Composites Science and Technology 26 (1986) 251-281

The Potential for Composites in Structural Automotive

Applications

P. Beardmore and C. F. Johnson

Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121 (USA)

SUMMARY
The primary use of fiber-reinforced composites in automobiles, with the
exception of a few specialized low volume vehicles, has been in semistructural or decorative parts. Use of composites in primary structural
areas of the vehicle, such as body structures, has been very limited to date.
Such applications offer a tremendous opportunity for future expansion of
composites in the automotive industry. In addition to materials cost, there
are two over-riding criteria for significant application of FRP materials
in automotive structures: (1)proof of structural functionality/durability;
and (2) development of rapid, reproducible fabrication procedures to
optimize manufacturing economics.
From a structural viewpoint, there are two major categories of
material response which are critical to the application of composites to
automobiles: fatigue (durability) and energy absorption. An abundance
of evidence is accumulating relating the functional properties of these
materials in simple structures. It is clear that the fundamental
requirements of energy absorption and fatigue resistance are satisfied by
composites and the main challenge is to translate these capabilities into
complex structures with less well-defined load inputs. The less
quantifiable, but equally important, functional requirement of ride
quality (usually defined in terms of noise, vibration and ride harshness,
NVH) also appears to be attainable through the utilization ofcomposites.
Even though this factor has been historically related to vehicle stiffness,
and composite materials are less stiff than steel, all the indications are
that the effective stiffness of composite structures meet NVH requirements--the elimination of joints through part integration plays a critical
role in achieving such synergistic effects.
251
Composites Science and Technology 0266-3538/86/$03.50 Elsevier Applied Science
Publishers Ltd, England, 1986. Printed in Great Britain

252

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson

Many of the properties of composite structures depend on the control o!

fiber location and part integration which in turn are a direct function oj
the fabrication process. Current high production rate fabrication
processes such as compression molding of sheet molding compound
(SMC) type materials go only part way to optimizing the properties and
economics. Optimum automotive composite structures will probably
require a combination of processes, some of which will need significant
development, to realize the enormous potential for composites in the
automotive industry. Full-scale structures may involve S M C type
molding, thermoplastic stamping and the developing preform molding
( H S R T M ) process which has, perhaps, the greatest potential of all the
processes for revolutionizing the use of composite structures. Technological breakthroughs in fabrication technology do not appear to be
necessary, the main requirement is the development of existing assorted
techniques combined with a concerted effort by all aspects of the
composite and automotive industry.

INTRODUCTION
The economic constraints in a mass production industry such as the
automotive business are quite different from those of the aerospace or
even the speciality vehicle business. This is particularly true in the
potential application of high-performance composite materials which
hitherto have primarily been developed and applied in a cost-intensive
manner, both from a basic materials cost and from a fabrication
viewpoint. Except for a few notable exceptions, virtually all uses of
plastics and composites in high volume vehicles are restricted to
decorative or semi-structural applications. Sheet molding compound
(SMC) materials are the highest performance composites in general
automotive use today: the most widely used SMC materials contain
approximately 25 wt ~o of chopped glass fibers and cannot really be
classified as high-performance composites. Typically, SMC materials are
used for grill opening panels on many car lines and closure panels (hoods,
decklids, doors) on a few select models. A characteristic molding time for
SMC is of the order of 3-4 minutes, which is on the borderline of viability
for automotive production rates.
The next major step for composites in the automotive business is
extension of use into truly structural applications such as the primary
body structure (Fig. 1) and to chassis/suspension systems. These are the

Composites in structural automotive applications

253

Fig. 1. Schematic of primary body structure.

areas which have to sustain all the major road load inputs and impact
loads. In addition, these major structures must deliver an acceptable level
of vehicle dynamics such that the passengers enjoy a comfortable ride.
These functional requirements must be totally satisfied for any new
material to find extensive application in these structures and it is no small
challenge to structural composites to meet these criteria effectively. Of
course, these criteria must also be satisfied in a cost-effective manner, and
appropriate composite fabrication procedures must be applied or
developed which satisfy the high production rates but still maintain
control of fiber distribution so critical to successful usage of composites in
structural applications.
The present paper is an attempt to summarize the current state of
development of high-performance composites from an automotive
viewpoint. In particular, the specific types of composites holding the most
promise for structural applications and the viable and developable
fabrication processes most likely to be used will be summarized. The state
of knowledge of the particular properties of most relevance to automotive
applications will be presented together with a scenario for the necessary
extension of knowledge required before high confidence can be placed in
the structural application of the materials.

254

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Composite body structures have been used in a variety of speciality
vehicles for the past three decades, Lotus cars, which began production in
1956, being a particularly well-known example. The composite material
used was invariably glass fibers in, typically, a polyester resin. A variety of
production methods have been used but perhaps the only common thread
is that all the processes were slow, primarily because a very low
production rate was required (typically, a maximum of 5000 per annum).
The other common factor among these vehicles was the general use of
some type of steel backbone or chassis which absorbed most of the road
loads and crash impact energy. Thus, while the FRP body can be
considered structural, the major structural loads were not imposed on the
FRP materials.
High FRP content vehicles in existence today were initially designed to
use FRP materials. Consequently, there is no direct comparison available
between an FRP vehicle and an identical steel vehicle to relate baseline
characteristics. Perhaps the best comparison is the prototype Graphite
LTD built by Ford to afford a direct comparison between a production
steel vehicle and a 'high-tech' FR P vehicle, l Although graphite fibers were
used and the vehicle was fabricated by hand lay-up procedures, several
interesting features were evaluated.
The graphite fiber composite (CFRP) car is shown in Fig. 2, and an

Fig. 2.

