope
Figure 2.1: Up slope (left) and Down slope (right) (Tweed Shire Council)
2.1.1.3.
Side slope
2.1.1.4.
Rolling slope
Figure 2.2: Side slope (left) and Rolling slope (right) (Tweed Shire Council)
Flat sites
Moderate slope
On slopes of 6-12, single slab construction should be avoided (up to 1:5). Two or
more slabs or part slab/part post and beam construction techniques should be adopted.
(see Figure 2.3 )
10
2.1.2.3.
Steep slope
On slopes over 12-18 (1:5-1:3) post and beam construction which steps with the
site. This may include a lower part level which may be a concrete slab. (see Figure
2.4)
2.1.2.4.
Extreme slope
Figure 2.3: Building on flat site (left) and moderate slope (right) (Tweed Shire Council)
Figure 2.4: Building on steep slope (left) and extreme slope (right) (Tweed Shire Council)
11
12
1. Building should be oriented with the contours utilizing the natural slopes. (see
Figure 2.5)
2. All development should be sited to avoid potentially hazardous areas and
environmentally sensitive areas as identified in the open space as well as to
avoid dislocation of any unusual rock.
3. The need for excavation or fill increases complexity of the construction as
well as adds on the cost.
4. For steeply sloping sites (e.g. in excess of 1:5) consider suitable split level
(stepped) schemes that relate more closely to existing ground levels should be
considered. Land should be carefully spaced around the building so that it
blends more successfully with the surroundings while creating further shelter.
(see Figure 2.7)
5. Excess fill should be either removed or carefully graded around the building to
suit the natural slope of the land.
6. Natural slope should dictate the form. Over excavation and creation of
artificial plateau should be avoided. (see Figure 2.6)
7. Natural drainage courses should be preserved, enhanced, and incorporated as
an integral part of the project design to the extent possible. Where required,
drainage channels should follow the existing drainage patterns to the extent
possible. They should be placed in inconspicuous locations and receive a
naturalizing treatment including native rock and landscaping, so that the
structure appears as an integral part of the environment.
8. Grading should be limited to the extent possible and designed to retain the
shape of the natural landform. Grading must be designed to preserve natural
features such as knolls or ridgelines. In no case should the top of a prominent
hilltop, knoll, or ridge be graded to create a large building pad; circulation
should be aligned to conform to the natural grades as much as possible. (see
Figure 2.5)
9. The use of retaining walls, plantable walls, and terraced retaining structures is
encouraged when use of these can eliminate the need for extensive cut or fill
slopes. Retaining walls should typically have a height of five (5) feet or less.
Plantable walls should be used instead of retaining walls above six (6) feet in
13
height. Terraced retaining structures should be considered when their use can
avoid the need for extensive manufactured slopes and retaining walls. (see
Figure 2.5)
10. Slopes steeper than two to one (2:1), appropriately designed by a geotechnical
engineer,
14
Figure 2.6: Over excavation and creation of artificial plateau should be avoided (North Tipperary County
Council, 2009)
Development including grading on natural slopes between fifteen percent (15%) and
twenty-five percent (25%) should be designed according to the following guidelines
(HRO):
1. Grading should be utilized only for the construction and installation of roads,
utilities, garage
2. Deck construction with excessively high distances between the structure and
grade should be avoided.
3. Rear yard should not exceed twenty (20) feet measured parallel to the slope if
such yard requires a grading exemption.
4. Single-level residential structures should be oriented such that the greatest
horizontal dimension of the structure is parallel with, and not perpendicular to,
the natural contour of the land. The slope of the roof should be oriented in the
same direction as the natural slope. (see Figure 2.5)
Development including grading on natural slopes of thirty-five percent (25%) or over
should be designed according to the following guidelines (HRO):
1. Extensive manufactured slopes and retaining walls should be avoided.
2. Landscaping should be utilized to recreate the linear silhouette and to act as a
backdrop for structures. Trees that grow to at least one and a half times the
15
16
Figure 2.8: Standard large lot residential layout, mixed single family layout with open spaces, mixed density
layout with open spaces ( from left to right) (City of Vernon- Hillside Guidelines 2008, 2008)
17
2.5. Conclusion
This chapter concludes that building should positively respond to the site and explore
the full potential of site. This chapter also tells about the implications and principles
of building design on different amount of slope to avoid the grading as much as
possible.
