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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule
Korea under Japanese rule is the culmination of a process that began with the JapanKorea Treaty of 1876, whereby a complex
coalition of Meiji government, military, and business officials sought to integrate Korea both politically and economically into the Empire
of Japan, first as a protectorate through the JapanKorea Treaty of 1905, and then officially annexed in the JapanKorea Treaty of 1910.[6]
Japan brought to a close the Joseon period and Korea officially became an integral part of Japan.
Japanese rule ended in 1945. In 1965 these treaties were ultimately declared "already null and void" by the Treaty on Basic Relations
between Japan and the Republic of Korea.[7]
Administration of the Korean people continued until Japan's defeat at the end of World War II, at which time Korea became an
independent nation albeit divided under two separate governments and economic systems.
19101945
The modernization and industrialization brought to the Korean Peninsula by the Japanese continues to be the subject of controversy
between the two Koreas and Japan.
Contents
1 Terminology
2 Background
2.1 Designing colonization efforts in Japan
2.2 Political turmoil in Korea
3 JapanKorea annexation treaty (1910)
4 Pre-World War II (191041)
4.1 Japanese migration and land ownership
4.2 Anthropology and cultural heritage
4.3 Anti-Chinese riots of 1931
4.4 Order to name changes
5 World War II
5.1 National Mobilization Law
6 Independence and division of Korea
7 Korean independence movement
8 Economy and modernization
9 Changes to Korean culture under Japanese rule
9.1 Newspaper censorship
9.2 Education
9.3 Japanese policies for the Korean language
9.4 Removal and return of historical artifacts
9.5 Anthropology and religion
10 Legacy
10.1 Result of the name changes
10.2 Forced laborers and comfort women
10.3 Koreans in Unit 731
10.4 Discrimination against Korean leprosy patients by Japan
10.5 Atomic bomb casualties
10.6 Japanese post-colonial responses
10.7 South Korean presidential investigation commission on pro-Japanese collaborators
10.8 In culture and film
11 See also
12 Notes and references
13 Further reading
14 External links
Terminology
In South Korea the period is usually described as the "Japanese Imperial Period" (Korean: ; Ilje sidae; Hanja: ) or the
"period of the Japanese imperial colonial administration" (Korean: ; Ilje sikmin tongchi sidae; Hanja:
). Other terms include "Japanese forced occupation" (Korean: ; Ilje gangjeomgi, Hanja: ) or "Wae (Japanese)
administration" (Korean: ; Wae jeong; Hanja: ).
Flag
Seal of the
Government-General
of Korea
Anthem
"Kimigayo"
MENU
0:00
Keija
Capital
Languages
Religion
Officially, none;[1][2][3][4]
Unofficially, State Shinto.b
Government
Constitutional monarchy
Governor-General
of Korea
- 191016
- 191927, 192931
- 1927, 193136
- 193642
- 194244
- 194445
Terauchi Masatake
Sait Makoto
Kazushige Ugaki
Jir Minami
Kuniaki Koiso
Nobuyuki Abe
Historical era
- Japanese protectorate
- Annexation treaty signed
- Annexation by Japan
- March 1st Movement
- Sshi-kaimei order
- Surrender of Japan
Japanese imperialism
17 November 1905
22 August 1910
29 August 1910
1 March 1919
1939
15 August 1945
Currency
Korean yen
In Japan the term "Chsen (Korea) of the Japanese-Governed Period" ( Nippon Tchi-jidai no Chsen) has been
used.
Background
Designing colonization efforts in Japan
Kanji
Hiragana
Transcriptions
During the late 18th to late 19th centuries Western governments sought to intercede in and influence the political and economic fortunes of Asian
countries through the use of new approaches described by such terms as "protectorate", "sphere of influence", and "concession", which minimized the
need for direct military conflict between competing European powers. The newly modernized government of Meiji Japan sought to join these
colonizing efforts and the Seikanron ("advocacy of a punitive expedition to Korea") began in 1873. This effort was allegedly fueled by Saig Takamori
and his supporters, who insisted that Japan confront Korea's refusal to recognize the legitimacy of Emperor Meiji as ruler of Japan, as well as for
supposed insulting treatment meted out to Japanese envoys attempting to establish new trade and diplomatic relations.
