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Coordinates: 3735N 12700E

Korea under Japanese rule


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Korea under Japanese rule is the culmination of a process that began with the JapanKorea Treaty of 1876, whereby a complex
coalition of Meiji government, military, and business officials sought to integrate Korea both politically and economically into the Empire
of Japan, first as a protectorate through the JapanKorea Treaty of 1905, and then officially annexed in the JapanKorea Treaty of 1910.[6]
Japan brought to a close the Joseon period and Korea officially became an integral part of Japan.

Korea under Japanese rule

Nippon Tchi-jidai no Chsen


()
Ilje gangjeomgi

Japanese rule ended in 1945. In 1965 these treaties were ultimately declared "already null and void" by the Treaty on Basic Relations
between Japan and the Republic of Korea.[7]
Administration of the Korean people continued until Japan's defeat at the end of World War II, at which time Korea became an
independent nation albeit divided under two separate governments and economic systems.

Annexed dependency of the Empire of Japan

19101945

The modernization and industrialization brought to the Korean Peninsula by the Japanese continues to be the subject of controversy
between the two Koreas and Japan.

Contents
1 Terminology
2 Background
2.1 Designing colonization efforts in Japan
2.2 Political turmoil in Korea
3 JapanKorea annexation treaty (1910)
4 Pre-World War II (191041)
4.1 Japanese migration and land ownership
4.2 Anthropology and cultural heritage
4.3 Anti-Chinese riots of 1931
4.4 Order to name changes
5 World War II
5.1 National Mobilization Law
6 Independence and division of Korea
7 Korean independence movement
8 Economy and modernization
9 Changes to Korean culture under Japanese rule
9.1 Newspaper censorship
9.2 Education
9.3 Japanese policies for the Korean language
9.4 Removal and return of historical artifacts
9.5 Anthropology and religion
10 Legacy
10.1 Result of the name changes
10.2 Forced laborers and comfort women
10.3 Koreans in Unit 731
10.4 Discrimination against Korean leprosy patients by Japan
10.5 Atomic bomb casualties
10.6 Japanese post-colonial responses
10.7 South Korean presidential investigation commission on pro-Japanese collaborators
10.8 In culture and film
11 See also
12 Notes and references
13 Further reading
14 External links

Terminology
In South Korea the period is usually described as the "Japanese Imperial Period" (Korean: ; Ilje sidae; Hanja: ) or the
"period of the Japanese imperial colonial administration" (Korean: ; Ilje sikmin tongchi sidae; Hanja:
). Other terms include "Japanese forced occupation" (Korean: ; Ilje gangjeomgi, Hanja: ) or "Wae (Japanese)
administration" (Korean: ; Wae jeong; Hanja: ).

Flag

Seal of the
Government-General
of Korea
Anthem
"Kimigayo"
MENU

0:00

Korea as part of the Japanese empire in 1939.

Keija

Capital
Languages

Japanese (de jure)


Korean (de facto)

Religion

Officially, none;[1][2][3][4]
Unofficially, State Shinto.b

Government

Constitutional monarchy

Governor-General
of Korea
- 191016
- 191927, 192931
- 1927, 193136
- 193642
- 194244
- 194445

Terauchi Masatake
Sait Makoto
Kazushige Ugaki
Jir Minami
Kuniaki Koiso
Nobuyuki Abe

Historical era
- Japanese protectorate
- Annexation treaty signed
- Annexation by Japan
- March 1st Movement
- Sshi-kaimei order
- Surrender of Japan

Japanese imperialism
17 November 1905
22 August 1910
29 August 1910
1 March 1919
1939
15 August 1945

Currency

Korean yen

a. Japanese: , Hangul: ; RR: Gyeongseong; MR: Kyngsng


b. According to Korean Christians.[5]

In Japan the term "Chsen (Korea) of the Japanese-Governed Period" ( Nippon Tchi-jidai no Chsen) has been
used.

Korea under Japanese rule


Japanese name

Background
Designing colonization efforts in Japan

Kanji

Hiragana

Transcriptions

During the late 18th to late 19th centuries Western governments sought to intercede in and influence the political and economic fortunes of Asian
countries through the use of new approaches described by such terms as "protectorate", "sphere of influence", and "concession", which minimized the
need for direct military conflict between competing European powers. The newly modernized government of Meiji Japan sought to join these
colonizing efforts and the Seikanron ("advocacy of a punitive expedition to Korea") began in 1873. This effort was allegedly fueled by Saig Takamori
and his supporters, who insisted that Japan confront Korea's refusal to recognize the legitimacy of Emperor Meiji as ruler of Japan, as well as for
supposed insulting treatment meted out to Japanese envoys attempting to establish new trade and diplomatic relations.

Romanization

Nihon Tchika no Chsen


Korean name

Hangul

Hanja

Transcriptions

In fact, the debate concerned Korea, then in the sphere of influence of Qing China, which certain elements in the Japanese government sought to
Revised Romanization Ilje gangjeomgi joseon
separate from Chinese influence and establish as a puppet state.[8] Those in favor also saw the issue as an opportunity to find meaningful employment
McCuneReischauer
Ilche kangjmgi chosn
for the thousands of out-of-work samurai, who had lost most of their income and social standing in the new Meiji socioeconomic order. Further, the
acquisition of Korea would provide both a foothold on the Asian continent for Japanese expansion and a rich source of raw materials for Japanese
industry. The arguments against such designs were outlined in kubo Toshimichi's "7 Point Document", dated October 1873, in which he argued that action against Korea was premature, as Japan itself
was in the process of modernization and an expedition would be far too costly for Japan to sustain. Okubo's views were supported by the antiwar faction, which mostly consisted of those returning from
the Iwakura Mission in 1873. Iwakura Tomomi, the diplomat who had led the mission, persuaded the emperor to reconsider, thus putting an end to the debate.