Photograph of the Ford C F R P vehicle.

Fig. 3.

TIRES FR 78-14-'
(UNIQUE LIGHTWEIGHT)

ALUM. PGM'S
FRT. & REAR

~
~

~-- DOWNGAGED UPPER

& LOWER CONTROL ARMS

OOWNSIZEO
BRAKE BOOSTER

~
_

GAL. NYLON
FUEL TANK

CFRP REAR SUSPENSION

ARMS - - UPRo & LWR.

f 1 5

RODUCTION QUARTER
PANEL EXTENSIONS

CFRP FRONT SEAT

~ F R A M E (BACK ONLY)

Exploded schematic view of the CFRP vehicle with the composite components (shaded areas) shown

2.3L 14 ENGINE
C-3 AUTO TRANS.

ALUM. RADIATOR
WITH PLASTIC TANKS

SMC
"
PRODUCTION GRILLE
OPENING PANEL~

PRODUCTION INSTRUMENT
PANEL & INTERIOR---~

tJ

256

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson
TABLE I

Major Weight Savings in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics

Component

Weight ( lb )

Reduction

(/b)
Body-in-white
Front End
Frame
Wheels~5)
Hood
Decklid
Doors (4)
Bumpers(2)
Driveshaft
Total Vehicle

Steel

CFRP

423-0
95.0
283.0
91-7
49-0
42.8
141-0
123-0
21.1
3 750

160.0
30.0
206-0
49-0
17.2
14.3
55.5
44.0
14-9
2 504

253.0
65.0
77.0
42.7
32.3
28.9
85.5
79.0
6.2
1246

exploded schematic showing the composite parts is shown in Fig. 3. The

weight savings for the various structures are given in Table 1. While these
savings (of the order of 55-65 ~) might be considered optimal because of
the use of graphite ifibers,I other cost-effective fibers can achieve a major
portion of these weight savings (see below). The C F R P vehicle weighed
2500 lb, compared with a steel production vehicle of 3750 lb, but vehicle
evaluation tests indicated no perceptible difference between the vehicles.
Ride quality and vehicle dynamics were judged at least equal to top
quality production steel cars. Thus, on a direct comparison basis, a
vehicle with an entire F R P structure proved to be at least equivalent to a
steel vehicle, at a weight level only 67 ~/0 of the steel vehicle.
The C F R P car clearly showed that high-cost fibers (graphite) and highcost fabrication techniques (hand lay-up) can yield a perfectly acceptable
vehicle. The real challenge is to translate that performance into realistic
economics by the use of cost-effective fibers, resins and fabrication
procedures.
The existing speciality cars do not provide the answer to how
extensively lower-cost composites will go in replacing steel in automotive
structures because steel is used as the major load-carrying structure. The
governing design guidelines for composites need to be further developed
to ascertain, for example, how to design with low-cost composite
materials, and to ascertain allowables for stiffness in situations where
major integration of parts in composites eliminates a multiplicity of

Composites in structural automotive applications

257

joints. The following sections will summarize the extant knowledge in

composites potential for automotive structures.
FRP MATERIALS
By far the most comprehensive property data have been developed on
aerospace type composites, in particular graphite fiber reinforced
epoxies. Extensive data banks are available on these materials and it
would be very convenient to be able to build from this data base for less
esoteric type applications such as automobile structures. Graphite fibers
are the favored choice in aerospace because of the superb combination of
stiffness, strength and fatigue resistance exhibited by these fibers.
Unfortunately for the cost-conscious mass-production industries, these
properties are only attained at significant expense. Typical graphite fibers
cost in the region of $25 per lb. There are intensive research efforts
devoted to reducing these costs by utilizing a pitch-based precursor but
the most optimistic predictions are in the region of $8 per lb which still
keeps these fibers in the realm of very restricted potential for consumeroriented industries.
The fiber with by far the greatest potential for automobile structural
applications is E-glass fiber based on the optimal combination of cost and
performance. Likewise the resin systems likely to dominate are polyester
and vinyl-ester resins based primarily on a cost/processability trade-off
against epoxy resins. Higher performance resins will only find specialized
application (in much the same way as graphite fibers) even though the
ultimate properties may be somewhat superior.
The form of the glass fiber used will be very application-specific, and
both chopped and continuous glass fibers will find extensive use. It might
be expected that most structural applications involving significant load
inputs will utilize a combination of both chopped and continuous glass
fibers with the particular proportions of each depending on the
component or structure. Since all the fabrication processes expected to
play a significant role in automotive production are capable of handling
mixtures of continuous and chopped glass (see below), this requirement
should not represent any restriction. One potential development which is
likely if glass fiber composites come to occupy a significant portion of the
structural content of an automobile is the tailoring of glass fiber sizings
and corresponding speciality resin development. The size of the industry
(each pound of composite per vehicle translates to approximately 10