18
CHAPTER-3.
19
14. RC moment resisting frame with unreinforced masonry infill walls (see Figure
3.1), flat slab structure, open ground storey structure (see Figure 3.1), load
bearing masonry, open intermediate storey structure, mixed infills.
15. RC mixed structure with composite timber, bamboo and others
16. Dry rubble stone masonry with flat slab
17. Mixed dry rubble stone masonry
Figure 3.1: RC moment resisting frame with unreinforced masonry infill walls (left) and open ground storey
structure (right) (Assessment Project Group of IIT Bombay, IIT Guwahati, IIT Kharagpur, IIT Madras, IIT
Roorkee, 2013)
20
21
Figure 3.2: Cut and fill construction (left) and stilts construction (right) Basements/Retaining walls (Tips for
building on a sloped terrain, 2014) (How to Build on a Sloping Site)
Figure 3.3: Basement construction on sloping sites (Tips for building on a sloped terrain, 2014)
23
Figure 3.4: Typical retaining wall construction, Gabion wall and rock buttress (from left to right) (Slope
Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS)
Figure 3.5: Common types of retaining structures (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOWVOLUME ROADS BMPS)
24
Figure 3.6: Construction detail for retaining wall of height upto 2 m (left) and 5 m (right) (Slope Stabilization
and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS)
Figure 3.7: Typical rock wall construction for smooth backfill (left) and face with steps (right) (Slope
Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS)
25
Sloping up from the road may at first seem the best option, but many local authorities
will not allow surface water to go into the public sewers and many require that
precautions are taken to ensure that surface water does not flow onto the road. (Slope
Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS)
3.4. Roads:
Road designs are typically site specific and may require input from geotechnical
engineers and engineering geologists. Slope failures, or landslides, typically occur
where a slope is over-steep, where fill material is not compacted, or where cuts in
natural soils encounter groundwater or zones of weak material. Good road location
can often avoid landslide areas and reduce slope failures. When failures do occur, the
slide area should be stabilized by removing the slide material, flattening the slope,
adding drainage, or using stabilizing structures. Failures near streams and channel
crossings have an added risk of impact to water quality. Certain points to be taken
care of while designing road on sloping sites (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts
and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS):
1. Grading for the construction of access roads or drainage ways shall be
minimized so that the visual impacts associated with said construction are
mitigated to the greatest extent possible;
2. The construction of access roadways or driveways should be accompanied by
sufficient berming and landscaping/erosion control so that visual impacts
associated with said construction are promptly mitigated.
3. If the city engineer determines that no hazard to pedestrian or vehicular traffic
will be created, a garage or carport may be built to within five (5) feet of the
street right-of-way line.
3.4.1. Classification of access routes
Depending upon the terrain conditions, access routes may be classified as:
(California Coastal Commission)
3.4.1.1.
Figure 3.8: Two lane road (left) and split level access road (right) (California Coastal Commission)
3.4.1.3.
Bridge
Figure 3.9: Single lane road with pullouts (left) and bridge (right) (California Coastal Commission)
3.4.1.5.
28
3.4.1.6.
Arizona Crossing/Ford
Figure 3.10: Culvert (left) and Arizona crossing (right) (California Coastal Commission)
Design criteria that should be considered while planning for sidewalks include (Slope
Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS):
1. Sidewalks must be set back from the road a minimum of 1.5 m to
accommodate snow storage (for cold regions).