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Political turmoil in Korea


Destabilization of the Korean nation may be said to have begun in the period of Sedo Jeongch ("in-law government") whereby, at the death of King Jeongjo of Jeoson (r. 17761800), the 10-year-old
Sunjo of Joseon (r. 180034) ascended the Korean throne, with the true power of the administration residing with his regent father, Kim Jo-sun, as a representative of the Andong Kim clan. As a result,
the disarray and blatant corruption in the Korean government, particularly in the three main areas of revenues land tax, military service, and the state granary system heaped additional hardship on
the peasantry. Of special note is the corruption of the local functionaries (Hyangni), who could purchase an appointment as an administrator and so cloak their predations on the farmers with an aura of
officialdom. Yangban families, formerly well-respected for their status as a noble class, were increasingly seen as little more than commoners unwilling to meet their responsibilities to their
communities. Faced with increasing corruption in the government, brigandage of the disenfranchised (such as the mounted fire brigands, or Hwajok, and the boat-borne water brigands or Sujok) and
abuse by the military, many poor village folk sought to pool their resources, such as land, tools, and production, to survive. Despite the government abolishing slavery and burning the records in 1801,
increasing numbers of peasants and farmers become involved in gye or "mutual assistance associations".
At this time, Catholic and Protestant missions were well-tolerated among the yangban, most notably in and around the area of Seoul. Animus and persecution by more conservative elements, the
Pungyang Jo clan, took the lives of priests and followers known as the Korean Martyrs, dissuading membership by the upper class. Peasants continued to be drawn to Christian egalitarianism, though
mainly in urban and suburban areas. Arguably of greater influence were the religious teachings of Choe Je-u, (, , 182464) called Donghak (Eastern Learning), which became especially
popular in rural areas. Themes of exclusionism (from foreign influences), nationalism, salvation and social consciousness were set to music, allowing illiterate farmers to understand and accept them
more readily. Along with many other Koreans, Choe was alarmed by the intrusion of Christianity and the Anglo-French occupation of Beijing during the Second Opium War. He believed the best way
to counter foreign influence in Korea was to introduce democratic and human rights reforms internally. Nationalism and social reform struck a chord among peasant guerrillas, and Donghak spread all
across Korea. Progressive revolutionaries organized the peasants into a cohesive structure. Arrested in 1863 following the Jinju uprising led by Yu Kye-chun, Choe was charged with "misleading the
people and sowing discord in society". Choe was executed in 1864, sending many of his followers into hiding in the mountains.
Gojong of Korea (r. 18641907), enthroned at the age of twelve, succeeded Cheoljong of Joseon (r. 184963). King Gojong's father, Heungseon Daewongun (Yi Ha-ung; 182098), ruled as the de facto
regent and inaugurated far-ranging reforms to strengthen the central administration. Of special note was the decision to rebuild palace buildings and finance the project through additional levies on the
population. Further inherited rule by a few elite ruling families was challenged by the adoption of a merit system for official appointments. In addition, Sowon private academies which threatened to
develop a parallel system to the corrupt government and enjoyed special privileges and large land-holdings, were taxed and repressed despite bitter opposition from Confucian scholars. Lastly, a policy
of steadfast isolationism was enforced to stanch the increasing intrusion of Western thought and technology. He was impeached in 1873 and forced into retirement by the supporters of Empress
Myeongseong, also called "Queen Min".[9])
JapanKorea Treaty of 1876
Three years later, on 27 February 1876, the JapanKorea Treaty of 1876, also known in Japan as the JapaneseKorea Treaty of Amity ( Nitch-shkjki, Ganghwado joyak)
was signed. It was designed to open up Korea to Japanese trade, and the rights granted to Japan under the treaty were similar to those granted Western powers in Japan following the visit of Commodore
Perry in 1854.[10] However, the treaty ended Korea's status as a protectorate of China, forced open three Korean ports to Japanese trade, granted extraterritorial rights to Japanese citizens, and was an
unequal treaty signed under duress (gunboat diplomacy) of the Ganghwa Island incident of 1875.[10]
As a result of the treaty, Japanese merchants came to Busan, which became the center for foreign trade and commerce. Japanese officials then published Korea's first newspaper, Chsen shinp (
), in 1881. Chinese language articles were aimed at Korea's educated elite, which advocated for constitutional government, freedom of speech, strong rule of law and legal rights, and Korean-led
industrialization. Few of these goals came to pass. Japanese language articles focused on news regarding business, specifically "the stagnant Pusan trade" in rice and other farmed goods, which
fluctuated wildly due to weather conditions and the whims of the tax-levying elite class. It ceased publication sometime after May 1882.[11]
Imo Incident
Daewongun remained opposed to any concessions to Japan or the West, helped organize the Mutiny of 1882, an anti-Japanese outbreak against Queen Min and her allies.[12] Motivated by resentment of
the preferential treatment given to newly trained troops, Daewongun's forces, or "old military", killed Japanese training cadre, and attacked the Japanese legation.[12] Japanese diplomats,[13]
policemen,[14] students[15] and some Min clan members were also killed during the incident. Daewongun was restored to power briefly, only to be forcibly taken to China by Chinese troops dispatched
to Seoul to prevent further disorder.[12]
In August 1882, the Treaty of Jemulpo (JapanKorea Treaty of 1882) indemnified the families of the Japanese victims, paid reparations to the Japanese government in the amount of 500,000 yen, and
allowed a company of Japanese guards to be stationed at the Japanese legation in Seoul.[12]
Gapsin coup
The struggle between Heungseon Daewongun's followers and those of Queen Min was further complicated by competition from a Korean independence faction known as the Progressive Party
(Gaehwa-dang), as well as Conservative faction. While the former sought Japan's support, the latter sought China's support.[12] On 4 December 1884, the Progressive Party, assisted by the Japanese,
attempted a coup (Gapsin coup) and established a pro-Japanese government under the reigning king, dedicated to the independence of Korea from Chinese suzerainty.[12] However, this proved shortlived, as conservative Korean officials requested the help of Chinese forces stationed in Korea.[12] The coup was put down by Chinese troops, and a Korean mob killed both Japanese officers and
Japanese residents in retaliation.[12] Some leaders of the Progressive Party, including Kim Ok-gyun, fled to Japan, while others were executed.[12] For the next 10 years, Japanese expansion into the
Korean economy was approximated only by the efforts of czarist Russia.
Donghak Revolution and First Sino-Japanese War
The outbreak of the Donghak peasant revolution in 1894 provided a seminal pretext for direct military intervention by Japan in the affairs of Korea. In April, 1894, the Korean government asked for
Chinese assistance in ending the Donghak peasant revolt. In response, Japanese leaders, citing a violation of Convention of Tientsin as a pretext, decided upon military intervention to challenge China.
On May 3, 1894, 1,500 Qing forces appeared in Incheon. The same day, 6,000 Japanese forces also landed in Incheon, producing the Sino-Japanese War. Japan won the First Sino-Japanese War, and
China signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895. Among its many stipulations, the treaty recognized "the full and complete independence and autonomy of Korea", thus ending Korea's tributary
relationship with the Chinese Qing dynasty, leading to the proclamation of full independence of Joseon Korea in 1895. At the same time, Japan suppressed the Donghak revolution with Korean
government forces. With the exception of czarist Russia, Japan now held military predominance in Korea.
Assassination of Queen Min
The Japanese minister to Korea, Miura Gor, orchestrated a plot against 43 year-old Queen Min (later given the title of "Empress Myeongseong"), and on 8 October 1895, she was assassinated by
Japanese agents.[16] In 2001, Russian reports on the assassination were found in the archives of the Foreign Ministry of the Russian Federation. The documents included the testimony of King Gojong,
several witnesses of the assassination, and Karl Ivanovich Weber's report to Aleksey Lobanov-Rostovsky, the Foreign Minister of Russia, by Park Jonghyo. Weber was the charg d'affaires at the
Russian legation in Seoul at that time.[16] According to a Russian eyewitness, Seredin-Sabatin, an employee of the king, a group of Japanese agents entered Gyeongbokgung,[17] killed Queen Min, and
desecrated her body in the north wing of the palace.
When he heard the news, Heungseon Daewongun returned to the royal palace the same day.[16] On 11 February 1896, King Gojong and the crown prince moved from Gyeongbokgung to the Russian
legation in Jeong-dong, Seoul, from where they governed for about one year, an event known as the Korea royal refuge at the Russian legation.
Democracy protests and the proclamation of the Korean Empire
After the Royal Refuge, some Korean activists established the Independence Club (, ) in 1896. They claimed that Korea should negotiate with Western powers, particularly Russia,
to counterbalance the growing influence of Japan and Russia. This club had destroyed the 1593 Yeongeunmun, a special gate where Chinese envoys had been escorted and received, and contributed to
the construction of Independence Gate and they held regular meetings in the Jongno streets, demanding democratic reforms as Korea became a constitutional monarchy, and an end to Japanese and
Russian influence in Korean affairs.
In October 1897, Gojong decided to return to his other palace, Deoksugung, and proclaimed the founding of the Korean Empire. During this period, the Korean government conducted a westernization

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policy. It was not an enduring reform, however, and the Independence Club was dissolved on 25 December 1898 as the new Emperor Gojong officially announced a prohibition on unofficial congresses.
Prelude to annexation
Having established economic and military dominance in Korea in October 1904, Japan reported that it had developed 25 reforms which it intended to introduce into
Korea by gradual degrees. Among these was the intended acceptance by the Korean Financial Department of a Japanese Superintendent, the replacement of Korean
Foreign Ministers and consuls by Japanese and the "union of military arms" in which the military of Korea would be modeled after the Japanese military.[18] These
reforms were forestalled by the prosecution of the Russo-Japanese War from February 8, 1904, to September 5, 1905, which Japan won, thus eliminating Japan's last
rival to influence in Korea.[19] Under the Treaty of Portsmouth, signed in September 1905, Russia acknowledged Japan's "paramount political, military, and economic
interest" in Korea.[19]
Flag of the Japanese Resident
General of Korea (190510)