258

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson

million pounds per year in North America) dictates that it would be

economic to have fiber and resin production tailored exclusively for the
automotive market. The advantage of such an approach is that these
specific developments will lead to incremental improvements in specific
properties which in turn will lead to increased applicability and increased
cost effectiveness for the materials. For example, a 10% increase in
fatigue performance by sizing improvements should lead to a directly
proportional increase in composite utilization in the appropriate
components and structures.
While the thermoset matrix composites discussed above will probably
constitute the bulk of the structural applications, thermoplastic-based
composites formed by a stamping process may well have a significant, but
comparatively minor, role to play. Most of the thermoplastic matrices in
commercial use today tend to concentrate on polypropylene or Nylon as
the base resin. The reason is simply the economic fact that these materials
tend to be the most inexpensive of the engineering thermoplastics and are
easily processed. Both of these materials are somewhat deficient in either
heat resistance and/or environmental sensitivity relative to vehicle
requirements for high-performance structures. Other thermoplastic
matrices for stampable glass-fiber-reinforced composites are under
development, and materials such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
hold significant promise for the future.
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
From a structural viewpoint, there are two major categories of material
response which are critical to the application of composites to
automobiles. These are fatigue (durability) and energy absorption. In
addition, there is another critical vehicle requirement, namely ride
quality, which is usually defined in terms of noise, vibration and ride
harshness (NVH) and generally perceived as directly related to vehicle
stiffness. Obviously, material characteristics play a significant role in this
category of vehicle response. These three areas are summarized separately
below.

Fatigue
The specific fatigue resistance of glass-fiber-reinforced composites (GRP)
is a sensitive function of the precise constitution of the material but there

Composites in structural automotive applications

120

259

sl Fiber- Epoxy

I00
80

6o
b< 4 0
20
0

IO

I0 z

103

I05

lO4

I06

IO7

2N F

Fig. 4.

Typical fatigue curve for unidirectional GRP.

are characteristic trends developing to generate a reasonably clear picture

of the sensitivity to cyclic stresses. For unidirectional GRP materials, the
fatigue behavior can be characterized as illustrated in Fig. 4. A fairly welldefined fatigue limit is exhibited by these materials and as a guiding
principle this limit can be estimated as approximately 35-40 % of the
ultimate strength. Thus, for a 55 vol. % continuous glass-fiber-reinforced
epoxy material such as might be used in a leaf spring, the ultimate
strength would be approximately 180000 psi (1.24GPa) with a corresponding fatigue limit of approximately 63 000 psi (434 M Pa). A chopped
glass fibre composite, by constrast, would have a fatigue limit closer to
25 % of the ultimate strength and .would exhibit much greater scatter in
properties (Fig. 5). It is also important to realize that the different failure
I

2.0

w"
~
P1.5
Jn

10% STIFFNESS LOSS

{~ CONST. STRAIN
CONST. STRESS

TENS,ON

COMPRESSION

< 1.0
~
z

~o.5
e0o

I
I

I
2

I
3

I
4

I
5

log (CYCLES)
Fig. 5.

Typical fatigue curve for SMC.

260

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson

modes in composites (in comparison to metals) can result in different

design criteria for these materials depending on the functionality
involved. For example, a decrease in modulus can occur under cyclic
stressing long before physical cracking and strength deterioration occur.
If stiffness is a critical part of the component function, the loss in stiffness
under the cyclic road loads could result in loss of the stiffness-controlled
function (usually NVH) with no accompanying danger of any loss in
mechanical function. This type of phenomenon does not occur in steel.
As a guiding principle, it follows from the above that, wherever
possible, automotive structures should be designed such that continuous
fibers take the primary stresses and chopped fibers should be present to
generate some degree of orthotropic behavior. It is critical to minimize
the stress levels, particularly fatigue, which have to be borne by the
chopped fibers.
There is clear, emerging evidence from both fundamental research data
and field experience with composite components that glass-fiberreinforced composites can be designed to withstand the rigorous fatigue
loads experienced under vehicle operating conditions. The success of
composite leaf springs and SMC componentry attests to the capability of
composites to withstand service environments.
The composite leaf spring represents an interesting example to typify
the kinds of stresses, both ultimate and fatigue, which can be successfully
tolerated by continuous glass-fiber-reinforced composites. The examples
are derived from the design methodology for leaf springs published by
Robertson. 2 For a typical composite containing 55% by volume of
continuous glass fibers, a maximum allowable cyclic fiber stress of
120 000 psi (827 MPa) can be used. This corresponds to a compositestress
of approximately 66 000 psi (455 MPa), a value slightly above the fatigue
limit stress because the cyclic requirements of a spring in the field are less
stringent than the conditions represented by the fatigue limit.
An additional, less obvious, potential problem in the leaf spring is the
development of inter- and intra-laminar shear stresses, both monotonic
and cyclic. These stresses are shown schematically in Fig. 6. Typical
interlaminar shear stresses for failure in glass-fiber-reinforced epoxy are
approximately 7000 psi (48 MPa). Evidence from a variety of composite
materials 3,4 clearly indicates that these materials are not very sensitive to
cyclic interlaminar shear stresses (Fig. 7) and a conservative design
value for resisting these cyclic stresses is 60 % of the interlaminar shear
failure stress. Thus, a simple failure test to evaluate the shear failure

Composites in structural automotive applications

TENSILE (BEND)
FAI LURE

Fig. 6.