2. Sidewalks are to be located on the same side of the road due to the winding
nature of hillside roads. The location for sidewalks must be set to maximize
the function as a safe pedestrian corridor through the development and provide
scenic views where possible.
3. Sidewalks on both sides of the road may be required for short distances to
provide walking linkage between roads and to provide improved sight
distances for road crossings.
4. The requirement for sidewalks on local cul-de-sac roads may be waived where
low traffic volume is generated, provided alternate off street pedestrian
facilities exist.
5. Curvilinear or meandering sidewalks and pathways may be used where they
eliminate long sustained grades. Varying offsets between the road and the
29
Figure 3.11: Balanced cut and fill for most of the construction on hill slopes (Slope Stabilization and Stability
of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS)
Figure 3.12: Full bench cuts for slopes exceeding 60% (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and FillsLOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS)
30
Figure 3.13: Through cut (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS
BMPS)
Figure 3.14: Typical fill (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS
BMPS)
Figure 3.15: Benched slope fill with layer placement (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and FillsLOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS)
31
Figure 3.16: Reinforced fill. These can be used as an alternative for retaining wall (Slope Stabilization and
Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS)
Figure 3.17: Through fill (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS
BMPS)
Methods include the use of stone, steel, concrete and geosynthetics to stabilize or
shore up slopes that are liable to landslides. These methods should, where possible, be
combined with use of plants and trees to enhance the urban green space. (California
Coastal Commission)
There are various construction techniques by which landslide stability can be
achieved on slopes (California Coastal Commission):
3.5.1. Conventional Buttress Fill Slope
1. Extensive grading is required for steep slopes, since fill must be designed at
2:1 or 1.5:1 (horizontal to vertical).
2. Extensive surface disturbance and loss of habitat from fill area.
3. Finished slope does not blend with natural terrain min steep slope areas can be
varied to blend with natural terrain.
4. Surface and subsurface water flows must be controlled as long as fill slope
exists.
5. Drainage must be maintained; water cannot be directed to a modified slope.
3.5.2. Contour Graded Slope
(see Figure 3.18)
1. Extensive grading required if natural slope is steep; slope must conform to
local grading standards.
2. Some disturbance of surface area and habitat.
3. Finished slope can be varied to blend with natural terrain.
4. Surface and subsurface flows need to be controlled, as long as slope exists.
5. Portions of natural vegetation can be maintained.
3.5.3. Steep Geogrid Slope
(see Figure 3.18)
1. Slope can be constructed with little grading, even in steep terrain.
2. Finished slope can be steeper than a conventional buttress fill, up to 1:1.
3. Surface and subsurface flows need to be controlled as long as slope exists.
4. Can be constructed where space is limited.
5. Finished slope can be varied to blend with natural terrain.
33
Figure 3.18: Contour graded slope (left) and Steep geogrid slope (right) (California Coastal Commission)
34
3.7. Conclusion
This chapter tells about the residential building typologies prevalent in Northern and
North Eastern region of India and construction techniques to be adopted while
designing the building on sloping sites. This section focuses on cut/fill construction
techniques, construction of building on stilts, retaining wall construction, rock wall
construction, etc.
Road design criteria are also discussed focusing on cut/fill slope design options.
Landslide or slope stability is also taken into consideration.
35
CHAPTER-4.
Slopes offer a great challenge than flat ground when it comes to landscaping. The
biggest concern is usually the risk of erosion. Additionally, planting and maintaining
plants on inclines can be a difficult undertaking and take a little more thought and
effort than for a normal 'flat' garden but the results can be very unusual - and a much
more interesting garden can be created.
If slopes are very steep or complicated, landscape architect must be preferred, who
can advise on this aspect of your garden design, and make sure the design and the
works are structurally safe and sound.