A separate agreement was signed in secret between the United States and Japan at this time, which subsequently aroused anti-American sentiment among Koreans
decades later.[19] The TaftKatsura agreement between the U.S. and Japan recognized U.S. interests in the Philippines and Japanese interests in Korea. Given the
diplomatic conventions of the times, however, the agreement was a much weaker endorsement of the Japanese presence in Korea than either the Russo-Japanese peace
treaty or a separate Anglo-Japanese Alliance.[19]
Two months later, Korea was obliged to become a Japanese protectorate by the JapanKorea Treaty of 1905 and the "reforms" were enacted, including the reduction of the Korean Army from 20,000 to
1,000 men by disbanding all garrisons in the provinces, retaining only a single garrison in the precincts of Seoul.[19] On January 6, 1905, Horace Allen, head of the American Legation in Seoul reported
to his Secretary of State, John Hay, that the Korean government had been advised by the Japanese government "that hereafter the police matters of Seoul will be controlled by the Japanese gendarmerie"
and "that a Japanese police inspector will be placed in each prefecture".[20] A large number of Koreans organized themselves in education and reform movements, but Japanese dominance in Korea had
become a reality.[19]

Cover letter from Edwin V. Morgan


of the American legation in Seoul to
the American Secretary of State dtd
July 31, 1905

Regulations published by the


Japanese Military administration (#1
through#4a,b)

Regulations published by the


Japanese Military administration (#1
through#4c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j though #6)

Regulations published by the


Japanese Military administration (#7
and specifications to#7)

Regulations published by the


Japanese Military administration
(Last specifications to#7)

In June 1907, the Second Peace Conference was held in The Hague. Emperor Gojong secretly sent three representatives to bring the problems of Korea to the world's attention. The three envoys were
refused access to the public debates by the international delegates who questioned the legality of the protectorate convention. Out of despair, one of the Korean representatives, Yi Jun, committed
suicide at The Hague.[21] In response, the Japanese government took stronger measures. On July 19, 1907, Emperor Gojong was forced to relinquish his imperial authority and appoint the Crown Prince
as regent. Japanese officials used this concession to force the accession of the new Emperor Sunjong following abdication, which was never agreed to by Gojong. Neither Gojong nor Sunjong was
present at the 'accession' ceremony. Sunjong was to be the last ruler of the Joseon, founded in 1392.[22]

JapanKorea annexation treaty (1910)


In May 1910, the Minister of War of Japan, Terauchi Masatake, was given a mission to finalize Japanese control over Korea after the previous treaties (the
JapanKorea Treaty of 1904 and the JapanKorea Treaty of 1907) had made Korea a protectorate of Japan and had established Japanese hegemony over Korean
domestic politics. On 22 August 1910, Japan effectively annexed Korea with the JapanKorea Treaty of 1910 signed by Ye Wanyong, Prime Minister of Korea, and
Terauchi Masatake, who became the first Japanese Governor-General of Korea.
The treaty became effective the same day and was published one week later. The treaty stipulated:
Article 1: His Majesty the Emperor of Korea concedes completely and definitely his entire sovereignty over the whole Korean territory to His Majesty the
Emperor of Japan.
Article 2: His Majesty the Emperor of Japan accepts the concession stated in the previous article and consents to the annexation of Korea to the Empire of
Japan.
Both the protectorate and the annexation treaties were declared void in the 1965 Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea because both
treaties were obtained under threat of force, and that the Korean Emperor, whose royal assent was required to validate and finalize any legislation or diplomatic
agreement under Korean law of the period, refused to sign the document.[23][24]

General power of attorney to Lee


Wan-yong sealed, but not signed,
by the last emperor, Sunjong on
22 August 1910 (4, 4
).

This period is also known as Military Police Reign Era (191019) in which Police had the authority to rule the entire country. Japan was in control of the media, law as well as government by physical
power and regulations.

Pre-World War II (191041)


Japanese migration and land ownership
From around the time of the First Sino-Japanese War, Japanese merchants had been settling in towns and cities in Korea seeking economic opportunity. By 1910, the number of Japanese settlers in
Korea reached over 170,000, creating the largest overseas Japanese community in the world at the time. The Japanese leadership's conviction that their country was overcrowded especially in rural
areas led to encouraging farmers to emigrate.
Many Japanese settlers were interested in acquiring agricultural land in Korea even before Japanese land ownership was officially legalized in 1906. Governor-General Terauchi Masatake facilitated
settlement through land reform, which initially proved popular with most of the Korean population. The Korean land ownership system was a system of absentee landlords, only partial owner-tenants
and cultivators with traditional (but no legal proof of) ownership. Terauchi's new Land Survey Bureau conducted cadastral surveys that reestablished ownership by basis of written proof (deeds, titles,
and similar documents). Ownership was denied to those who could not provide such written documentation; these turned out to be mostly high-class and impartial owners who had only traditional

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verbal cultivator rights. Japanese landlords included both individuals and corporations such as the Oriental Development Company. Many former Korean landowners, as
well as agricultural workers, became tenant farmers, having lost their entitlements almost overnight.
By 1910, an estimated 7 to 8% of all arable land was under Japanese control. This ratio increased steadily; during the years
1916, 1920, and 1932, the ratio of Japanese land ownership increased from 36.8 to 39.8 to 52.7%. Conversely, the ratio of
Korean ownership decreased from 63.2 to 60.2 to 47.3%. The level of tenancy was similar to that of farmers in Japan itself;
however, in Korea, the landowners were mostly Japanese, while the tenants were all Koreans. As was often the case in Japan
itself, tenants were forced to pay over half their crop as rent, forcing many to send wives and daughters into factories or
prostitution so they could pay taxes.[25]

Headquarters of the Oriental Development


Company in Seoul.

Ironically, by the 1930s, the growth of the urban economy and the exodus of farmers to the cities had gradually weakened the
hold of the landlords. With the growth of the wartime economy, the government recognized landlordism as an impediment to
increased agricultural productivity, and took steps to increase control over the rural sector through the formation of the Central
Agricultural Association, a compulsory organization under the wartime command economy.

Terauchi Masatake, the


first Japanese GovernorGeneral of Korea.

Anthropology and cultural heritage


In 1925, the Japanese government established the Korean History Compilation Committee (, ), and it was administered by the Governor-General of Korea and engaged in
collecting Korean historical materials and compiling Korean history.[26] According to the Doosan Encyclopedia, some mythology was incorporated.[27] The committee said that Korea had once hosted a
Japanese colony called Mimana.[27]
The Japanese government conducted excavations of archeological sites and preserved artifacts found there.[28] Japan demonstrated their theories by moving a stone monument (hanja: ),
which was originally located in the Liaodong Peninsula, into Pyongyang.[29]
In 1908, Japan built the National Palace Museum of Korea, which still stands today, to preserve the treasures in the Gyeongbokgung. Recognizing the speed of economic development, and lack of
concern by some Japanese developers for Korean cultural heritage, the Governor-General instituted a law in 1933 to preserve Korea's most important historical artifacts. The present-day National
Treasures of South Korea and National Treasures of North Korea are a continuation of this system.[30]
Gyeongbokgung was demolished during the Japanese occupation of the early 20th century. In 1911, ownership of land at the palace was transferred to the Japanese Governor-General. In 1915, on the
pretext of holding an exhibition, more than 90% of the buildings were torn down. Following the exhibition, the Japanese leveled whatever still remained and built their administrative headquarters, the
Government-General Building (191626), on the site.
Restoration of Gyeongbokgung to its former glory has been going on since 1990. The Government-General Building was removed in 1996 and Heungnyemun (2001) and Gwanghwamun (200610)
were reconstructed in their original locations and forms. Reconstructions of the Inner Court and Crown Princes residence have also been completed.