Romanization
Hangul
Hanja
Transcriptions
In fact, the debate concerned Korea, then in the sphere of influence of Qing China, which certain elements in the Japanese government sought to
Revised Romanization Ilje gangjeomgi joseon
separate from Chinese influence and establish as a puppet state.[8] Those in favor also saw the issue as an opportunity to find meaningful employment
McCuneReischauer
Ilche kangjmgi chosn
for the thousands of out-of-work samurai, who had lost most of their income and social standing in the new Meiji socioeconomic order. Further, the
acquisition of Korea would provide both a foothold on the Asian continent for Japanese expansion and a rich source of raw materials for Japanese
industry. The arguments against such designs were outlined in kubo Toshimichi's "7 Point Document", dated October 1873, in which he argued that action against Korea was premature, as Japan itself
was in the process of modernization and an expedition would be far too costly for Japan to sustain. Okubo's views were supported by the antiwar faction, which mostly consisted of those returning from
the Iwakura Mission in 1873. Iwakura Tomomi, the diplomat who had led the mission, persuaded the emperor to reconsider, thus putting an end to the debate.
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policy. It was not an enduring reform, however, and the Independence Club was dissolved on 25 December 1898 as the new Emperor Gojong officially announced a prohibition on unofficial congresses.
Prelude to annexation
Having established economic and military dominance in Korea in October 1904, Japan reported that it had developed 25 reforms which it intended to introduce into
Korea by gradual degrees. Among these was the intended acceptance by the Korean Financial Department of a Japanese Superintendent, the replacement of Korean
Foreign Ministers and consuls by Japanese and the "union of military arms" in which the military of Korea would be modeled after the Japanese military.[18] These
reforms were forestalled by the prosecution of the Russo-Japanese War from February 8, 1904, to September 5, 1905, which Japan won, thus eliminating Japan's last
rival to influence in Korea.[19] Under the Treaty of Portsmouth, signed in September 1905, Russia acknowledged Japan's "paramount political, military, and economic
interest" in Korea.[19]
Flag of the Japanese Resident
General of Korea (190510)
A separate agreement was signed in secret between the United States and Japan at this time, which subsequently aroused anti-American sentiment among Koreans
decades later.[19] The TaftKatsura agreement between the U.S. and Japan recognized U.S. interests in the Philippines and Japanese interests in Korea. Given the
diplomatic conventions of the times, however, the agreement was a much weaker endorsement of the Japanese presence in Korea than either the Russo-Japanese peace
treaty or a separate Anglo-Japanese Alliance.[19]
Two months later, Korea was obliged to become a Japanese protectorate by the JapanKorea Treaty of 1905 and the "reforms" were enacted, including the reduction of the Korean Army from 20,000 to
1,000 men by disbanding all garrisons in the provinces, retaining only a single garrison in the precincts of Seoul.[19] On January 6, 1905, Horace Allen, head of the American Legation in Seoul reported
to his Secretary of State, John Hay, that the Korean government had been advised by the Japanese government "that hereafter the police matters of Seoul will be controlled by the Japanese gendarmerie"
and "that a Japanese police inspector will be placed in each prefecture".[20] A large number of Koreans organized themselves in education and reform movements, but Japanese dominance in Korea had
become a reality.[19]
In June 1907, the Second Peace Conference was held in The Hague. Emperor Gojong secretly sent three representatives to bring the problems of Korea to the world's attention. The three envoys were
refused access to the public debates by the international delegates who questioned the legality of the protectorate convention. Out of despair, one of the Korean representatives, Yi Jun, committed
suicide at The Hague.[21] In response, the Japanese government took stronger measures. On July 19, 1907, Emperor Gojong was forced to relinquish his imperial authority and appoint the Crown Prince
as regent. Japanese officials used this concession to force the accession of the new Emperor Sunjong following abdication, which was never agreed to by Gojong. Neither Gojong nor Sunjong was
present at the 'accession' ceremony. Sunjong was to be the last ruler of the Joseon, founded in 1392.[22]
This period is also known as Military Police Reign Era (191019) in which Police had the authority to rule the entire country. Japan was in control of the media, law as well as government by physical
power and regulations.