36
4.1.2. Soil
Proper analysis of type of soil and is water holding capacity should be done. It will
decide the type of planting material that will best grow here and better secure the
slope. To check the type of soil, a hole should be dug somewhere on the slope,
preferably where landscaping is to be done and result is noted down. If soils on top
slides down the slope easier, then the soil is rocky or clayey. (Anderson)
4.1.3. Access and maintenance
Access to gardens on slope is necessary for maintenance, weeding, pruning and
watering, and can take different forms. If a very small garden, access can be made
from the edges. Larger gardens require access via paths, walkways or steps. Steps and
paths down the slope can be used to more appropriately access the terraced gardens.
(Anderson)
4.1.4. Rainwater and runoff management
Rainwater and runoff management is interrelated with irrigation, plant selection and
erosion control. Rainwater can prove harmful for a hillside garden. If unchecked, it
can cause serious erosion. Rain running down the hill and off the landscaped area into
the residential spaces is a problem. Rain can become an asset with proper design.
Terraces accomplish this inherently by providing level garden areas for the rain to
soak in and not runoff. Where a slope is not terraced, berms across the hillside with
narrow swales behind, and winding stone-lined creek beds can slow the movement of
water, allowing it to soak in. Garden at the bottom of the slope allows the last of the
runoff to gather and irrigate plants assembled there.
If there is a slope uphill from the residence, berms can also be used there to send
surface water around the house for use in lower gardens.
Aesthetically pleasing ground cover is also an easy solution to control water runoff. If
the slope is not too steep, a ground cover creates a clean appearance that is easy to
maintain. Ground covers such as Blue Rug Juniper, Baltic English Ivy and buffalo
grass are low maintenance and well suited to sloped areas. There are also flowering
ground covers for inclines like Creeping Phlox, Vinca Minor vines and Sweet
Woodruff. (Anderson)
37
Boulders or rocks should be strategically placed around the plants to slow down any
water runoff. Stones offer a natural appearance, but they also trap the earth and
moisture within it.
4.1.5. Irrigation
Since hand watering of a landscaped area on slopes is not very convenient, there is a
need to install drip irrigation. Alternatively, on a low-water slope landscape, drought
tolerant plants can be selected; hand watering them first two summers can be done,
rather than installing irrigation.
Plants put at the top of a slope will get the least water, those in the middle somewhat
more, and those near the bottom the most, as water running downhill section is
soaking in more and more. Accordingly; top, middle and bottom regions are planned.
The most drought tolerant should go toward the top, and those that can tolerate more
water closer to the bottom. Exposure plays a factor too. And the direction the slope
faces will impact plant selection; southern and western exposures are hotter, and
northern and eastern can take plants that can stand less direct sun. (Anderson)
In addition to normal gardening issues mentioned above, particular challenges hillside
gardening must also be considered while planning a landscape on sloping site:
1. Erosion control and retaining the hillside
2. Rainwater and Runoff
3. Structural safety for landscape design
4. Plant selection and locationfor erosion control and relating to water needs
and exposure
5. Zoning and water behavior on slopes
6. Accessibility to the beds or plantings for maintenance and moving
7. Steepness of paths and steps, and safety aspects
Design considerations for gardens sloping up away from the house (or sloping
down towards the house)
A garden that slopes up from the home is one that can be seen to an even greater
degree than a flat site. It becomes a garden that can be terraced so as to bring
aesthetical values to the residence.
38
1. Patio on a higher part of the garden, away from the house may look
interesting. Raised wooden decks can be attractive and they can be constructed
in such a way as to allow light to filter down to the windows of lower storeys.
2. The rest of the garden could be a series of attractive terraces probably with
steps.
3. Professional advice on structure should be taken and as to avoid water running
down the slope and collecting near the house. (Sloping Garden Design Ideas,
2014)
Design considerations for gardens sloping down away from the house (or sloping
up towards the house)
1. High level decking may look interesting.
2. The rest of the garden could be terraced with steps, and attractive planting and
groundcover to make space look aesthetically pleasing.