Anti-Chinese riots of 1931


A series of anti-Chinese riots erupted throughout Korea in 1931 as a result of public anger against the treatment of Korean migrants in Manchuria. In July, 1931, Koreans attacked the Chinese residents
in both Korea and Japan. The Governor-General of Korea announced there were more than 100 dead Chinese victims.[31] The Chinese claimed 146 people were killed, 546 wounded, and a considerable
number of properties were destroyed. The worst of the rioting occurred in Pyongyang on July 5. The Chinese further alleged the Japanese authorities in Korea did not take adequate steps to protect the
lives and property of the Chinese residents, and blamed the authorities for allowing inflammatory accounts to be published. The Japanese countered that the riots were a spontaneous outburst that was
suppressed as soon as possible and offered compensation for the families of the dead. As a result of this riot, the Minister of Foreign Affairs Kijr Shidehara, who insisted on Japanese, Chinese and
Korean harmony, lost his position.

Order to name changes


Attempts were made to introduce the modern household registration system. The Korean caste system was lost by this attempt. In 1911, the proclamation "Matter Concerning the Changing of Korean
Names" () was issued barring ethnic Koreans from taking Japanese names and to retroactively revert the names of Koreans who had already registered under Japanese
names back to the original Korean ones.[32][32] By 1939, however, this position was reversed and Japan's focus had shifted towards cultural assimilation of the Korean people, and Imperial Decree 19 on
Korean Civil Affairs (; "19")[33] went into effect, whereby ethnic Koreans were forced to surrender their Korean family names and adopt Japanese surnames.

World War II
National Mobilization Law
Deportation of forced labor
Korean migration had increased after World War I and accelerated after 1930; in 1939, there were 981,000 Koreans living in Japan as immigrants.
The combination of immigrants and forced laborers during World War II brought the total to over 2 million by the end of the war, according to estimates by the Supreme
Commander for the Allied Powers. In 1946, some 1,340,000 ethnic Koreans were repatriated to Korea, with 650,000 choosing to remain in Japan,[35] where they now form
the Zainichi Korean community. A 1982 survey by the Korean Youth Association showed that conscripted laborers accounts for 13 percent of first-generation Zainichi
Koreans.
From 1939, labor shortages as a result of conscription of Japanese males for the military efforts of World War II led to organized official
recruitment of Koreans to work in mainland Japan, initially through civilian agents, and later directly, often involving elements of coercion. As
the labor shortage increased, by 1942, the Japanese authorities extended the provisions of the National Mobilization Law to include the
conscription of Korean workers for factories and mines on the Korean peninsula, Manchukuo, and the involuntary relocation of workers to
Japan itself as needed.

Kuniaki Koiso, Japanese


Governor-General of
Korea, implemented a draft
of Koreans for wartime
labor.

Of the 5,400,000 Koreans conscripted, about 670,000 were taken to mainland Japan (including Karafuto Prefecture, present-day Sakhalin, now
part of Russia) for civilian labor. Those who were brought to Japan were often forced to work under appalling and dangerous conditions.[36]
Apparently Koreans were better treated than were laborers from other countries, but still their work hours, food and medical care were such
that large numbers died. This is clear from the 60,000 Korean laborers that died in Japan out of the near 670,000 that were brought there in the
years 1939 to 1945 (line 119a).[37] The total deaths of Korean forced laborers in Korea and Manchuria is estimated to be between 270,000 and
810,000.[37] The 43,000 ethnic Koreans in Karafuto, which had been occupied by the Soviet Union just prior to Japan's surrender, were refused
repatriation to either mainland Japan or the Korean peninsula, and were thus trapped in Sakhalin, stateless; they became the ancestors of the
Sakhalin Koreans.[38]
Most Korean atomic-bomb victims in Japan were drafted for work at military industrial factories in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.[39] In the name
of humanitarian assistance, Japan paid South Korea four billion yen (approx. thirty five million dollars) and built a welfare center for those
suffering from the effects of the atomic bomb.[40]

Japan-Korea. Teamwork
and Unity. Champions of
the World. The notion
of racial and imperial
unity of Korea and Japan
gained widespread
following among the
literate minority of the
middle and upper
classes.[34]

Korean service in the Japanese military


Japan did not draft ethnic Korean into its military until 1944 when the tide of WW II turned dire. Until 1944, enlistment in the Imperial Japanese Army by ethnic Koreans was voluntary, and highly
competitive, as illustrated on the chart to the right. From a 14% acceptance rate in 1938, it dropped to a 2% acceptance rate in 1943 while the raw number of applicants increased from 3000 per annum

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to 300,000 in just five years during World War II.


Of note, ethnic Korean during 35 years of colonial governance by Japan produced 7 Generals and countless field grade officers (Colonels, Lieutenant
Colonels, and Majors) in the Japanese Army despite institutionalized discrimination.

Korean military participation until


1943[41][42]

Year Applicants
The first and the best known among them is Lieutenant General and Crown Prince Yi Un. The other six Generals were graduates of the Imperial Japanese
[45]
[46]
[47]
[48]
Army Academy.
They are: Lieutenant General Jo Seonggeun;
Major General Wang Yushik;
Lieutenant General Viscount Yi Beyongmu;
Major 1938 2,946
General Yi Heedu;[49] Major General Kim Eungseon (also military aide and personal guard to Prince Yi Un);[50] Lieutenant General Hong Sa-ik, the
1939 12,348
Commander of all Prisoner Camps in southern Philippines in 1944-1945.
1940 84,443
Other Japanese Army officers of Korean origin moved onto successful careers in the post-occupation period. Well-known examples include Park
1941 144,743
Chung-hee, who became president of South Korea, Chung Il-kwon (,), prime minister from 1964 to 1970, and Paik Sun-yup, South Korea's
1942 254,273
youngest general, famous for his defense during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter during the Korean War. The first ten of the Chiefs of Army Staff of South
Korea graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and none from the Korean Liberation Army.[51][52]
1943 303,294

Applicants Acceptance
accepted
rate [%]
406

13.8

613

5.0

3,060

3.6

3,208

2.2

4,077

1.6

6,300[43]

2.1

Officer had been joining the Japanese Army since before the Annexation by attending the Imperial
Japanese Army Academy. Enlisted Soldier recruitment began as early as 1938, when the Japanese Kwantung
Army in Manchuria began accepting pro-Japanese Korean volunteers into the army of Manchukuo, and formed
the Gando Special Force. Koreans in this unit specialized in counter-insurgency operations against communist
guerillas in the region of Jiandao. The size of the unit grew considerably at an annual rate of 700 men, and
included such notable Koreans as General Paik Sun-yup, who served in the Korean War. Historian Philip Jowett
noted that during the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, the Gando Special Force "earned a reputation for
brutality and was reported to have laid waste to large areas which came under its rule."[53]
Starting in 1944, Japan started the conscription of Koreans into the armed forces. All Korean males were drafted
to either join the Imperial Japanese Army, as of April 1944, or work in the military industrial sector, as of
September 1944. Before 1944, 18,000 Koreans passed the examination for induction into the army. Koreans
provided workers to mines and construction sites around Japan. The number of conscripted Koreans reached its
peak in 1944 in preparation for war.[54] From 1944, about 200,000 Korean males were inducted into the army.