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verbal cultivator rights. Japanese landlords included both individuals and corporations such as the Oriental Development Company. Many former Korean landowners, as
well as agricultural workers, became tenant farmers, having lost their entitlements almost overnight.
By 1910, an estimated 7 to 8% of all arable land was under Japanese control. This ratio increased steadily; during the years
1916, 1920, and 1932, the ratio of Japanese land ownership increased from 36.8 to 39.8 to 52.7%. Conversely, the ratio of
Korean ownership decreased from 63.2 to 60.2 to 47.3%. The level of tenancy was similar to that of farmers in Japan itself;
however, in Korea, the landowners were mostly Japanese, while the tenants were all Koreans. As was often the case in Japan
itself, tenants were forced to pay over half their crop as rent, forcing many to send wives and daughters into factories or
prostitution so they could pay taxes.[25]
Ironically, by the 1930s, the growth of the urban economy and the exodus of farmers to the cities had gradually weakened the
hold of the landlords. With the growth of the wartime economy, the government recognized landlordism as an impediment to
increased agricultural productivity, and took steps to increase control over the rural sector through the formation of the Central
Agricultural Association, a compulsory organization under the wartime command economy.
World War II
National Mobilization Law
Deportation of forced labor
Korean migration had increased after World War I and accelerated after 1930; in 1939, there were 981,000 Koreans living in Japan as immigrants.
The combination of immigrants and forced laborers during World War II brought the total to over 2 million by the end of the war, according to estimates by the Supreme
Commander for the Allied Powers. In 1946, some 1,340,000 ethnic Koreans were repatriated to Korea, with 650,000 choosing to remain in Japan,[35] where they now form
the Zainichi Korean community. A 1982 survey by the Korean Youth Association showed that conscripted laborers accounts for 13 percent of first-generation Zainichi
Koreans.
From 1939, labor shortages as a result of conscription of Japanese males for the military efforts of World War II led to organized official
recruitment of Koreans to work in mainland Japan, initially through civilian agents, and later directly, often involving elements of coercion. As
the labor shortage increased, by 1942, the Japanese authorities extended the provisions of the National Mobilization Law to include the
conscription of Korean workers for factories and mines on the Korean peninsula, Manchukuo, and the involuntary relocation of workers to
Japan itself as needed.
Of the 5,400,000 Koreans conscripted, about 670,000 were taken to mainland Japan (including Karafuto Prefecture, present-day Sakhalin, now
part of Russia) for civilian labor. Those who were brought to Japan were often forced to work under appalling and dangerous conditions.[36]
Apparently Koreans were better treated than were laborers from other countries, but still their work hours, food and medical care were such
that large numbers died. This is clear from the 60,000 Korean laborers that died in Japan out of the near 670,000 that were brought there in the
years 1939 to 1945 (line 119a).[37] The total deaths of Korean forced laborers in Korea and Manchuria is estimated to be between 270,000 and
810,000.[37] The 43,000 ethnic Koreans in Karafuto, which had been occupied by the Soviet Union just prior to Japan's surrender, were refused
repatriation to either mainland Japan or the Korean peninsula, and were thus trapped in Sakhalin, stateless; they became the ancestors of the
Sakhalin Koreans.[38]
Most Korean atomic-bomb victims in Japan were drafted for work at military industrial factories in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.[39] In the name
of humanitarian assistance, Japan paid South Korea four billion yen (approx. thirty five million dollars) and built a welfare center for those
suffering from the effects of the atomic bomb.[40]
Japan-Korea. Teamwork
and Unity. Champions of
the World. The notion
of racial and imperial
unity of Korea and Japan
gained widespread
following among the
literate minority of the
middle and upper
classes.[34]
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Year Applicants
The first and the best known among them is Lieutenant General and Crown Prince Yi Un. The other six Generals were graduates of the Imperial Japanese
[45]
[46]
[47]
[48]
Army Academy.