TLS

261

FAILURE

Schematic illustration of interlaminar shear stresses.

strength will yield a design value for cyclic shear stresses. The
corresponding leaf spring design must ensure that interlaminar shear
stresses remain below this value.
A similar approach to the one outlined above for the leaf spring must be
followed for all parts of the structure which undergo fatigue loading.
12
-

I0

80

70
-0"

CFRP

60

8
+ 15eCFRP

6 -.J
I-4

50 a.

0 C/GRP

40 m

9 0 CFRP

(/)

GRP SPRING
-J
0 GRP
-- 3 0

090 KEVLAR

- 20
m

I
I0

I
I0 =

I
103

I
104

I
IOs

I
IOs

I
i0 ?

2N F

Fig. 7.

Interlaminar fatigue curves for a variety of composites.

I0

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson

262

While the data for all combinations of composite materials are not yet
available, a sufficiently large data base is available such that conservative
estimates can be generated and lead to reliable designs. It cannot be
overemphasized, however, that the mechanical properties of composites
(much more than isotropic materials) are very sensitive to the fabrication
process. It is imperative that properties be related to the relevant
manufacturing technique to prevent misuse of baseline data.

Energy absorption
The stress-strain curves for all high-performance composites are
essentially linear in nature (Fig. 8). This is in contrast to most metals
which exhibit a high degree of plasticity (Fig. 9) and is much more akin to
the behavior of brittle materials such as ceramics. The point to be drawn
from comparison of the stress-strain behavior is that materials which
are essentially elastic to failure (composites, ceramics) might be
considered to have no capacity for energy absorption since no plastic
deformation energy is available to satisfy such requirements. However,
ceramics have been used for decades as armored protection against highvelocity projectiles. Such energy absorption is achieved by spreading the
localized impact energy into a high-volume cone of fractured ceramic
material as shown schematically in Fig. 10. A large amount of fracture
210f

CiRP

KRP

,,el// /

'

'

1'

40

-125o

|1oo ~
I

.010 .015 .020 .025 .030 .035

STRAIN
Fig. 8. Tensile stress-strain curves for
high performance composites,

Fig. 9.

0.002

0.006
STRAIN

0.01

Tensile stress-strain curves for

steel and aluminum.

Composites in structural automotive applications

<

El)

263

ENERGY
DISSIPATION
'CONE'

PROJECTILE

~CERAMIC~

Fig. 10. Schematic of energy dissipation mechanism in ceramics.

surface area is created by fragmentation of the solid ceramic, and the

impact energy is converted into surface energy resulting in successful
protection and very efficient energy dissipation. Clearly, elastic (so-called
'brittle') materials can be very effective energy absorbers but the
mechanism is fracture surface energy rather than plastic deformation.
The analogy given above leads directly to the conclusion that, in a
similar manner, high-performance composites may well be able to absorb
energy by a controlled disintegration (fracture) process. Clear evidence is
emerging from laboratory test data on the axial collapse of composite
tubes that efficient energy absorption of the type needed for vehicle
structures can be achieved in these materials.
A comparison between the energy absorption mechanisms in metals
and composites is shown in Fig. 11. Glass fiber and graphite fiber
reinforced composites behave as indicated in Fig. 1l(b). By contrast,
composites utilizing fibers consisting of highly-oriented long-chain
polymers (e.g. Kevlar) collapse in a metal-like fashion utilizing plastic
deformation as the energy absorbing mechanism. The fragmentation/
fracture mechanism typical of glass-fiber composites can be very weight
effective and Table 2 illustrates this point by giving typical relative values
TABLE 2

Energy Absorption (Typical Properties)

Mater&l
High-performance composites
Commercial composites
Mild steel

Relative energy absorption

(per unit weight)
100
60-75
40

264

Fig. 11.

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson

Photographs illustrating the different collapse mechanisms in (a) metal and

(b) composite tubes for energy absorption.

Composites in structural automotive applications

265

for different materials. It is particularly significant that while highperformance, highly-oriented composites generate the maximum energy
absorption, commercial type composites yield specific energy numbers
considerably superior to those of metals. Thornton and coworkers have
accumulated extensive data on energy absorption of composites s,6,7 and
have generated formulae for estimating energy absorption for composites:
E~ = Pm/Asp

where E~ is specific energy absorption; Pm is desired average crush load;

A s is cross section area of tube; p is density.
Typical values for E~ are 60 J g- 1 for 0/90 graphite-epoxy, 40 J g - 1 for
0/90 glass-epoxy, and 30 J g - 1 for a variety of SMC type materials. The
values of E~ correspond to axial collapse of circular tubes--these values
must be changed by a multiplication factor (0.8 for square tubes, 0.5 for
rectangular tubes) to take account of geometrical effects on structural
rigidity. The above equations can be used to estimate the capabilities of
tubes or structures to absorb impacts.
In a manner directly analogous to metal structures, it is imperative to
trigger the energy absorption process to guarantee successful generation
of the required process and to eliminate the initial load spike which
otherwise occurs. This is illustrated in Fig. 12, which shows identical
composite tubes (a) without a trigger and (b) with a trigger. In the absence

Fig. 12. Photographs illustrating the effect of a triggermechanism.(a) Local'shear-out'

in absence of trigger and (b) progresswecollapse in a triggered tube.