Crown Prince Lieutenant General Yi Un, Princes


Captain Yi Geon and Captain Yi Wu in 1938

During World War II, American soldiers frequently encountered Korean soldiers within the ranks of the Imperial
Japanese Army. Most notably was in the Battle of Tarawa, which was considered during that time to be one of the
bloodiest battles in U.S. military history. A fifth of the Japanese garrison during this battle consisted of Korean
laborers who were trained in combat roles. Like their Japanese counterparts, they put up a ferocious defense and
fought to the death.[55][56]

The news article shows that Park


Chung-hee submitted an oath of
allegiance to Japan in his own
blood with his application form to
serve in the Manchukuo Imperial
Army, March 31, 1939.[44]

The Japanese, however, did not always believe they could rely on Korean laborers to fight alongside them. In Prisoners of the Japanese, author Gaven Daws wrote,
"[O]n Tinian there were five thousand Korean laborers and so as not to have hostiles at their back when the Americans invaded, the Japanese killed them."[57]
After the war, 148 Koreans were convicted of Class B and C Japanese war crimes, 23 of whom were sentenced to death (compared to 920 Japanese who were
sentenced to death), including Korean prison guards who were particularly notorious for their brutality during the war. The figure is relatively high considering that
ethnic Koreans made up a very small percentage of the Japanese military. Justice Bert Rling, who represented the Netherlands at the International Military Tribunal
for the Far East, noted that "many of the commanders and guards in POW camps were Koreans the Japanese apparently did not trust them as soldiers and it is
said that they were sometimes far more cruel than the Japanese."[58] In his memoirs, Colonel Eugene C. Jacobs wrote that during the Bataan Death March, "the
Korean guards were the most abusive. The Japs didn't trust them in battle, so used them as service troops; the Koreans were anxious to get blood on their bayonets;
and then they thought they were veterans."[59][60]
Korean guards were sent to the remote jungles of Burma, where Lt. Col. William A. (Bill) Henderson wrote from his own experience that some of the guards
overlooking the construction of the Burma Railway "were moronic and at times almost bestial in their treatment of prisoners. This applied particularly to Korean
private soldiers, conscripted only for guard and sentry duties in many parts of the Japanese empire. Regrettably, they were appointed as guards for the prisoners
throughout the camps of Burma and Siam."[61] The highest-ranking Korean to be prosecuted after the war was Lieutenant General Hong Sa-ik, who was in command
of all the Japanese prisoner-of-war camps in the Philippines.

Lieutenant Park Chung-hee,


Manchukuo, 1944

Independence and division of Korea


Following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the impending overrun of the Korean peninsula by Russian forces, Japan surrendered
to the Allied forces on 15 August 1945, ending 35 years of Japanese occupation.
American forces under General John R. Hodge arrived at the southern part of the Korean Peninsula on 8 September 1945, while the Soviet Army and some
Korean Communists had stationed themselves in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. U.S. Colonel Dean Rusk proposed to Chischakov, the Soviet military
administrator of northern Korea, that Korea should be split at the 38th parallel. This proposal was made at an emergency meeting to determine postwar spheres of
influence, which led to the division of Korea.
After the liberation of Korea from Japanese rule, the "Name Restoration Order" was issued on 23 October 1946 by the United States Army Military Government
in Korea south of the 38th parallel, enabling Koreans to restore their names if they wished. Many Koreans in Japan chose to retain their Japanese names, either to
avoid discrimination, or later, to meet the requirements for naturalization as Japanese citizens.[62]

Korean volunteers in the Imperial


Japanese Army, January 1943

Korean independence movement


Upon Emperor Gojong's death, anti-Japanese rallies took place nationwide, most notably the March 1st Movement of 1919. A declaration of independence was
read in Seoul. It is estimated that 2 million people took part in these rallies. The Japanese violently suppressed the protests: According to Korean records, 46,948
were arrested, 7,509 killed and 15,961 wounded; according to Japanese figures, 8,437 were arrested, 553 killed and 1,409 wounded.[63] About 7,000 people were
killed by Japanese police and soldiers during the 12 months of demonstrations.[64]
After suppression of the uprising, some aspects of Japanese rule considered most objectionable to Koreans were removed. The military police were replaced by a
civilian force, and freedom of the press was permitted to a limited extent. Two of the three major Korean daily newspapers, the Dong-a Ilbo and the Chosun Ilbo,
were established in 1920.
Photo memorialising the
establishment of the Provisional
Government of the Republic of
Korea, 1919.

Objection to Japanese rule over Korea continued, and the March 1st Movement was a catalyst for the establishment of the Provisional Government of the
Republic of Korea by Korean migrs in Shanghai on 13 April 1919. The modern South Korean government considers this Provisional Government of the
Republic of Korea the de jure representation of the Korean people throughout the period of Japanese rule.

The Japanese occupation of Korea after annexation was largely uncontested militarily by the smaller, poorly armed, and poorly trained Korean army. Many
former soldiers and other volunteers left the Korean peninsula for Manchuria and Primorsky Krai in Russia. Koreans in Manchuria formed resistance groups
known as Dongnipgun (Liberation Army), which traveled across the Korean-Chinese border, using guerrilla warfare tactics against Japanese forces. The Japanese
invasion of Manchuria in 1932 and subsequent Pacification of Manchukuo deprived many of these groups of their bases of operation and supplies. Many were forced to either flee to China, or to join
the Red Army-backed forces in eastern Russia. One of the guerrilla groups was led by the future leader of communist North Korea, Kim Il-sung, in Japanese controlled Manchuria. Kim Il-Sungs time
as a guerrilla leader was formative upon his political ideology once he came to power.[65]

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Within Korea itself, anti-Japanese rallies continued on occasion. Most notably, the Gwangju Students Anti-Japanese Movement on 3 November 1929 led to the
strengthening of Japanese military rule in 1931, after which freedom of the press and freedom of expression were curbed. Many witnesses, including Catholic
priests, reported that Japanese authorities dealt with insurgency severely. When villagers were suspected of hiding rebels, entire village populations are said to
have been herded into public buildings (especially churches) and massacred when the buildings were set on fire.[66] In the village of Jeam-ni, Hwaseong, for
example, a group of 29 people were gathered inside a church which was then set afire.[67] Such events deepened the hostility of many Korean civilians towards
the Japanese government.
On 10 December 1941, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, under the presidency of Kim Gu, declared war on Japan in Chongqing in china
evacuation destination.[68] The Korean Provisional Government organized Korean resistance groups "Korean Liberation Army". However, they never fought
against Japan. Afterwards, they became leaders of South Korea. On the other hand, Kim Il-sung led tens of thousands of Koreans volunteered for the National
Revolutionary Army and the People's Liberation Army. The communist-backed Korean Volunteer Army (KVA, , ) was established in
Yenan, China, outside of the Provisional Government's control, from a core of 1,000 deserters from the Imperial Japanese Army. After the Manchurian Strategic
Offensive Operation, the KVA entered Manchuria, where it recruited from the ethnic Korean population and eventually became the Korean People's Army of the
Democratic People's Republic of Korea.