They are: Lieutenant General Jo Seonggeun;
Major General Wang Yushik;
Lieutenant General Viscount Yi Beyongmu;
Major 1938 2,946
General Yi Heedu;[49] Major General Kim Eungseon (also military aide and personal guard to Prince Yi Un);[50] Lieutenant General Hong Sa-ik, the
1939 12,348
Commander of all Prisoner Camps in southern Philippines in 1944-1945.
1940 84,443
Other Japanese Army officers of Korean origin moved onto successful careers in the post-occupation period. Well-known examples include Park
1941 144,743
Chung-hee, who became president of South Korea, Chung Il-kwon (,), prime minister from 1964 to 1970, and Paik Sun-yup, South Korea's
1942 254,273
youngest general, famous for his defense during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter during the Korean War. The first ten of the Chiefs of Army Staff of South
Korea graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and none from the Korean Liberation Army.[51][52]
1943 303,294
Applicants Acceptance
accepted
rate [%]
406
13.8
613
5.0
3,060
3.6
3,208
2.2
4,077
1.6
6,300[43]
2.1
Officer had been joining the Japanese Army since before the Annexation by attending the Imperial
Japanese Army Academy. Enlisted Soldier recruitment began as early as 1938, when the Japanese Kwantung
Army in Manchuria began accepting pro-Japanese Korean volunteers into the army of Manchukuo, and formed
the Gando Special Force. Koreans in this unit specialized in counter-insurgency operations against communist
guerillas in the region of Jiandao. The size of the unit grew considerably at an annual rate of 700 men, and
included such notable Koreans as General Paik Sun-yup, who served in the Korean War. Historian Philip Jowett
noted that during the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, the Gando Special Force "earned a reputation for
brutality and was reported to have laid waste to large areas which came under its rule."[53]
Starting in 1944, Japan started the conscription of Koreans into the armed forces. All Korean males were drafted
to either join the Imperial Japanese Army, as of April 1944, or work in the military industrial sector, as of
September 1944. Before 1944, 18,000 Koreans passed the examination for induction into the army. Koreans
provided workers to mines and construction sites around Japan. The number of conscripted Koreans reached its
peak in 1944 in preparation for war.[54] From 1944, about 200,000 Korean males were inducted into the army.
During World War II, American soldiers frequently encountered Korean soldiers within the ranks of the Imperial
Japanese Army. Most notably was in the Battle of Tarawa, which was considered during that time to be one of the
bloodiest battles in U.S. military history. A fifth of the Japanese garrison during this battle consisted of Korean
laborers who were trained in combat roles. Like their Japanese counterparts, they put up a ferocious defense and
fought to the death.[55][56]
The Japanese, however, did not always believe they could rely on Korean laborers to fight alongside them. In Prisoners of the Japanese, author Gaven Daws wrote,
"[O]n Tinian there were five thousand Korean laborers and so as not to have hostiles at their back when the Americans invaded, the Japanese killed them."[57]
After the war, 148 Koreans were convicted of Class B and C Japanese war crimes, 23 of whom were sentenced to death (compared to 920 Japanese who were
sentenced to death), including Korean prison guards who were particularly notorious for their brutality during the war. The figure is relatively high considering that
ethnic Koreans made up a very small percentage of the Japanese military. Justice Bert Rling, who represented the Netherlands at the International Military Tribunal
for the Far East, noted that "many of the commanders and guards in POW camps were Koreans the Japanese apparently did not trust them as soldiers and it is
said that they were sometimes far more cruel than the Japanese."[58] In his memoirs, Colonel Eugene C. Jacobs wrote that during the Bataan Death March, "the
Korean guards were the most abusive. The Japs didn't trust them in battle, so used them as service troops; the Koreans were anxious to get blood on their bayonets;
and then they thought they were veterans."[59][60]
Korean guards were sent to the remote jungles of Burma, where Lt. Col. William A. (Bill) Henderson wrote from his own experience that some of the guards
overlooking the construction of the Burma Railway "were moronic and at times almost bestial in their treatment of prisoners. This applied particularly to Korean
private soldiers, conscripted only for guard and sentry duties in many parts of the Japanese empire. Regrettably, they were appointed as guards for the prisoners
throughout the camps of Burma and Siam."[61] The highest-ranking Korean to be prosecuted after the war was Lieutenant General Hong Sa-ik, who was in command
of all the Japanese prisoner-of-war camps in the Philippines.