266

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson

/
Fig. 13.

Schematic of (a) the conventional bevel trigger and (b) the tulip trigger.

of a trigger, local shear-out can occur (Fig. 12(a)) with little energy
absorption. In contrast, a trigger initiates progressive collapse with
maximum energy absorption (Fig. 12(b)). Various trigger mechanisms
have been proposed and tested 6'~ but the most favored types always
involve a bevel at the initiation site (Fig. 13(a)). Effectively, the bevel acts
as a stress concentrator and initiates the fracture without a major
structural load spike. The propagating cracks travel into the uniform
sections and a pseudo-square wave is generated (Fig. 14). Recently, a

150

t
i~
HI~

LOAD I00 JllJ

~l[~l
kN

BEVEL TRIGGER
TULIP TRIGGER
t.,l~]~
,~ / ' , r ' ~ ?', 'qa"~

IA~.

PULTRUSIONS (IOCM xlOCMxO64CM)

(41N x41N x 0 25tN)

"

~,

"F'A,

15

20

5__J
5

I0

25

COMPRESSION, cm
Fig 14.

Comparison of energy absorption curves for composite tubes utilizing the

different triggers.

Composites in structural automotive applications

267

different type of generic trigger has been developed for composites by

Thornton, 8 the so-called tulip trigger (Fig. 13(b)). The advantage of this
particular trigger is that it appears to be capable of creating additional
cracks during the fracture process which results in additional energy
absorption particularly in the lower performance composites. Fig. 14
illustrates the increased energy absorption capability for several
composites.S The tulip trigger acts in a similar manner to the bevel trigger
in that the elevated points act as stress concentrators (Fig. 15) but the fact
that all laminae are concurrently exposed to the first load input evidently
leads to more uniform distribution of the load between all lamina
and a greater number ofinterlaminar cracks (and more associated surface
energy) is generated. The larger number of cracks is maintained as
fracture propagates along the tube or structure. An additional feature of
the tulip trigger is the more gradual rate of load build-up to the plateau
which presumably can be tailored by varying the tulip angle.

Fig. 15. Section through composite tubes after initiation of collapse with a bevel trigger

and a tulip.

268

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson

(a)

2000

0-1 IN /MIN
1460

23800 FT LB /LB

LOAD 0
LB

1655

27600 FT

L8

/LB

(b)
0-2 IN / M I N

/~

I! 8200 fN / MIN
24~0

2000

1740

5950 FT LB /LS
I

i
I

8280FT LB /LB
i

i
0

i
I

COMPRESSION IN

Typical energy absorption curves showing the undulations in load level. (a)
Graphite/epoxy tubes, lin O.D. x 0.037in wall, (b) 1015 steel tubes, 1 in O.D.
0.028 in wall.

Fig. 16.

The load-displacement plateau is, in practice, composed of a series of

load undulations (Fig. 16). The variations about the mean level tend to be
very large for energy absorption by plastic deformation (as in metals and
Kevlar-reinforced composites), whereas the fluctuations are typically
significantly smaller for glass and graphite fiber composites in which
fracture is the controlling energy mechanism. This results in closer-toideal square-wave ibehavior for composites.
Virtually all the energy absorption data generated to date have been
developed for axial collapse of relatively simple structures, usually tubes.
It is still an open question concerning the ability to generate the same
effective fracture mechanisms as the dominant energy mode in complex
structures. In addition, it is well known from observations on metal
vehicles that bending collapse normally plays a significant part in the
collapse of the vehicle structure and it is consequently of considerable
importance to evaluate energy mechanisms in bending failure. Just as in
metals, meager data are available on energy absorption characteristics in

Composites in structural automotive applications

269

bending. There is no reason to believe that the relative energy values of

metals to composites in bending should change significantly from the
ratios in axial collapse except that bending failure (fracture) in composites
may tend to occur on a more localized basis than plastic bending in
metals. If, indeed, this does occur, then the ratio could change in favor of
metals.

Stiffness and damping

Glass-fiber-reinforced composites are inherently less stiffthan steel. Some
typical values for various types of composite are listed in Table 3. There
are two offsetting factors to compensate for these material limitations.
First, an increase in wall thickness can be used partially to offset the lesser
material stiffness. Also, local areas can be thickened as required to
optimize properties. Since the composite has a density approximately
one-third that of steel, a significant increase in thickness can be achieved
while maintaining an appreciable weight reduction. The second, and perhaps the major, compensating factor is the additional stiffness attained in
composites by virtue of part integration. The integration leads directly
to the elimination of joints, which results in significant synergism in
stiffness. It is becoming increasingly evident that this synergism is such
that structures of acceptable stiffness and considerably reduced weight
are feasible in glass-fiber-reinforced composites. As a rule of thumb, a
glass FRP structure with significant part integration relative to the steel
structure being replaced should be designed for a'nominal stiffness level of
50-60 % of the steel structure. Such a design procedure should lead to
adequate stiffness and to typical weight reductions between 30 and 50 %.
TABLE 3