Three Koreans shot for pulling up


rails as a protest against seizure of
land without payment by the Japanese

Economy and modernization


Economic output in terms of agriculture, fishery, forestry and industry increased by tenfold from 1910 to 1945 as illustrated on the chart to the right.[69] This
phenomenal rate of development was unexpected even by the Japanese. Princeton's Atul Kohli, have concluded that the economic development model the
Japanese instituted played the crucial role in Korean economic development, a model that was maintained by the Koreans in the post-World War II era.[70]
Randall S. Jones wrote that "economic development during the colonial period can be said to have laid the foundation for future growth in several
respects."[71] According to Myung Soo Cha of Yeungnam University, "the South Korean developmental state, as symbolized by Park Chung Hee, a former
officer of the Japanese Imperial army serving in wartime Manchuria, was closely modeled upon the colonial system of government. In short, South Korea
grew on the shoulders of the colonial achievement, rather than emerging out of the ashes left by the Korean War, as is sometimes asserted."[72]
There were some modernization efforts by the late 19th century prior to annexation. Seoul became the first city in East Asia to have electricity, trolley cars,
water, telephone, and telegraph systems all at the same time,[73] but Korea remained a largely backward agricultural economy around the start of the 20th
century.[74] "Japan's initial colonial policy was to increase agricultural production in Korea to meet Japan's growing need for rice. Japan also began to build
large-scale industries in Korea in the 1930s as part of the empire-wide program of economic self-sufficiency and war preparation."[75][76] In terms of exports,
"Japanese industry as a whole gained little . . . and this is certainly true for the most important manufacturing sector, cotton textiles. This export trade had
little impact, positive or negative, on the welfare of Japanese consumer."[77] Likewise in terms of the profitability of Japanese investors: colonial Korea made
no significant impact.[78]

Groundbreaking the SeoulPusan railway.

According to scholar Donald S. Macdonald, "for centuries most Koreans lived as subsistence farmers of rice and other grains and satisfied most of their basic
needs through their own labor or through barter. The manufactures of traditional Korea principally cloth, cooking and eating utensils, furniture, jewelry,
and paper were produced by artisans in a few population centers."[74]

During the early period of Japanese rule, the Japanese government attempted to completely integrate the Korean economy with Japan, and
thus introduced many modern economic and social institutions and invested heavily in infrastructure, including schools, railroads and
utilities. Most of these physical facilities remained in Korea after the Liberation. The Japanese government played an even more active role in
developing Korea than it had played in developing the Japanese economy in the late nineteenth century. Many programs drafted in Korea in
the 1920s and 1930s originated in policies drafted in Japan during the Meiji period (18681912). The Japanese government helped to
mobilize resources for development and provided entrepreneurial leadership for these new enterprises. Colonial economic growth was
initiated through powerful government efforts to expand the economic infrastructure, to increase investment in human capital through health
and education and to raise productivity.[74]

Production in Korea under Japanese rule

However, under Japanese rule, many Korean resources were only utilized for Japan.[79] Economist Suh Sang-chul points out that the nature of
industrialization during the period was as an "imposed enclave," so the impact of colonialism was trivial. Another scholar, Song Byung-nak, states that the
economic condition of average Koreans was aggravated during the period despite the economic growth. Most Koreans at the time could access only a
primary school education under restriction by the Japanese, and this prevented the growth of an indigenous entrepreneurial class. A 1939 statistic shows that
among the total capital recorded by factories, about 94 percent was Japanese-owned. While Koreans owned about 61 percent of small-scale firms that had 5
to 49 employees, about 92 percent of large-scale enterprises with more than 200 employees were Japanese-owned.[80][81][82]

Virtually all industries were owned either by Japan-based corporations or by Japanese corporations in Korea. As of 1942, indigenous capital
constituted only 1.5 percent of the total capital invested in Korean industries. Korean entrepreneurs were charged interest rates 25 percent
higher than their Japanese counterparts, so it was difficult for large Korean enterprises to emerge. More and more farmland was taken over by
the Japanese, and an increasing proportion of Korean farmers either became sharecroppers or migrated to Japan or Manchuria as laborers. As
greater quantities of Korean rice were exported to Japan, per capita consumption of rice among the Koreans declined; between 1932 and
1936, per capita consumption of rice declined to half the level consumed between 1912 and 1916. Although the government imported coarse
grains from Manchuria to augment the Korean food supply, per capita consumption of food grains in 1944 was 35 percent below that of 1912
to 1916.[75]

Industrialization of Korea under Japanese


rule

Population of Korea under Japanese rule

The Japanese government created a system of colonial mercantilism, requiring construction of significant transportation infrastructure on the Korean
Peninsula for the purpose of extracting and exploiting resources such as raw materials (timber), foodstuff (mostly rice and fish), and mineral resources (coal
and iron ore). The Japanese developed port facilities and an extensive railway system which included a main trunk railway from the southern port city of
Pusan through the capital of Seoul and north to the Chinese border. This infrastructure was intended not only to facilitate a colonial mercantilist economy, but
was also viewed as a strategic necessity for the Japanese military to control Korea and to move large numbers of troops and materials to the Chinese border
at short notice.
From the late 1920s and into the 1930s, particularly during the tenure of Japanese Governor-General Kazushige Ugaki, concentrated efforts were made to
build up the industrial base in Korea. This was especially true in the areas of heavy industry, such as chemical plants and steel mills, and munitions
production. The Japanese military felt it would be beneficial to have production closer to the source of raw materials and closer to potential front lines for a
future war with China.[83]

Railway in Korea under Japanese rule

Lee Young-hoon, a controversial professor at Seoul National University and a leading critic of the right wing, states that less than 10% of arable land actually
came under Japanese control and rice was normally traded, not robbed. He also insists that Koreans' knowledge about the era under Japanese rule is mostly
made up by later educators.[84][85][86][87][88] Many of Lee's arguments, however, have been contested.[89]

Changes to Korean culture under Japanese rule


Newspaper censorship
In 1907, the Japanese government passed the Newspaper Law which effectively prevented the publication of local papers. Only the Korean-language
newspaper Taehan Maeil Sinbo () continued its publication, because it was run by a foreigner named Ernest Bethell. For the first decade of

Telephone subscribers in Korea under


Japanese rule

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colonial rule, therefore, there were no Korean-owned newspapers whatsoever, although books were steadily printed and there were several dozen Korean-owned magazines.[90] In 1920 these laws were
relaxed, and in 1932 Japan eliminated a significant double standard which had been making Korean publication significantly more difficult than Japanese publication. Even with these relaxed rules,
however, the government still seized newspapers without warning: there are over a thousand recorded seizures between 1920 and 1939. Revocation of publishing rights was relatively rare, and only
three magazines had their rights revoked over the entire colonial period. In 1940, as the Pacific War increased in intensity, Japan shut down all Korean language newspapers again.[90]

Education
Following the annexation of Korea, the Japanese administration introduced a public education system modeled after the Japanese school system with a
pyramidal hierarchy of elementary, middle and high schools, culminating at the Keij Imperial University in Seoul. As in Japan itself, education was viewed
primarily as an instrument of "the Formation of the Imperial Citizen" (; ) with a heavy emphasis on moral and political instruction.
During colonial times, elementary schools were known as "Citizen Schools" (; ; gungmin hakgyo) as in Japan, as a means of forming
proper "Imperial Citizens" (; Hwanggungmin) from early childhood. Elementary schools in South Korea today are known by the name chodeung
hakgyo (; ) (literally "Elementary School") as the term gungmin hakgyo has recently become a politically incorrect term.
The public curriculum for most of the period was taught by Korean educators under a hybrid system focused on assimilating Koreans into the Japanese
empire while emphasizing Korean cultural education. This focused on the history of the Japanese Empire as well as inculcating reverence for the Imperial
House of Japan and instruction in the Imperial Rescript on Education.

Keij Imperial University, Seoul.