3. Advantage of great views. (Sloping Garden Design Ideas, 2014)
39
canopy should be planted rather than an upright conical form such as a fir tree to
avoid repeated topping in the future. (Gilmer)
2. Slopes should be taken up gradually as possible.
A very gentle slope is not much different than a flats garden, but a steeper slope
certainly is.
Any time a slope is cut its integrity is compromised, therefore its more better if less
slope is cut. Cutting into a slope removes topsoil to expose subsoil, often heavy clays
or shale that are poorly drained or lack microbial action of a living topsoil. This is
why the planting on so many cut slopes and home pads on exposed subsoil are prone
to failure.
To preserve the slope, grading is done with a series of shorter terraces rather than one
or two very large ones graded with cut and fill. The larger terraces may require
extreme erosion control measures on the cut slope and a substantial retaining wall
must be specially engineered to hold the fill. Such walls are constructed with footings,
sometimes extending down to bedrock. Residences on moderate to extreme slopes are
prone to mudslides and slope failures in extreme weather. (Gilmer)
3. Plants with extensive root system should be used to bind the slope deep
underground.
Erosion and depth of the soil can be issues in a sloping garden, so choosing the right
plant for the right spot is the key. Slope is composed of different soil layers. When the
slope has been altered to create building pads, the natural binding of layers may be
lost or compromised. When extreme weather such as heavy rains falls on these sites
the water may travel through weaker seams to saturate layers deeper down. When
they become wet enough they lose their cohesive qualities and slough off in layers.
This is usually the cause of slope failures during rainy seasons.
When planting is done on slope, trees are selected with a deep network of fine roots.
The larger the root system the better, so trees are highly effective at binding subsoil
layers, with their extensive roots. There has been a great deal of study on the use of
fast growing drought resistant trees such as acacia, planted on slopes. They were
topped every year or two to force growth energy into expanding the roots for more
effective soil binding. Thought effective, the maintenance required by this technique
40
precluded widespread use, but it is still recommended as a powerful tool for solving
site specific problems. (Gilmer)
What to plant on a sloping landform and where on the slope to plant various species
are key considerations. Shrubs require less maintenance than perennials, and in
addition, generally have a more extensive root system. Attractive foliage or flowers
can be chosen, and mix and matched to create attractive mounds of color and texture.
Plants like geraniums and begonias can be planted to protect slopes from being
washed away by rain. Good plants for a slope also include California lilac, Creeping
juniper, Purple coneflower, Rattlesnake master, Russian sage, Snowberry, Star
jasmine, common periwinkle, Siberian carpet cypress. Add plants that strengthen and
bind the soil while adorning the slope. (Anderson)
Shrubs which can be planted on slopes include Arctostaphylos, Ceanothus, Erica,
Helianthemum and Euonymous. Drought tolerant plant selections include Baccharis
pilularis 'Twin Peaks', Cistus, Correa, Grevillea, Mahonia, Rhamnus and Rosmarinus.
Ground cover plants are a perfect solution for covering sloping areas. Using ground
cover plants on any slope helps retain or hold the soil on the slope. Additionally,
groundcovers fill the area and crowd out weeds, making it easier to maintain. Hardy
perennials and shrubs can also be included as groundcover plants like hostas, sage and
snowberry. Ground cover plants such as Aubrietia are excellent for steep banks; they
suppress weeds, help stabilize the soil and needs low maintenance. (See Figure 4.1)
Planting pockets near the large boulders should be created for seasonal color or
creeping shrubbery like Cotoneaster or vinca. The stones can be treated with the moss
and to give them a weathered and time-elapsed effect. A small stream can also be put
in with for sound and visual effect.
While putting larger trees on slopes, certain things should be taken care of. Area
where the trees are to be planted should be leveled off so the tree stands on level and
not on a slope. A retaining wall can be put behind the tree to prevent dirt from
washing over the roots too much. Decorative stones can also be used to turn it into a
focal point. Too many upright plants should be avoided because they block the view.