Typical Stiffness of Composites

Material

Modulus
(106psi)

Unidirectional CFRP
Unidirectional GRP
Unidirectional Kevlar reinforced plastic
XMC (high-performance molding compound)
SMC-R50
SMC-25

20
6
11
4-5
2.3
1.3

270

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson

The stiffness requirement for vehicles is normally dictated by NVH or

vehicle dynamic characteristics. The historical axiom in the vehicle
engineers' design principles is 'the stiffer the better'. However, there are
some intangible factors which enter the overall NVH picture, in particular
the damping factor. Obviously, it is an oversimplification to assume
stiffness alone primarily dictates NVH, although it unquestionably
dominates certain categories of NVH. Equally obviously, damping effects
can play a significant role in many categories of NVH, and the fact that
the damping of composite materials considerably exceeds that of metals
must be relevant to the overall NVH scenario. Most people involved with
composite component/structure prototype development express the
opinion that some aspect of NVH (usually noise or vibration) is improved
but little quantitative data are available to document the degree of
improvement. There seems, however, to be little doubt that this increased
damping capacity can only be a positive asset. It remains to be seen
whether or not the additional damping can be of sufficient benefit as to
become a cost-effective asset in that it allows beneficial iterative
modifications to the vehicle.

FABRICATION OF C O M P O S I T E MATERIALS
The successful application of structural composites to automotive
structures is more dependent on the ability to use rapid, economic
fabrication processes than on any other single factor. The fabrication
processes must also be capable of close control of composite properties to
achieve lightweight, efficient structures. Currently, the only commercial
process which comes close to satisfying these requirements is compression
molding of sheet molding compounds (SMC) or some variant on the
process. There are, however, several developing processes which hold
distinct potential for the future in that these techniques combine high
rates of production, precise fiber control and high degrees of part
integration. The overall philosophy behind composites fabrication for
automobiles is summarized in Fig. 17. The requirements for precise fiber
control (high performance), rapid production rates and high complexity
demand that automotive processes be in the region of developing
processes shown schematically in Fig. 18. The evolving processes are
thermoplastic stamping and high speed resin transfer molding~ a
variation on 'preform molding' (e.g. resin transfer molding, structural

Composites in structural automotive applications

FIBERRANAGElqEITIT

271

!{ PROPERTYOPTIMIZATION& UNIFO~ITY
J MINIMUMWEIGHTDESIGN

PART INTEGRATION'

Fig. 17.

" MINIMUMCOST

Overriding requirements of fiber control and part integration for optimizing

composite economics.

resin injection molding). Each of these processes is summarized

separately below with some comments relative to its merits and potential
disadvantages.

Compression molding
A schematic illustration of the sheet molding compound (SMC) process,
depicting both the fabrication of the SMC material and the subsequent
compression molding into a component is shown in Fig. 19. This
technology is widely used in the automobile industry for the fabrication of
grill opening panels on virtually all car lines, and for some exterior panels
on selected vehicles. Tailgates (Fig. 20), and hoods (Fig. 21) are examples

SIZE
COMPLEXITY
PERFORMANCE
REGION OF DEVELOPINGPROCESSES

(HmH ~

RESINTeANSF~)

NUMBER OF PARTS

Fig. 18.

Schematic of the relationship between performance and fabrication for

composites and the area of required development.

272

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson

S
z

Fig. 19. Schematicillustrationof SMC material preparation and componentfabrication.

on cars while the entire cab on some heavy trucks (Fig. 22) is constructed
in this manner. The process consists of placing sheets of leathery textured
SMC (1-2 inch chopped glass fibers in chemically thickened thermoset
resin) into a heated mold (typically at 150 C) and closing the mold under
pressures of 1000psi (7 MPa) for about 2 minutes to cure the material.
Approximately 80 % of the mold surface is covered by the SMC charge
and the material flows to fill the remaining mold cavity as the mold closes.
The above description of the SMC process delineates material
primarily used for semi-structural applications rather than high-load
bearing segments of the structure which must satisfy severe durability and

Fig. 20. TypicalSMC production tailgate from a Bronco II.

Composites in structural automotive applications

273

Fig. 21. Typical SMC Econoline hood.

energy absorption requirements. To sustain the more stringent structural

demands, it is normally necessary to incorporate appreciable amounts of
continuous fibers in predesignated locations and orientations. The same
basic SMC operation can be utilized to incorporate such material
modifications either by formulating the material to include the
continuous fibers along with the chopped fibers or by using separate
charge patterns of two different types of material. The complexity of
shape and degree of flow possible are governed by the amount and
location of the continuous glass material. Careful charge pattern

Fig. 22. Typical SMC truck cab.

274

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson

development is necessary for com~nents of complex geometry. A typical

example of a prototype rear floor pan fabricated by this technique 9 is
shown in Fig. 23.
The limitations on the usefulness of compression molding of SMC type
materials in truly structural applications have yet to be established.
Provided continuous fiber is strategically incorporated, these materials
promise to be capable of providing high structural integrity and this may
well prove to be the pioneering fabrication procedure in high-toad bearing
applications. The advanced state of commercialization of this process
relative to other evolving techniques will also provide a lead time for
compression molding to branch into higher performance parts.
Although compression molding of SMC type materials is an

Fig. 23.

