Euclids

Elements
A Modern Treatment
Roger Bickley

Book 1

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Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 9
Note To Symbols Used ......................................................................................................................... 12
Definitions ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Postulates ............................................................................................................................................. 14
Postulate 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Postulate 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Postulate 3 ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Postulate 4 ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Postulate 5 ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Common Notions.................................................................................................................................. 14
Common Notion 1 ............................................................................................................................ 14
Common Notions 2,3........................................................................................................................ 14
Common Notion 4 ............................................................................................................................ 14
Common Notion 5 ............................................................................................................................ 14
Proposition 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 15
On a given finite straight line to construct an equilateral ............................................................ 15
Proposition 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 16
To place at a given point (as an extremity) a straight line equal to a given straight line ................ 16
Proposition 3 ........................................................................................................................................ 18
Given two unequal straight lines, to cut off from the greater a straight line equal to the less....... 18
Proposition 4 ........................................................................................................................................ 19
If two s have the two sides equal to two sides respectively, and have the angles contained by the
equal straight lines equal, they will also have the base equal to the base, the will be equal to the ,
and the remaining angle will be equal to the remaining angles respectively, namely those which the
equal sides subtend. ......................................................................................................................... 19
Proposition 5 ........................................................................................................................................ 21
In isosceles s the angles at the base are equal to one another, and, if the equal straight lines be
produced further, the angles under the base will be equal to one another. .................................. 21
Proposition 6 ........................................................................................................................................ 23

If in a two angles be equal to one another, the sides which subtend the equal angles will also be
equal to one another ........................................................................................................................ 23
Proposition 7 ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Given two straight line constructed on a straight line (from its extremities) and meeting in a point,
there cannot be constructed on the same straight line (from its extremities) and on the same side of it,
two other straight lines meeting in another point and equal to the former two respectively, namely
each to that which has the same extremity with it .......................................................................... 24
Proposition 8 ........................................................................................................................................ 25
If two s have the two sides equal to two sides respectively, and have also the base equal to the base,
they will also have the angles equal which are contained by the equal straight line ...................... 25
Proposition 9 ........................................................................................................................................ 27
To bisect a given rectilineal angle .................................................................................................... 27
Proposition 10 ...................................................................................................................................... 28
To bisect a given finite straight line.................................................................................................. 28
Proposition 11 ...................................................................................................................................... 29
To draw a straight line at right angles to a given straight line from a given point on it .................. 29
Proposition 12 ...................................................................................................................................... 30
To a given infinite straight line, from a given point which is not on it, to draw a perpendicular straight
line .................................................................................................................................................... 30
Proposition 13 ...................................................................................................................................... 31
If a straight line set up on a straight line makes angles, it will make either two right angles or angles
equal to two right angles.................................................................................................................. 31
Proposition 14 ...................................................................................................................................... 32
If with any straight line, and at a point on it, two straight line not lying on the same side make the
adjacent angles equal to two right angles, the two straight lines will be in a straight line with one
another ............................................................................................................................................. 32
Proposition 15 ...................................................................................................................................... 33
If two straight lines cut one another, they make the vertical angles equal to each other. ............. 33
Proposition 16 ...................................................................................................................................... 34
In any , if one of the sides be produced, the exterior angle is greater than either of the interior and
opposite angles. ............................................................................................................................... 34
Proposition 17 ...................................................................................................................................... 36
In any two angles taken together in any manner are less than two right angles. ........................ 36
4

Proposition 18 ...................................................................................................................................... 37
In any the greater side subtends the greater angle. ..................................................................... 37
Proposition 19 ...................................................................................................................................... 38
In any the greater angle is subtended by the greater side. .......................................................... 38
Proposition 20 ...................................................................................................................................... 39
In any two sides taken together in any manner are greater than the remaining one. ................. 39
Proposition 21 ...................................................................................................................................... 40
If on one of the sides of a , from its extremities, there be constructed two straight line meeting within
the , the straight lines so constructed will be less than the remaining two sides of the , but will
contain a greater angle..................................................................................................................... 40
Proposition 22 ...................................................................................................................................... 42
Out of three straight lines, which are equal to three given straight lines, to construct a : thus it is
necessary that two of the straight lines taken together in any manner should be greater than the
remaining one. ................................................................................................................................. 42
Proposition 23 ...................................................................................................................................... 44
On a given straight line and at a point on it to construct a rectilineal angle equal to a given rectilineal
angle. ................................................................................................................................................ 44
Proposition 24 ...................................................................................................................................... 45
If two s have the two sides equal to two sides respectively, but have the one of the angles contained
by the equal straight lines greater than the other, they will also have the base greater than the base.
.......................................................................................................................................................... 45
Proposition 25 ...................................................................................................................................... 47
If two s have the two sides equal to two sides, respectively, but have the base greater than the base,
they will also have the one of the angles contained by the equal straight lines greater than the other.
.......................................................................................................................................................... 47
Proposition 26 ...................................................................................................................................... 49
If two s have the two angles equal to two angles respectively, and one side equal to one side,
namely, either the side adjoining the equal angles, or that subtending one of the equal angles, they
will also have the remaining sides equal to the remaining sides and the remaining angle to the
remaining angle. ............................................................................................................................... 49
Proposition 27 ...................................................................................................................................... 52
If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the alternate angles equal to one another, the
straight lines will be parallel to one another.................................................................................... 52