Objection to Japanese rule over Korea continued, and the March 1st Movement was a catalyst for the establishment of the Provisional Government of the
Republic of Korea by Korean migrs in Shanghai on 13 April 1919. The modern South Korean government considers this Provisional Government of the
Republic of Korea the de jure representation of the Korean people throughout the period of Japanese rule.
The Japanese occupation of Korea after annexation was largely uncontested militarily by the smaller, poorly armed, and poorly trained Korean army. Many
former soldiers and other volunteers left the Korean peninsula for Manchuria and Primorsky Krai in Russia. Koreans in Manchuria formed resistance groups
known as Dongnipgun (Liberation Army), which traveled across the Korean-Chinese border, using guerrilla warfare tactics against Japanese forces. The Japanese
invasion of Manchuria in 1932 and subsequent Pacification of Manchukuo deprived many of these groups of their bases of operation and supplies. Many were forced to either flee to China, or to join
the Red Army-backed forces in eastern Russia. One of the guerrilla groups was led by the future leader of communist North Korea, Kim Il-sung, in Japanese controlled Manchuria. Kim Il-Sungs time
as a guerrilla leader was formative upon his political ideology once he came to power.[65]
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Within Korea itself, anti-Japanese rallies continued on occasion. Most notably, the Gwangju Students Anti-Japanese Movement on 3 November 1929 led to the
strengthening of Japanese military rule in 1931, after which freedom of the press and freedom of expression were curbed. Many witnesses, including Catholic
priests, reported that Japanese authorities dealt with insurgency severely. When villagers were suspected of hiding rebels, entire village populations are said to
have been herded into public buildings (especially churches) and massacred when the buildings were set on fire.[66] In the village of Jeam-ni, Hwaseong, for
example, a group of 29 people were gathered inside a church which was then set afire.[67] Such events deepened the hostility of many Korean civilians towards
the Japanese government.
On 10 December 1941, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, under the presidency of Kim Gu, declared war on Japan in Chongqing in china
evacuation destination.[68] The Korean Provisional Government organized Korean resistance groups "Korean Liberation Army". However, they never fought
against Japan. Afterwards, they became leaders of South Korea. On the other hand, Kim Il-sung led tens of thousands of Koreans volunteered for the National
Revolutionary Army and the People's Liberation Army. The communist-backed Korean Volunteer Army (KVA, , ) was established in
Yenan, China, outside of the Provisional Government's control, from a core of 1,000 deserters from the Imperial Japanese Army. After the Manchurian Strategic
Offensive Operation, the KVA entered Manchuria, where it recruited from the ethnic Korean population and eventually became the Korean People's Army of the
Democratic People's Republic of Korea.