Prototype Escort composite rear floor pan.

Composites in structural automotive applications

275

economically viable, high-production-rate process in current usage, there

are some disadvantages inherent in the process which, in the longer term,
will limit applications and tend to favor the developing processes. For
example, the degree of flow required to optimize the mechanical
properties gives rise to a spread in mechanical properties as a result of
imprecise control of fiber location and orientation. Typically, variations
in mechanical properties by a factor of two throughout the component
are not unusual, based on an initial charge pattern coverage of
approximately 70 %. Such uncertainty in properties introduces reliability
issues and conservative design allowables yielding a heavier-thannecessary component or structure. Currently, extensive research efforts
are underway to develop SMC type materials which allow 100 % charge
pattern coverage and which attain high, uniform mechanical properties
with minimal flow. These materials can also be molded at lower pressures
on smaller capacity presses. Materials developments such as these may
well make the newer breed of SMCs much more applicable to highly
loaded stuctures than has ever been envisaged up to the present.
One other potential disadvantage of compression molding, which may
turn out to be the real limitation in structural usage, is the degree of part
integration attainable. The basic strategy in composite applications is
integration of as many individual (steel) pieces as possible to minimize
fabrication and assembly costs (which offsets increased material costs)
and minimize joints (which increases 'effective' stiffness). Compression
molding requires fairly high molding pressures (about 1000 psi (7 MPa))
and thus limits potential structures in areal size and complexity
(particularly in 3D geometries requiring foam cores). Consequently, while
compression molding is likely to play a key role in the development of
composites in structural automotive applications in the next idecade,
ultimately the process is unlikely to provide optimum structural efficiency
and weight. It should be pointed out that this statement will only prove
true if the alternative, more optimal processes undergo the developments
required because currently compression molding is the only commercial
structural composite process capable of satisfying the economic
constraints of a mass production industry.

High-speed resin transfer molding

Fabrication processes allowing precise fiber control with rapid processability would overcome many of the deficiencies outlined above. The use

276

P. Beardmore,. C. F. Johnson

of some kind of preform of oriented glass fibers preplaced in the mold

cavity followed by the introduction of a resin with no resultant fiber
movement would satisfy these requirements. The basic concepts required
for this process are practised fairly widely today in the boat building and
speciality car business. Without exception the glass preform is hand
constructed and the resin injection and cure times are of the order of tens
of minutes at the fastest. Major time contractions and automation of all
phases of the process are necessary to generate automotive production
rates. However, the basic ingredients of precise fiber control and highlyintegrated complex part geometries (including, for example, box sections)
are an integral part of this process and offer large potential cost benefits.
There are two basic elements to the high-speed resin transfer molding
(IffSRTM) process which must be developed. The assemblage of the glass
preform must be developed such that it can be placed in the mold as a
single piece. In addition, the introduction of the resin into the mold must
be rapid and the cure cycle must be equally fast to generate a mold closedmold open cycle time of a few minutes. A schematic illustration of the
process is shown in Fig. 24.
There are two processes currently in use which may have the potential
to offer rapid resin injection and cure times. Resin transfer molding,

DRYGLASSF
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PRECU
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Fig. 24. Schematicof' high-speed resin transfer molding (HSRTM).

Composites in structural automotive applications

277

currently in wide usage at slow rates, could be accelerated dramatically by

the use of low viscosity resins, multi-port injection sites, computercontrolled feedback injection controls and sophisticated heated steel
tools. There do not appear to be any significant technological barriers to
these kinds of developments, but it will require a strong financial
commitment to prove out such a system. A schematic illustration of the
process is shown in Fig. 25, which also illustrates a variant on the process
usually termed squeeze molding.
The second technique which promises rapid injection and cure cycles is
reaction injection molding. Once the dry glass preform is in the mold, the
resin can be introduced by any appropriate procedure and reaction
injection would be ideal provided the resultant resin has adequate
mechanical properties. The fluidity of the reactants would obviously be
ideal for rapid introduction into the mold. Typical reaction times for these
systems are around 30 s, giving a potential mold closed-mold open cycle
time of the order of 1 min. A schematic illustration of the process is shown
in Fig. 26.
Full 3D geometries, including box sections, are attainable by
preform molding. In addition, only low-pressure presses are necessary.
The high degree of part integration maximizes 'effective' stiffness and
minimizes assembly. In principle, major portions of vehicles could be
molded in one piece--for example, Lotus car body structures consist of
only two pieces (albeit molded very slowly) with one circumferential
bond. If similar sized complex pieces could be molded in minutes, a viable
production technique would result.
(a)

zLr.;T
(b)

Fig. 25.

Schematic of (a) squeeze molding and (b) resin transfer molding.

278

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson

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Fig. 26.

PREFORM

Schematic of HSRTM using reaction injection molding.