Proposition 28 ...................................................................................................................................... 53
If a straight line falling on two straight lines make the exterior angle equal to the interior and opposite
angle on the same side, or the interior angles of the same side equal to two right angles, the straight
lines will be parallel to one another. ................................................................................................ 53
Proposition 29 ...................................................................................................................................... 55
A straight line falling on parallel lines makes the alternate angles equal to one another, the exterior
angle equal to the interior and opposite angle, and the interior angles on the same side equal to two
right angles. ...................................................................................................................................... 55
Proposition 30 ...................................................................................................................................... 57
Straight lines parallel to the same straight line are also parallel to one another. ........................... 57
Proposition 31 ...................................................................................................................................... 58
Through a given point to draw a straight line parallel to a given straight line. ............................... 58
Proposition 32 ...................................................................................................................................... 59
In any , if one of the sides be produced, the exterior angle is equal to the two interior and opposite
angles, and the three interior angles of the are equal to two right angles. ................................. 59
Proposition 33 ...................................................................................................................................... 61
The straight lines joining equal and parallel straight lines (at the extremities which are) in the same
directions (respectively) are themselves also equal and parallel. ................................................... 61
Proposition 34 ...................................................................................................................................... 62
In parallelogrammic areas the opposite sides and angles are equal to one another, and the diameter
bisects the areas. .............................................................................................................................. 62
Proposition 35 ...................................................................................................................................... 64
Parallelograms which on the same base and in the same parallels are equal to one another ....... 64
Proposition 36 ...................................................................................................................................... 65
Parallelograms which are on equal bases and in the same parallels are equal to one another...... 65
Proposition 37 ...................................................................................................................................... 66
s which are on the same base and in the same parallels are equal to one another. .................... 66
Proposition 38 ...................................................................................................................................... 67
s which are on equal bases and in the same parallels are equal to one another. ......................... 67
Proposition 39 ...................................................................................................................................... 68
Equal triangles which are on the same base and on the same side are also in the same parallels. 68
Proposition 40 ...................................................................................................................................... 69
6

Equal s which are on equal bases and on the same side are also in the same parallels. .............. 69
Proposition 41 ...................................................................................................................................... 70
If a parallelogram have the same base with a and be in the same parallels, the parallelogram is
double of the . ................................................................................................................................ 70
Proposition 42 ...................................................................................................................................... 71
To construct, in a given rectilineal angle, a parallelogram equal to a given . ................................ 71
Proposition 43 ...................................................................................................................................... 72
In any parallelogram the complements of the parallelogram about the diameter are equal to one
another. ............................................................................................................................................ 72
Proposition 44 ...................................................................................................................................... 73
To a given straight line to apply, in a given rectilineal angle, a parallelogram equal to a given . . 73
Proposition 45 ...................................................................................................................................... 75
To construct, in a given rectilineal angle, a parallelogram equal to a given rectilineal figure. ........ 75
Proposition 46 ...................................................................................................................................... 77
On a given straight line to describe a square. .................................................................................. 77
Proposition 47 ...................................................................................................................................... 79
In right-angled s the square on the side subtending the right angle is equal to the squares on the side
containing the right angle ................................................................................................................ 79
Proposition 48 ...................................................................................................................................... 81
If in a the square on one of the sides be equal to the square on the remaining side of the the angle
contained by the remaining two sides of the is right.................................................................... 81
Glossary of Terms Used in the Elements .............................................................................................. 83