Integration of Korean students in Japanese language schools and Japanese students in Korean language schools was discouraged but steadily increased over
time. While official policy promoted equality between ethnic Koreans and ethnic Japanese, in practice this was rarely the case.[91] Korean history and
language studies would be taught side by side with Japanese history and language studies until the early 1940s under a new education ordinance that saw
wartime efforts increased and the hybrid system slowly weakened.[92]
One point of view is that, although the Japanese education system in Korea was detrimental towards the colony's cultural identity, its introduction of public
education as universal was a step in the right direction to improve Korea's human capital. Towards the end of Japanese rule, Korea saw elementary school
attendance at 38 percent. Children of elite families were able to advance to higher education, while others were able to attend technical schools, allowing for
"the emergence of a small but important class of well-educated white collar and technical workers... who possessed skills required to run a modern industrial
economy." The Japanese education system ultimately produced hundreds of thousands of educated South Koreans who later became "the core of the postwar
political and economic elite."[93]

The number of public regular schools(


) and students

Another point of view is that it was only after the end of Japanese rule with World War II that Korea saw true, democratic rise in public education as
evidenced by the rise of adult literacy rate from 22 percent in 1945 to 87.6 percent by 1970 and 93% by the late 1980s. Though public education was made
available for elementary schools during Japanese rule, Korea as a country did not experience secondary-school enrollment rates comparable to those of Japan
prior to the end of World War II.[94]

Japanese policies for the Korean language


In the initial phase of Japanese rule, students were taught in Korean in public schools established by ethnic Korean officials who worked for the colonial
government. During this time, Korean was written in a mixed HanjaKorean script, where most lexical roots were written in Hanja and grammatical forms in
Korean script.[95] Korean textbooks from this era included excerpts from traditional Korean stories such as Heungbujeon ().[96]

Enrollment rate of public regular


schools() and students

In 1921, government efforts were strengthened to promote Korean media and literature throughout Korea and also in Japan. The Japanese government also created incentives to educate ethnic Japanese
students in the Korean language.[97] As a response, the Korean Language Society was created by ethnic Koreans. In 1928, as the assimilation policy began to ramp up, the first Hangul Day (November
4) was celebrated to commemorate the Korean alphabet.[98]
The Japanese administrative policy shifted more aggressively towards cultural assimilation in 1938 (Naisen ittai) with a new government report advising reform to strengthen the war effort. This left
less room for Korean language studies and by 1943 all Korean language courses had been phased out. Although the government report advised further, more radical reform, the 10-year plan would
never fully go into effect.[99]

Removal and return of historical artifacts


The Japanese rule of Korea also resulted in the theft of tens of thousands of cultural artifacts to Japan. The issue over where these articles should be located began during the U.S. occupation of
Japan.[100] In 1965, as part of the Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea, Japan returned roughly 1,400 artifacts to Korea, and considered the diplomatic matter to have
been resolved.[101] Korean artifacts are retained in the Tokyo National Museum and in the hands of many private collectors.[102]
According to the South Korean government, there are 75,311 cultural artifacts that were taken from Korea. Japan has 34,369, the United States has 17,803,[103] and France had several hundred, which
were seized in the French campaign against Korea and loaned back to Korea in 2010 without an apology.[104] In 2010, Prime Minister of Japan Naoto Kan expressed "deep remorse" for the removal of
artifacts,[105] and arranged an initial plan to return the Royal Protocols of the Joseon Dynasty and over 1,200 other books, which was carried out in 2011.[106]

Anthropology and religion


Japan sent anthropologists to Korea who took photos of the traditional state of Korean villages, serving as evidence that Korea was "backwards" and needed to be modernized.[107]
As Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo, Korea became more vital to the internal communications and defense of the Japanese empire against the Soviet Union. Japan decided in the 1930s
to make the Koreans become more loyal to the Emperor by requiring Korean participation in the State Shinto devotions, and by weakening the influences of both Christianity and traditional religion.
[5][108]

The primary building of Gyeongbokgung palace was demolished and the Japanese General Government Building was built in its exact location. The Japanese colonial authorities destroyed 85 percent
of all the buildings in Gyeongbokgung.[109] Sungnyemun, the gate in Seoul that was an iconic symbol of Korea, was altered by the addition of large, Shinto-style golden horns near the roofs (later
removed by the South Korean government after independence).
Christianity
Protestant missionary efforts in Asia were nowhere more successful than in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. In the days Korea was under
Japanese control, Christianity became in part an expression of nationalism in opposition to Japan's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion.[110] In 1914, out of 16 million
people, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics; by 1934 the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. Harmonizing with traditional
practices became an issue. The Catholics tolerated Shinto rites. The Protestants developed a substitute for Confucian ancestral rites by merging Confucian-based and Christian death and funerary
rituals.[111]
Missionaries, however, were alarmed at the rise in communist activity during the 1920s. Communist literature was effectively banned in Korea at this time, but it was sometimes smuggled into the
country disguised as Christian literature, often addressed to missionaries to further avoid suspicion. Communist concepts, such as class struggle, and its partner nationalist movement were resonating
well with some of the peasants and lower-class citizens of colonial-era Korea; this was worrying to some missionaries because of communism's atheist components. At one point, communist students in
Seoul held an "anti-Sunday School conference" and loudly protested religion in front of churches. This protest renewed Japanese governmental interest in censorship of communist ideas and
language.[112]

Legacy

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According to the South Koreans, many Koreans became victims of Japanese brutalities during the colonial period. Korean villagers hiding resistance fighters were dealt with harshly, often with
summary execution, rape, forced labour, and looting.[113][114][115][116][117][118] Starting on 1 March 1919, an anti-Japanese demonstration continued to spread, and as the Japanese national and military
police could not contain the crowds, the army and even the navy were also called in. There were several reports of atrocities. In one instance, Japanese police in the village of Jeam-ri, Hwaseong herded
everyone into a church, locked it, and burned it to the ground. They also shot through the burning windows of the church to ensure that no one made it out alive. Many participants of the March 1st
Movement were subjected to torture and execution.

Result of the name changes


Although officially voluntary, and initially resisted by the Japanese Colonial government, convinced by the Pro-Japanese elites of their society, 80% of Koreans voluntarily changed their name to
Japanese in 1940. Many community leaders urged the adoption of Japanese names to make it easy for their children to succeed in society and overcome discrimination.[119]
A study conducted by the United States Library of Congress states that "the Korean culture was quashed, and Koreans were required to speak Japanese and take Japanese names."[120][121][122] This
name change policy, called Changssi-gaemyeong (; ), was part of Japan's assimilation efforts.[123][124] The policy was extremely popular, with 80 percent of Koreans changing their
last names to a Japanese one during in only about one single year, even though it required a payment.[125] A number of prominent ethnic Koreans working for the Japanese government, including
General Hong Sa-ik, insisted on keeping their Korean names. Another ethnic Korean, Park Chun-Geum (, ), was elected as a member of the Lower House from the Tokyo Third District
in the general election in 1932 and served two terms without changing his Korean name, but has been registered as chinilpa by the current Republic of Korea government.

Forced laborers and comfort women


During World War II, about 450,000 Korean male laborers were involuntarily sent to Japan.[126] Comfort women, who served in Japanese military brothels as a form of sexual slavery, came from all
over the Japanese empire. They numbered somewhere from 10,000 to 200,000, and they included an unknown number of Koreans.[127][128] However, Korean males serving in Japanese army used the
comfort station just as the Japanese did during WWII.[129][130] Comfort women were often recruited from rural locales with the promise of factory employment; business records, often from Korean
subcontractees of Japanese companies, showed them falsely classified as nurses or secretaries.[131] There is evidence that the Japanese government intentionally destroyed official records regarding
comfort women.[132][133]
In 2002, South Korea started an investigation of Japanese collaborators. Part of the investigation was completed in 2006 and a list of names of individuals who profited from exploitation of fellow
Koreans were posted.[134] The collaborators not only benefited from exploiting their countrymen, but the children of these collaborators benefited further by acquiring higher education with the
exploitation money they had amassed.[135]
The "Truth Commission on Forced Mobilization under the Japanese Imperialism Republic of Korea" investigated the received reports for damage from 86 people among the 148 Koreans who were
accused of being the level B and C war criminals while serving as prison guards for the Japanese military during World War II. The commission, which was organized by the South Korean government,
announced that they acknowledge 83 people among them as victims. The commission said that although the people reluctantly served as guards to avoid the draft, they took responsibility for
mistreatment by the Japanese against prisoners of war. Lee Se-il, leader of the investigation, said that examination of the military prosecution reports for 15 Korean prison guards, obtained from The
National Archives of the United Kingdom, confirmed that they were convicted without explicit evidence.[136]