Thermoplastic stamping
The process of thermoplastic stamping is attractive to the automotive
industry because of the rapid cycle time and the potential utilization of
some existing stamping equipment. Thermoplastic stamping at its current
level of development achieves cycle times of one minute for large
components. Figure 27 presents a schematic of the process. Typically a
sheet of premanufactured thermoplastic and reinforcement is preheated
above the melting point of the matrix material and then rapidly
transferred to the mold. The mold is quickly closed until the point where
the material is contacted and then the closing rate is slowed. The material
is formed to shape and flows to fill the mold cavity much the same as
compression molded SMC. The material is cooled in the mold for a short
period of time and then the mold opens and the component is removed.
Thermoplastic stamping is currently used in automobiles to form lowcost semi-structural components such as bumper backup beams, seats,
and load floors. Commercially available materials range from wood-filled
polypropylene, and short-glass-filled polypropylene which have low
physical properties, to continuous, random, glass-reinforced materials
based on polypropylene or PET which offer somewhat higher physical
properties. Other materials based on oriented reinforcements and such

Composites in structural automotive applications

279

(a)
(b)

Fig. 27.

Schematic of thermoplastic stamping. (a) Heated blank loaded into mold.

(b) Mold closing, compressing material to fill cavity.

resins as polyether ether ketone (PEEK) and polyphenylene sulphide

(PPS) are in use in the aerospace industry. These materials are expensive
and limited in their conformability to complex shapes.
Higher levels of strength and stiffness must be developed in low-cost
stampable materials before they can be used in truly structural
automotive applications. Attempts have been made to improve the
properties of stampable materials through the use of separate
preimpregnated unidirectional reinforcement tapes. These materials are
added to the heated charge at critical locations to improve locally the
strength and stiffness. Use of these materials adds to the cost of the
material and slightly increases cycle times. Although effective for simple
configurations, location of the oriented reinforcement and reproducibility of location are problems in complex parts. To be cost-effective,
these types of reinforcements will ultimately have to be part of the
premanufactured sheet or robotically applied. Current research is in
progress in the area of stampable sheet materials with oriented
reinforcement in critical areas. For application to automotive structures,
these materials will have to retain the geometric flexibility (i.e. ability to
form complex shapes with the reinforcement in the correct location) in
molding exhibited by today's commercial materials.
The question of part integration is the main open issue in the expanded
use of this process. The high pressures (1000-3000psi (7-21MPa))
required limit, the size of components which can be manufactured on
conventional presses. Thermoplastic stamping is also limited in capability
to incorporate complex three-dimensional cores required for optimum
part integration. If very large structures are economically favorable then

280

P. Beardmore, C. F. Johnson

thermoplastic stamping will gain only the small components where

geometry is relatively simple and part integration is limited due to
physical part constraints, such as door, hood, and deck lid inner panels. If
very large scale integration proves too expensive, then thermoplastic
stamping will exhibit increased penetration. Continuing long-range
research in the area of low-pressure systems, and incorporation of foam
cores in stampings, could significantly alter this outlook in the long term.
CONCLUSION
The extension of use of composites to automotive structures will require
an expanded knowledge of the design parameters for these materials
together with major innovations in fabrication technologies. There is
abundant laboratory evidence and limited vehicle evidence which
strongly indicates that glass-fiber-reinforced composites are fully capable
of meeting the functional requirements of the most highly loaded
automotive structures. There are, however, sufficient unanswered
questions (e.g. about long-term environmental effects) to ensure that
applications will be developed slowly until adequate confidence is
generated. Nevertheless, it seems inevitable that the functional questions
will be answered; it only remains to be seen how soon. Perhaps the more
imperative requirement is the fabrication advancement that appears to be
a prerequisite to widespread use of composites in automotive structures.
High-volume, less stringent performance componentry can be satisfied by
variations on compression molding techniques. It is the high-volume,
high-performance regime which needs the development, and HSRTM
molding appears to be a 'sleeping fabrication giant' capable of developing
into just such a process. All the elements for attacking the rapid, highperformance problem are scattered around the somewhat fragmented
composites industry. It will require the appropriate combination of fiber
manufacturers, resin technologists, fabrication specialists and industrial
end-users to generate the necessary developments. Such developments
may well be more dependent on commitment of all the parties concerned
rather than requirements for any technological breakthrough.
REFERENCES
1. P. Beardmore, J. J. Harwood and E. J. Horton, Int. ConJ~ on Composite
Materials, Paris, August 1980.

Composites in structural automotive applications

281

2. R. E. Robertson, Design of Composite Leaf Springs, to be published.

3. B. Pipes, ASTM STP546, 1974, pp. 419-32.
4. P. Beardmore, Fatigue 84: Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Fatigue and Fatigue
Thresholds, Birmingham, UK, September 1984, Vol. 2, pp. 1091-102.
5. P. H. Thornton, J. Composite Materials, 13 (1979), pp. 247-62.
6. P. H. Thornton and P. J. Edwards, J. Composite Materials, 16 (1982),
pp. 521-45.
7. P. H. Thornton, J. J. Harwood and P. Beardmore, Composites Science and
Technology, 24 (1985), pp. 275-98.
8. P. H. Thornton, Proc. Fifth Int. Conf. on Composite Materials, San Diego,
August 1985, to be published.
9. C. F. Johnson and N. G. Chavka, An Escort rear floor pan, Proc. 40th Society
of the Plastics Industry Annual Tech. Conf., Atlanta, January 1985.