Introduction
Euclids Elements is, perhaps, the single most significant work on Mathematics. It seeks to place
the foundations of geometry in an axiomatic and logical framework.
Starting from a set of axioms it builds a series of conclusions, each conclusion being based
on/supported by, conclusions which have been proved earlier in the system..
This book, whilst remaining true to the spirit and structure of the original, seeks to present in
everyday (mathematics) language the propositions, as described by Euclid.
A problem which has to be faced when reading a book such as the Elements is that of language.
The original language of the books was Greek, but it has been translated a number of times
including into English.
The present book takes, as its starting point, the translation by Sir Thomas L Heath.
Even though the books have been translated into English, this doesnt completely resolve the
difficulty of language words in Greek dont always have an exact translation into English and
so the translator has to use what language he feels serves the original text best.
For example terms like rectilineal angle are used where we would probably just use the word
angle.
Also, the wording of the propositions can seem to be complicated, even verbose, and certainly
not always clear to the modern reader.
I felt that, to do justice to the original text, these two issues need to be addressed to make such
a wonderful book more accessible to the modern reader. To that end I have adopted the
following strategy:
1. The propositions are stated in exactly the wording of the Euclids Elements books of Sir
Thomas Heath
2. Underneath each original proposition wording is my interpretation of the meaning of
the proposition, in modern language
3. Words which may not be familiar to modern readers, or familiar words used in an
unfamiliar way, are listed in a Glossary at the back of the book
A key feature of the Euclid Propositions is, when the proposition is of the construction form
e.g. to bisect an angle there are not only details of how to carry out the construction, but also
a proof of why the construction works!
Since Mathematics is a hierarchical discipline with results depending on previously proved
theorems/conjectures, some of the propositions (in the case of later ones) have references to
previous propositions which have proved intermediate results. In the cases of the very early

10

propositions, these proofs start from a set of definitions (statements which Euclid assumes to be
true, in order to build his propositional system).
The presentation retains the order of propositions in the original Elements, including references
to Propositions already proved.

11

Note To Symbols Used

In the original text (and translations) word are used to describe relationships and to signpost the
argument. In this treatment I have used some common symbols to replace the words hoping
that this will make the text less cluttered and easier to read:
identical to sometimes called congruence
not equal to
to denote a , rather than an angle thus ABC means the ABC whilst the angle ABC would
be written ABC
is put before an angle
therefore
> greater than
< less than

Q.E.D Quad est demonstratum (which was to be demonstrated) is perhaps an old fashioned
way of terminating a proof (the being a more modern equivalent) but it is retained here for
historical/romantic reasons!)

Definitions
Before we can begin to construct any argument we need to be clear about what we are talking
about to the extent of defining what we mean by certain objects or ideas.
Euclid goes to a great deal of trouble to explain what he means by the various objects and ideas
he uses to prove his propositions some of which, to our eyes, may seem superfluous or
unnecessarily verbose or complex. However, for completeness they are included here, and I will
leave it to the reader to interpret the definitions in the light of their own experience and/or
needs:
1. A line is that which has no part
2. A line is breadthless length
3. The extremities of a line are points
4. A straight line is a line which lies evenly with the points on itself
5. A surface is that which has length and breadth only

12

6. The extremities of a surface are lines

7. A plane surface is a surface which lies evenly with the straight lines on itself
8. A plane angle is the inclination to one another of two lines in a plane which meet one
another and do not lie in a straight line
9. And when the lines containing the angle are straight, the angle is called rectlineal
10. When a straight line set up on a straight line makes the adjacent angles equal to one
another, each of the equal angles is right, and the straight line standing on the other is
called a perpendicular to that on which it stands
11. An obtuse angle is an angle greater than a right angle
12. An acute angle is an angle less than a right angle
13. A boundary is that which is an extremity of anything
14. A figure is that which is contained by any boundary or boundaries
15. A circle is a plane figure contained by one line such that all the straight lines falling upon
it from one point among those lying within the figure are equal to one another.
16. And the point is called the centre of the circle
17. A diameter of the circle is any straight line drawn through the centre and terminated in
both directions by the circumference of the circle, and such a straight line also bisects
the circle
18. A semicircle is the figure contained by the diameter and the circumference cut off by it.
And the centre of the semicircle is the same as that of the circle
19. Rectilineal figures are those which are contained by straight line, trilateral figures being
those contained by three, quadrilateral those contained by four and multiplateral those
contained by more than four straight line
20. Of trilateral figures, an equilateral is that which has three sides equal, an isosceles
that which has two of its sides alone equal, and a scalene that which has its three sides
unequal
21. Further, of trilateral [three-sided] figures , a right-angled is that which has a right
angle, an obtuse-angled that which has an obtuse angle and an acute-angled that
which has its three angles acute.
22. Of quadrilateral figures, a square is that which is both equilateral and right-angled; an
oblong that which is right-angle but not equilateral; a rhombus that which is equilateral
but not right-angled; and a rhomboid that which has its opposite sides and angles equal
to one another but is neither equilateral nor right-angled. And let quadrilaterals other
than these be called trapezia.
13

23. Parallel lines are straight lines which, being in the same plane and being produced
indefinitely in both directions, do not meet one another in either direction.