Koreans in Unit 731


Koreans, along with many other Asians, were experimented on in Unit 731, a secret military medical experimentation unit in World War II. The victims who died in the camp included at least 25
victims from the former Soviet Union and Korea.[137]General Shiro Ishii, the head of Unit 731, revealed during the Tokyo War Crime Trials that 254 Koreans were killed in Unit 731.[138] Some
historians estimate up to 250,000 total people were subjected to human experiments.[139] A Unit 731 veteran attested that most that were experimented on were Chinese, Koreans and Mongolians.[140]

Discrimination against Korean leprosy patients by Japan


Colonial Korea was subject to the same Leprosy Prevention Laws of 1907 and 1931 as the Japanese home islands. These laws directly and indirectly permitted the segregation of patients in sanitariums,
where forced abortions and sterilization were common. The laws authorized punishment of patients "disturbing the peace," as most Japanese leprologists believed that vulnerability to the disease was
inheritable.[141] In Korea, many leprosy patients were also subjected to hard labor.[142]
Since the end of Japanese colonial rule, lepers have been reintegrated into Korean society. For example, the Japanese banned the traditional Byung shin chum dance where able-bodied people imitated
the funny walking habits of lepers. After Korean independence this popular dance was revived.

Atomic bomb casualties


Many Koreans were drafted for work at military industrial factories in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.[39] According to the secretary-general of a group named Peace Project Network, "there were a total of
70,000 Korean victims in both cities". Japan paid South Korea 4 billion yen and built a welfare center in the name of humanitarian assistance, not as compensation to the victims.[40]

Japanese post-colonial responses


South Korean presidential investigation commission on pro-Japanese collaborators
Collaborators of the Imperial Japanese Army were prosecuted in the postwar period as Chinilpa, or "friendly to Japanese".[143] In 2006, South Korean president, Roh Moo-hyun, appointed an
investigation commission into the issue of locating descendants of pro-Japanese collaborators from the times of the 1890s until the collapse of Japanese rule in 1945.
In 2010, the commission concluded its five-volume report. As a result, the land property of 168 South Korean citizens has been confiscated by the government, these citizens being descendants of
pro-Japanese collaborators.[144]

In culture and film


Madam Oh, 1965 South Korean drama film

See also
Japan-Korea disputes
Korea under Yuan rule
Taiwan under Japanese rule

Notes and references


This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies.
1. Sarah Thal. "A Religion That Was Not a Religion: The Creation of Modern Shinto in NineteenthCentury Japan". In The Invention of Religion., eds. Peterson and Walhof (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers
University Press, 2002). pp. 100114.
2. Hitoshi Nitta. "Shint as a Non-Religion: The Origins and Development of an Idea". In Shint in
History: Ways of the Kami, eds. Breen and Teeuwen (Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 2000).
3. John Breen, Ideologues, Bureaucrats and Priests, in Shint in History: Ways of the Kami.

4. Hitoshi Nitta. The Illusion of "Arahitogami" "Kokkashintou". Tokyo: PHP Kenkyjo, 2003.
5. Wi Jo Kang (1997). Christ and Caesar in Modern Korea: A History of Christianity and Politics
(http://books.google.com/books?id=lYn4BKxNSCoC&pg=PA62). SUNY Press. p. 62.
6. The Abacus and the Sword; Duus, Peter; Univ of California Press, 1995; pp. 1824

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7. Hook, Glenn D. (2001). Japan's International Relations: Politics, Economics, and Security,; p. 491
(https://books.google.com/books?id=HZYARCHyP_AC) at Google Books. "Article II. It is confirmed
that all treaties or agreements concluded between the Empire of Japan and the Empire of Korea on or
before August 22, 1910 are already null and void."
8. Duus, Peter (1995). The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea, 18951910
(http://books.google.com/books?id=DZaizVa8oAAC&printsec=frontcover). Berkeley: University of
California Press. ISBN 0-520-08614-7.
9. Characteristics of Queen of Korea (http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&
res=940CE7DC1139E033A25753C1A9679D94649ED7CF) The New York Times Nov 10, 1895
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Further reading
McKenzie, F.A. (1920). Korea's Fight for Freedom.
Ireland, Alleyne (1926). The New Korea.
Eckert, Carter J. (1996), Offspring of Empire: The Koch'ang Kims and the Colonial Origins of Korean Capitalism, 1876-1945 (http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/search/books/ECKOFF.html), Korean Studies of the
Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies (Paperback ed.), Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press, ISBN 0-295-97533-4
Hildi, Kang (2001), Under the Black Umbrella: Voices from Colonial Korea, 1910-1945, Cornell University Press, ISBN 0-8014-7270-9
Uchida, Jun (2011). Brokers of Empire: Japanese Settler Colonialism in Korea, 18761945. Harvard East Asian Monographs. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-06253-5.
Committee Against Government Apologies to Korea (July 30, 2010), A New Look at the Annexation of Korea (http://www.sdh-fact.com/CL02_1/89_S4.pdf) (PDF), Society the Dissemination of Historical Fact

External links
Isabella Lucy Bird (1898), Korea and Her Neighbours: A Narrative of Travel, with an Account of the Recent Vicissitudes and Present Position of the
Wikiquote has quotations
Country (http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC00142821&id=6vTaMHgHpTQC)
related to: Korea under
Horace Newton Allen (1908), Things Korean: A Collection of Sketches and Anecdotes, Missionary and Diplomatic (http://books.google.com
Japanese rule
/books?vid=OCLC01139077&id=ItkMAAAAIAAJ)
Toshiyuki Mizoguchi, "Consumer Prices and Real Wages in Taiwan and Korea under Japanese Rule" Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics, 13(1): 4056
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Korea
(http://hermes-ir.lib.hit-u.ac.jp/rs/bitstream/10086/8017/1/HJeco0130100400.pdf)
under Japanese rule.
Toshiyuki Mizoguchi, "Economic Growth of Korea under the Japanese Occupation Background of Industrialization of Korea 1911-1940" Hitotsubashi
Journal of Economics, 20(1): 119 (http://hermes-ir.lib.hit-u.ac.jp/rs/bitstream/10086/7960/1/HJeco0200100010.pdf)
Toshiyuki Mizoguchi, "Foreign Trade in Taiwan and Korea under Japanese Rule" Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics, 14(2): 3753 (http://hermes-ir.lib.hit-u.ac.jp/rs/bitstream/10086/8007/1
/HJeco0140200370.pdf)
Kim, Young-Koo, The Validity of Some Coerced Treaties in the Early 20th Century: A Reconsideration of the Japanese Annexation of Korea in Legal Perspective (http://works.bepress.com
/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=young_kim)
Matsuki Kunitoshi, "Japans Annexation of Korea" (http://www.sdh-fact.com/CL02_1/76_S4.pdf) Society the Dissemination of Historical Fact (http://www.sdh-fact.com/index.html)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Korea_under_Japanese_rule&oldid=674409186"
Categories: Former monarchies Former countries in East Asia States and territories established in 1910 States and territories disestablished in 1945 Korea under Japanese rule
Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea JapanKorea relations Former colonies in Asia Military occupations of Korea Annexation 1910 establishments in Korea

8/4/2015 9:16 PM

Korea under Japanese rule - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule

1910 establishments in the Japanese colonial empire 1945 disestablishments in the Japanese colonial empire 1945 disestablishments in Korea
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