According to scholar Donald S. Macdonald, "for centuries most Koreans lived as subsistence farmers of rice and other grains and satisfied most of their basic
needs through their own labor or through barter. The manufactures of traditional Korea principally cloth, cooking and eating utensils, furniture, jewelry,
and paper were produced by artisans in a few population centers."[74]
During the early period of Japanese rule, the Japanese government attempted to completely integrate the Korean economy with Japan, and
thus introduced many modern economic and social institutions and invested heavily in infrastructure, including schools, railroads and
utilities. Most of these physical facilities remained in Korea after the Liberation. The Japanese government played an even more active role in
developing Korea than it had played in developing the Japanese economy in the late nineteenth century. Many programs drafted in Korea in
the 1920s and 1930s originated in policies drafted in Japan during the Meiji period (18681912). The Japanese government helped to
mobilize resources for development and provided entrepreneurial leadership for these new enterprises. Colonial economic growth was
initiated through powerful government efforts to expand the economic infrastructure, to increase investment in human capital through health
and education and to raise productivity.[74]
However, under Japanese rule, many Korean resources were only utilized for Japan.[79] Economist Suh Sang-chul points out that the nature of
industrialization during the period was as an "imposed enclave," so the impact of colonialism was trivial. Another scholar, Song Byung-nak, states that the
economic condition of average Koreans was aggravated during the period despite the economic growth. Most Koreans at the time could access only a
primary school education under restriction by the Japanese, and this prevented the growth of an indigenous entrepreneurial class. A 1939 statistic shows that
among the total capital recorded by factories, about 94 percent was Japanese-owned. While Koreans owned about 61 percent of small-scale firms that had 5
to 49 employees, about 92 percent of large-scale enterprises with more than 200 employees were Japanese-owned.[80][81][82]
Virtually all industries were owned either by Japan-based corporations or by Japanese corporations in Korea. As of 1942, indigenous capital
constituted only 1.5 percent of the total capital invested in Korean industries. Korean entrepreneurs were charged interest rates 25 percent
higher than their Japanese counterparts, so it was difficult for large Korean enterprises to emerge. More and more farmland was taken over by
the Japanese, and an increasing proportion of Korean farmers either became sharecroppers or migrated to Japan or Manchuria as laborers. As
greater quantities of Korean rice were exported to Japan, per capita consumption of rice among the Koreans declined; between 1932 and
1936, per capita consumption of rice declined to half the level consumed between 1912 and 1916. Although the government imported coarse
grains from Manchuria to augment the Korean food supply, per capita consumption of food grains in 1944 was 35 percent below that of 1912
to 1916.[75]
The Japanese government created a system of colonial mercantilism, requiring construction of significant transportation infrastructure on the Korean
Peninsula for the purpose of extracting and exploiting resources such as raw materials (timber), foodstuff (mostly rice and fish), and mineral resources (coal
and iron ore). The Japanese developed port facilities and an extensive railway system which included a main trunk railway from the southern port city of
Pusan through the capital of Seoul and north to the Chinese border. This infrastructure was intended not only to facilitate a colonial mercantilist economy, but
was also viewed as a strategic necessity for the Japanese military to control Korea and to move large numbers of troops and materials to the Chinese border
at short notice.
From the late 1920s and into the 1930s, particularly during the tenure of Japanese Governor-General Kazushige Ugaki, concentrated efforts were made to
build up the industrial base in Korea. This was especially true in the areas of heavy industry, such as chemical plants and steel mills, and munitions
production. The Japanese military felt it would be beneficial to have production closer to the source of raw materials and closer to potential front lines for a
future war with China.[83]
Lee Young-hoon, a controversial professor at Seoul National University and a leading critic of the right wing, states that less than 10% of arable land actually
came under Japanese control and rice was normally traded, not robbed. He also insists that Koreans' knowledge about the era under Japanese rule is mostly
made up by later educators.[84][85][86][87][88] Many of Lee's arguments, however, have been contested.[89]
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colonial rule, therefore, there were no Korean-owned newspapers whatsoever, although books were steadily printed and there were several dozen Korean-owned magazines.[90] In 1920 these laws were
relaxed, and in 1932 Japan eliminated a significant double standard which had been making Korean publication significantly more difficult than Japanese publication. Even with these relaxed rules,
however, the government still seized newspapers without warning: there are over a thousand recorded seizures between 1920 and 1939. Revocation of publishing rights was relatively rare, and only
three magazines had their rights revoked over the entire colonial period. In 1940, as the Pacific War increased in intensity, Japan shut down all Korean language newspapers again.[90]
Education
Following the annexation of Korea, the Japanese administration introduced a public education system modeled after the Japanese school system with a
pyramidal hierarchy of elementary, middle and high schools, culminating at the Keij Imperial University in Seoul. As in Japan itself, education was viewed
primarily as an instrument of "the Formation of the Imperial Citizen" (; ) with a heavy emphasis on moral and political instruction.