Postulates
Postulate 1
We can draw a straight line from any point to any point

Postulate 2
We can extend a finite straight line continuously in a straight line

Postulate 3
We can draw a circle with any centre and radius

Postulate 4
All right angles are equal to one another

Postulate 5
If a straight line cuts two straight lines such that the interior angles on one side are less than
two right angles (total of 1800) the two straight lines, if we were to produce them indefinitely
meet on the same side as the two angles which, together, add up to less than 1800

Common Notions
Common Notion 1
Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another

Common Notions 2,3

2. If equals be added to equals, the sums are equal
3. If equals be subtracted from equals, the results are equal

Common Notion 4
Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another

Common Notion 5
The whole is greater than the part

14

Proposition 1
On a given finite straight line to construct an equilateral
[Translation: this should be clear draw any straight line and then draw an equilateral on it
with the lengths of the sides the same as the length of the line you have been given!]

This is a relatively simple construction needing a pencil, compass and ruler.

The Construction
Draw a line AB of any length (if you are drawing on a normal maths book page a 5cm line
will do)
Put the compass point on the point B and open the compasses until the pencil is on the
point A
Draw a circle so that it goes through the point A (this is the circle E)
Put the compass point on the point A and open the compasses until the pencil is on the
point B
Draw a circle so that it goes through the point B (this is the circle D)
Draw a line from A to where the circles cross (C) and from B to where the circles cross (C)
to get a ABC
The ABC is equilateral (all sides the same length and all angles equal)

Proof
Since the point A is the centre of the circle AC = AB Definition 15
Again, since B is the centre of the circle CAE BC = BA Definition 15
But we know (above) that CA = AB
Each of the straight lines CA and CB is equal to AB
And things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another Common Notion 1
CA is also equal to CB
Therefore the three straight lines CA, AB and BC are equal to one another
the ABC is equilateral and it has been constructed on the given finite straight line AB

Q.E.F.
15

Proposition 2
To place at a given point (as an extremity) a straight line equal to a given
straight line
{Translation: Given a point (A) and a straight line (BC), draw a line from the point (A) the same
length as the line you have been given]

Construction

C
D

BA

B
G

F
L
E

Starting From .....

Mark any point A on the paper and draw a line BC

To Construct
We need to draw, from A a straight line equal to the given line BC

Construction
From the point A to the point B draw a straight line AB Postulate 1
On this line (AB) draw an equilateral triangle Proposition 1
Draw the lines AE and BF as extensions of the lines DA and DB
With centre D and distance DG draw the circle GKL Postulate 3
Then, since the point B is the centre of the circle CGH:
BC = BG
Again, since the point D is the centre of the circle GKL:
DL = DG
And we know that DA = DB

16

Therefore the remainder AL (of the line) is equal to the remainder BG (of the other line)
Common Notion 3
But we have proved that that BC = BG
each of the straight lines AL and BC is equal to BG
And tings which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another Common Notion 1
AL = BC
Therefore at the given point A the straight line AL is equal to the line we were given BC

Q.E.F

17

Proposition 3
Given two unequal straight lines, to cut off from the greater a straight line
equal to the less
[Translation: You are given two lines of unequal length; mark off, on the larger one, a length
equal to the length of the smaller line]

Construction
1. We have two lines which we will call AB and C where AB is larger than C and we need to
cut off a length of AB equal to the length of C
2. First of all draw a line AD from A (at any angle) and equal in length to the length of the
shorter line C Proposition 2
3. Now put the point of a compass on the point A and draw a circle with radius AD which
will cut the line AB at E Postulate 3
The line AE is equal to the line C and we have achieved the construction

Proof
The point A is the centre of the circle DEF, so
AE = AD Definition 15
But C = AD
each of the straight lines AE and C is equal to AD:
So, AE is also = C Common Notion 1
given the two straight lines AB and C:
Form AB the greater length AE has been cut off and this is equal to C, the lesser length

Q.E.F.