Larger trees, shrubs and plants should be planted vertically, not pointing out of the
hillside. A small half well on the bottom side of the plant should be built to help retain
41
water and allow it to soak into the soil around the plant. Smaller plants and ground
covers can be planted to fill in while larger plants take hold with the hillside.
Composting the soil usually proves helpfulcertainly if hillside soil is sandy or clay.
Hillside gardens, like all gardens should be well mulched. But the choice of mulch is
more critical. Things like straw, small bark or cocoa hulls will wash away easily.
Finely shredded redwood, or the coarser shredded rather than chipped mulches tend to
knit together into a mass, and are less (but not completely) susceptible to being
pushed downhill by rain. (Anderson)
43
Figure 4.2: Steep sidewalk grades are a significant barrier to access for many pedestrians (left), If he side walk
grade exceeds 5% level landings should be provide at regular intervals (right) (Federal Highway
Administration, Updated: 02/10/2014)
44
From stone and brick for traditional gardens to concrete, metal and railroad ties for
contemporary landscape designs, there is wide choice of materials to create retaining
walls, but the plantings are what can really add style to the terrace. The appearance of
the retaining wall can be softened by adding ground cover and plants that spill over,
such as tumbling phlox. (see Figure 4.3)
There are many points to consider when planting terraced beds: the materials used for
the retaining walls, the right plants for the conditions created and the balance of the
plantings in relation to the hardscaping. By considering right approach, not only
hardscaping can be prevented from becoming too dominating or intrusive but the
aesthetical benefits can also be enjoyed. (Anderson)
4.3.2. Tiering
Creating tiers down the slope make it less likely to erode. By digging into the hill at
certain points, tiers can be created for planting. Walls of the tiers can be retained with
stone pavers and different plants and landscaping elements are layered to create
contrast between tiers. If rock walls are used as tiers; plants, small trees, or even river
rocks can be used for a natural look.
2-inch-deep trenches along the borders of the bottom and two sides of each tier should
be created. The trenches should be wide enough for the blocks, stones or posts that are
chosen for the wall. Then the material should be for the wall in the trenches. The
height should match the high ground that makes up the top border of each tier. (see
Figure 4.4)
Each garden bed should be filled with a mixture of half organic compost and half
bagged garden soil to give the garden a deep, rich and loose growing foundation.
(Anderson)
45
should be randomly mixed together, filling gaps in with mulch and plants. Alpine
plants and grasses, should be planted among the rocks to give the illusion they are
placed by nature. (See Figure 4.5)
To blend the steps into the layers of a rock garden, two or more steps may be made to
merge into one layer, by bending the steps round towards the layer. This is the only
time in a rock garden that one layer of stone may be mounted on top of another
successfully and with a pleasing effect, provided that not too much of the first stone is
obscured. (Anderson)
Climbers and wall shrubs can be planted to lessen the stark effect of the walls but as
they create the problem of leaf fall, evergreens or even the smaller shrubs and
climbers are better. Alpine plants can be best option to fill the rock landscaping as
they are very well suited to rocky terrain.
The factors governing the design of a sloping rock garden are the same as for the flat
site. Informality can be best maintained by keeping any steps away from extreme ends
and middle ground. Each layer should be given a keystone which should form the
highest point for, unlike a flat site, the strata will fall gently to each side, as well as
leaning back sufficiently to keep stability. Therefore, the stone will generally get
shorter towards the end of the site, or else a gap will appear between the base of the
upper and the lower layer.