During colonial times, elementary schools were known as "Citizen Schools" (; ; gungmin hakgyo) as in Japan, as a means of forming
proper "Imperial Citizens" (; Hwanggungmin) from early childhood. Elementary schools in South Korea today are known by the name chodeung
hakgyo (; ) (literally "Elementary School") as the term gungmin hakgyo has recently become a politically incorrect term.
The public curriculum for most of the period was taught by Korean educators under a hybrid system focused on assimilating Koreans into the Japanese
empire while emphasizing Korean cultural education. This focused on the history of the Japanese Empire as well as inculcating reverence for the Imperial
House of Japan and instruction in the Imperial Rescript on Education.
Integration of Korean students in Japanese language schools and Japanese students in Korean language schools was discouraged but steadily increased over
time. While official policy promoted equality between ethnic Koreans and ethnic Japanese, in practice this was rarely the case.[91] Korean history and
language studies would be taught side by side with Japanese history and language studies until the early 1940s under a new education ordinance that saw
wartime efforts increased and the hybrid system slowly weakened.[92]
One point of view is that, although the Japanese education system in Korea was detrimental towards the colony's cultural identity, its introduction of public
education as universal was a step in the right direction to improve Korea's human capital. Towards the end of Japanese rule, Korea saw elementary school
attendance at 38 percent. Children of elite families were able to advance to higher education, while others were able to attend technical schools, allowing for
"the emergence of a small but important class of well-educated white collar and technical workers... who possessed skills required to run a modern industrial
economy." The Japanese education system ultimately produced hundreds of thousands of educated South Koreans who later became "the core of the postwar
political and economic elite."[93]
Another point of view is that it was only after the end of Japanese rule with World War II that Korea saw true, democratic rise in public education as
evidenced by the rise of adult literacy rate from 22 percent in 1945 to 87.6 percent by 1970 and 93% by the late 1980s. Though public education was made
available for elementary schools during Japanese rule, Korea as a country did not experience secondary-school enrollment rates comparable to those of Japan
prior to the end of World War II.[94]
In 1921, government efforts were strengthened to promote Korean media and literature throughout Korea and also in Japan. The Japanese government also created incentives to educate ethnic Japanese
students in the Korean language.[97] As a response, the Korean Language Society was created by ethnic Koreans. In 1928, as the assimilation policy began to ramp up, the first Hangul Day (November
4) was celebrated to commemorate the Korean alphabet.[98]
The Japanese administrative policy shifted more aggressively towards cultural assimilation in 1938 (Naisen ittai) with a new government report advising reform to strengthen the war effort. This left
less room for Korean language studies and by 1943 all Korean language courses had been phased out. Although the government report advised further, more radical reform, the 10-year plan would
never fully go into effect.[99]
The primary building of Gyeongbokgung palace was demolished and the Japanese General Government Building was built in its exact location. The Japanese colonial authorities destroyed 85 percent
of all the buildings in Gyeongbokgung.[109] Sungnyemun, the gate in Seoul that was an iconic symbol of Korea, was altered by the addition of large, Shinto-style golden horns near the roofs (later
removed by the South Korean government after independence).
Christianity
Protestant missionary efforts in Asia were nowhere more successful than in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. In the days Korea was under
Japanese control, Christianity became in part an expression of nationalism in opposition to Japan's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion.[110] In 1914, out of 16 million
people, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics; by 1934 the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. Harmonizing with traditional
practices became an issue. The Catholics tolerated Shinto rites. The Protestants developed a substitute for Confucian ancestral rites by merging Confucian-based and Christian death and funerary
rituals.[111]
Missionaries, however, were alarmed at the rise in communist activity during the 1920s. Communist literature was effectively banned in Korea at this time, but it was sometimes smuggled into the
country disguised as Christian literature, often addressed to missionaries to further avoid suspicion. Communist concepts, such as class struggle, and its partner nationalist movement were resonating
well with some of the peasants and lower-class citizens of colonial-era Korea; this was worrying to some missionaries because of communism's atheist components. At one point, communist students in
Seoul held an "anti-Sunday School conference" and loudly protested religion in front of churches. This protest renewed Japanese governmental interest in censorship of communist ideas and
language.[112]
Legacy
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According to the South Koreans, many Koreans became victims of Japanese brutalities during the colonial period. Korean villagers hiding resistance fighters were dealt with harshly, often with
summary execution, rape, forced labour, and looting.[113][114][115][116][117][118] Starting on 1 March 1919, an anti-Japanese demonstration continued to spread, and as the Japanese national and military
police could not contain the crowds, the army and even the navy were also called in. There were several reports of atrocities. In one instance, Japanese police in the village of Jeam-ri, Hwaseong herded
everyone into a church, locked it, and burned it to the ground. They also shot through the burning windows of the church to ensure that no one made it out alive. Many participants of the March 1st
Movement were subjected to torture and execution.