There are no rules governing the steepness of steps but it is obviously easier if they
are not too steep and a good guide is to make about two and a half times more tread
than riser height. The steepness of slope will determine the rate of rise of stone to be
laid. The greater the rise, the closer the layers of stones will be and vice versa. (Rock
Landscaping Ideas Flat and Sloping Sites)
47
A path though the rock landscape should be wide enough to allow two people to pass
one another. Gently curved paths are more effective than angular or sharp-cornered
ones. At the lowest points on the site, silt traps covered with channel grating should
be constructed. Drainage tiles should be laid at lowest point in the garden. Another
alternative to leaving the path bare is to pave it using the same type of stone as for the
rock garden. The stones should never be shallower than 7cm (3 inches) unless they
are bedded on a cement base. (Rock Landscaping Ideas Flat and Sloping Sites)
keystone
Figure 4.6: A sloping site, made up of semicircular layers. The key stone is the largest stone. Subsequent stones
get progressively shallower so that they disappear into the ground at the sides of the site. (Rock Landscaping
Ideas Flat and Sloping Sites)
48
How the slopes are treated matters because there's always potential for erosion. Every
raindrop that falls on bare soil dislodges soil particles. As it gathers and runs down the
slope, more soil particles are picked up. Every particle lost in the water has to go
somewhere. They will settle out when the runoff slows, and in these spots silt builds
up. It is a huge problem when silt deposits interfere with driveway stability of other
structures. It becomes a community issue when it clogs neighborhood drainage
structures and storm drains. (Gilmer, Landscaping Network)
4.4.1. Factors responsible for Erosion Control
There are many factors which are responsible for erosion control out of which angle
of repose and soil types are most important:
4.4.1.1.
Angle of repose
The angle of repose of a soil is the gradient of the slope at which the soil settles
naturally. A firm soil will have a steeper angle of repose than a loose soil. The angle
of repose can range from 0 to 90. Smooth, rounded sand grains cannot be piled as
steeply as can rough, interlocking sands. The steeper the slope, the faster water runs
off, which creates challenges getting enough moisture to every plant.
2:1 - This is the steepest incline capable of supporting plants. Sometimes these slopes
will require retaining walls due to the great amount of siltation they produce.
3:1 - This is the steepest incline allowed for a lawn due to the limitations of lawn
mowers.
4:1 - This is a more ideal slope which can be easily planted, and irrigation water is
more likely to soak in.
4.4.1.2.
Soil Type
Most fill slopes have no difficulty with soil types, but on cut slopes it can be a real
challenge. This not only influences how much time it takes to dig a planting hole or
trench for irrigation, it greatly affects the speed at which water penetrates the ground.
Low fertility makes it tough for young plants to become established. Very dense soil
resists moisture absorption unless it is applied at a very slow rate. Irregular soils with
veins of stone or bedrock may limit the digging of planting holes. Fragmented soils
49
fail to hold together once disturbed, leading to future erosion problems, particularly in
sandstone and shale. (Gilmer, Landscaping Network)
4.4.2. How Plants Control Erosion
Plants are natural protectors of soil. They cloak the ground in foliage which prevents
rain drops from falling directly onto soil particles. Instead, the plants diffuse the
energy of raindrops so they filter down to the soil surface more gently. Plant roots
help to bind soils underground. Those species with a large proportion of fine roots
that spread over a large area prove the best choices for slope stabilization.
The nature of how a plant roots as well as its growth habit dictate its value as erosion
control plants.
The planting should be a mix of groundcover, shrubs, trees, and perennials with the
areas between plants covered with mulch or boulders. A mix of plants and vegetation
layers ensure that when it rains, the force of the water hitting the ground is deflected.
In most cases, if the slope soil is deeper, a mix of deep-rooted plants like
bougainvillea and shallow-rooted plants like monkey flowers or sagebrush are needed
to secure the top soil to the bottom rock. Groundcover best prevents the surface
erosion. English ivy is a good example of how many plants installed into the slope
will bind the surface tightly and cover it all with dense foliage. This planting strategy
must be irrigated with broadcast sprinklers. Creeping shrub, like prostrate rosemary
has just one stem that spreads out in every direction with a carpet of foliage. That
coverage slows the raindrop energy too. Shrubs are watered only at the trunk, which is
better suited to drip or bubbler irrigation for water conservation.