See also
Japan-Korea disputes
Korea under Yuan rule
Taiwan under Japanese rule
4. Hitoshi Nitta. The Illusion of "Arahitogami" "Kokkashintou". Tokyo: PHP Kenkyjo, 2003.
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Further reading
McKenzie, F.A. (1920). Korea's Fight for Freedom.
Ireland, Alleyne (1926). The New Korea.
Eckert, Carter J. (1996), Offspring of Empire: The Koch'ang Kims and the Colonial Origins of Korean Capitalism, 1876-1945 (http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/search/books/ECKOFF.html), Korean Studies of the
Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies (Paperback ed.), Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press, ISBN 0-295-97533-4
Hildi, Kang (2001), Under the Black Umbrella: Voices from Colonial Korea, 1910-1945, Cornell University Press, ISBN 0-8014-7270-9
Uchida, Jun (2011). Brokers of Empire: Japanese Settler Colonialism in Korea, 18761945. Harvard East Asian Monographs. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-06253-5.
Committee Against Government Apologies to Korea (July 30, 2010), A New Look at the Annexation of Korea (http://www.sdh-fact.com/CL02_1/89_S4.pdf) (PDF), Society the Dissemination of Historical Fact
External links
Isabella Lucy Bird (1898), Korea and Her Neighbours: A Narrative of Travel, with an Account of the Recent Vicissitudes and Present Position of the
Wikiquote has quotations
Country (http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC00142821&id=6vTaMHgHpTQC)
related to: Korea under
Horace Newton Allen (1908), Things Korean: A Collection of Sketches and Anecdotes, Missionary and Diplomatic (http://books.google.com
Japanese rule
/books?vid=OCLC01139077&id=ItkMAAAAIAAJ)
Toshiyuki Mizoguchi, "Consumer Prices and Real Wages in Taiwan and Korea under Japanese Rule" Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics, 13(1): 4056
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Korea
(http://hermes-ir.lib.hit-u.ac.jp/rs/bitstream/10086/8017/1/HJeco0130100400.pdf)
under Japanese rule.
Toshiyuki Mizoguchi, "Economic Growth of Korea under the Japanese Occupation Background of Industrialization of Korea 1911-1940" Hitotsubashi
Journal of Economics, 20(1): 119 (http://hermes-ir.lib.hit-u.ac.jp/rs/bitstream/10086/7960/1/HJeco0200100010.pdf)
Toshiyuki Mizoguchi, "Foreign Trade in Taiwan and Korea under Japanese Rule" Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics, 14(2): 3753 (http://hermes-ir.lib.hit-u.ac.jp/rs/bitstream/10086/8007/1
/HJeco0140200370.pdf)
Kim, Young-Koo, The Validity of Some Coerced Treaties in the Early 20th Century: A Reconsideration of the Japanese Annexation of Korea in Legal Perspective (http://works.bepress.com
/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=young_kim)
Matsuki Kunitoshi, "Japans Annexation of Korea" (http://www.sdh-fact.com/CL02_1/76_S4.pdf) Society the Dissemination of Historical Fact (http://www.sdh-fact.com/index.html)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Korea_under_Japanese_rule&oldid=674409186"
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