Hydroseeding is a method of sowing seed on a large scale for immediate coverage. It
is often required at the completion of a project to provide soil holding capacity until
other plants mature. This quick-cover reduces the problem of sediment and runoff the
first rainy season after completion. It is common to plant the slope with container
grown shrubs and groundcovers, then spray the hydroseed right over the top of them
for both short and long term solutions.
A local contractor is the best resource for solving erosion control issues for residential
building sites. Knowledge of local soils, rainfall and plants that thrive in the
microclimate as well as irrigation techniques aids in creating a palette of plants for the
50
slope. The best planting design solutions include a diversity of plants. (Gilmer,
Landscaping Network)
4.4.3. Geotextiles for Erosion Control
Newly graded slopes are vulnerable before and after planting. Erosion control plants
take time to become established and fill in both above and below ground. Until this
happens the slopes will be temporarily exposed to erosion. For that time, geotextiles
should be used, which are man-made materials, laid on the earth and pinned into
place. Because they are biodegradable, landscaping can be done right through it
knowing that by the time plants fill in the fabric will decompose and eventually
disappear. Following are the different types of geotextiles:
Burlap: Used for immediate erosion control on very steep slopes prone to
disintegration.
Jute mesh: Large square jute mesh is the standard for landscaping because it is easily
planted through the grids.
Coir mat: A byproduct of coconut processing. Coir has great water holding capacity
and resists decomposition for more long term use. (Gilmer, Landscaping Network)
4.5. Conclusion
Slopes offer a great challenge than flat ground when it comes to landscaping.
Planning a garden with slopes will surely be a challenge, but changes of level
certainly give any garden added interest, and add an extra aspect to sloping landform
design. Factors to be considered while planning a landscape on slope include
drainage, soil, access and maintenance, rainwater and runoff management, irrigation
and other issues. Whether it is a natural undisturbed slope or one composed of cutand-fill, there are five essential principles that should be taken care of while designing
on slopes.
Different ways of landscaping is also discussed in this chapter which includes
terracing, tiering, change in levels and rock landscaping. Hillside retention and
erosion control are two key issues in slope landscaping which is also taken into
consideration.
51
CHAPTER-5.
ON SLOPING SITES
Buildings on sloping sites have different architectural and structural considerations.
Case study of different residential buildings makes better understanding about the
incorporation of contours into the building design, architectural features, and effective
structural systems.
52
Figure 5.2: Conceptual sketches developed by the architect (Grido Architektura and Design)
53
Figure 5.3: View of the house (top), timber frame construction (bottom left), sections (bottom right) (Grido
Architektura and Design)
54
55
Figure 5.5: Tiered home on sloping site in Spain (left), view showing arrangement of spaces (right) (Eva
Designs, 2014)
Figure 5.6: Side view of home showing stepped appearance (Eva Designs, 2014)
56
5.5. Conclusion
Buildings on sloping sites have different architectural and structural considerations.
So, the study of buildings in different types of terrains would enhance the
understanding of behavior of the building towards the landform.
The context given in the chapter is aimed at achieving attractive and functional places
through better design, better construction techniques, proper use of building materials,
suitability of landslopes for different buildings.
57
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DIY network. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2, 2014, from Rock Landscaping Ideas :
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ANNEXURE
Table 1 : Common stable slope ratios for varying soil/rock conditions (Slope Stabilization and Stability of Cuts
and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS)
Soil/Rock conditions
Slope ratio
:1 to :1
1:1 to 1 :1
1 :1
2:1 to 3:1
2:1 to 3:1
1 1/3:1
2:1
60
Table 2 : Relation between number of levels and number of gabions for flat backfill (Slope Stabilization and
Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS)
No. of
levels
No. of gabions
(per width)
33
33
66
43
99
53
131
66
164
68
197
99
Table 3 : Relation between number of levels and number of gabions for face with steps (Slope Stabilization and
Stability of Cuts and Fills- LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS)
No. of
levels
No. of gabions
(per width)
33
33
66
411
99
66
131
82
164
99
197
115
61
62