18

Proposition 4
If two s have the two sides equal to two sides respectively, and have the angles
contained by the equal straight lines equal, they will also have the base equal to the
base, the will be equal to the , and the remaining angle will be equal to the
remaining angles respectively, namely those which the equal sides subtend.
[Translation: You are given two s which have two sides equal, and the angle between the two
sides equal; then, the bases of the two s will be equal as will corresponding angles in the two
s in other words the two s will be congruent]

We have:
1. Two s ABC and DEF in which AB = DE and AC = DF
2. The angle BAC = angle EDF

To Prove
BC = EF
ABC DEF (the symbol means identical to in every respect i.e, in this case, you could pick
the one up and it would fit exactly onto the other one)
Corresponding angles in each of the s are equal to each other (i.e. angle ABC = angle DEF and
angle ACB = angle DFE

Proof
If the ABC is placed onto the DEF so that A and D are on each other, then
The point E will coincide with the point E because AB = DE
Similarly, AC will coincide with DF because the angle BAC is equal to the angle EDF
Hence the point C will also coincide with the point F because AC is equal to DF
But B coincided with E, so the base BC will coincide with the base EF
[If, when B coincides with E and C with F the base BC does not coincide with the base EF, two
straight lines will enclose a space which is impossible. Therefore the base BC will coincide with
EF] and will be equal to it
And the remaining angles will also coincide with the remaining angles and be equal to them:
The angle ABC to the angle DEF, and
19

The angle ACB to the angle DFE

Therefore ABCDEF

Q.E.D.

20

Proposition 5
In isosceles s the angles at the base are equal to one another, and, if the
equal straight lines be produced further, the angles under the base will be
equal to one another.
[an isosceles has two sides equal this proposition says that the angles at the end of the two
equal lines are also equal and, when you extend the two equal sides the two external angles
are also equal to one another]

B
F

We have:

An Isosceles in which AB = AC

To Prove
Angle BCE = angle CBD

Proof
Extend the line AB to become AD and the line AC to become AE - Postulate 2
Mark a point F anywhere on BD

Mark a point G on CE equal to AF Proposition 3

Join the points FC and GB Postulate 1
Since AF = AG (sides of an isosceles triangle) and AB = AC (we have just constructed them so)
FA = GA and AC = AB
And the sides FA = GA and AC = AB
And they contain a common angle FAG
FC = GB
21

And the AFC = AGB

And the remaining angles in the triangles will be equal to each other, respectively (i.e. as to the
sides they subtend) i.e.
ACF = ABG
And AFC = AGB
And, since the whole of AF = the whole of AG:
And AB = AC
The remainder BF is equal to the remainder CG
But, FC was also proved to be equal to GB
BF = CG and FC = GB
And BFC = CGB
While the line BC is common
the BFC is also equal to the CGB
And the remaining angles will be equal to the remaining angles respectively i.e. the angles
which the equal sides subtend
the FBC = GCB
Accordingly, since the whole angle ABG was proved equal to ACF
And in these the ABC is equal to the remaining ACB
And they are at the base of the ABC
But the FBC was also proved equal to the GCB and they are under the base

Q.E.D.

22

Proposition 6
If in a two angles be equal to one another, the sides which subtend the
equal angles will also be equal to one another
[Translation: This is like a reverse of the previous proposition if you have a with two angles
equal, then the sides opposite these angles will also be equal in other words it will be an
isosceles ]

We have angle ABC = angle ACB

To Prove
AB = AC

Proof
Let us assume that the two sides (AB and AC) are NOT equal then one of them must be bigger
than the other
Suppose AB is bigger than AC
Then we can draw a line CD such that BD = AC (because AC is smaller than AB)
We now have:
BD = AC (by construction)
BC is a side common to both s (DBC and ACB)
Angle DBC = angle ACB (base angles of an isosceles )
Therefore the base DC is equal to the base AB, and
DBC ACB (the smaller is the same as the larger one!)
Which is clearly silly!
But we assumed that AB was NOT equal to AC and this assumption got us this absurd results!
So, we must have been wrong and AB must equal AC

Q.E.D.
23

Proposition 7
Given two straight line constructed on a straight line (from its extremities) and
meeting in a point, there cannot be constructed on the same straight line (from its
extremities) and on the same side of it, two other straight lines meeting in another
point and equal to the former two respectively, namely each to that which has the same
extremity with it
[Translation Given a ABC with a base BC, you cannot draw, on the base BC, another which
is equal in area to ABC, and IS NOT ABC i.e, this new must coincide with ABC

What we have:
A line BC and two lines drawn from wither end (BA and CA) which meet in the point A

To Prove
You cannot draw another , with the same area and on the same base unless it is on top of
the original (ABC)

Proof
First of all draw two additional straight lines from B and C respectively, to meet at a new point
D. These two lines are to be equal to the sides of the original -= i.e. CA = DA and CB = DB
Join CD
Since AC = AD (we have drawn it to be so)
Then the ACD = ADC Proposition 5
the ADC > DCB
the CDB is much greater than DCB
Since CB = DB:
The CDB = DCB
But is was also proved much greater than it! which is impossible
24

Proposition 8
If two s have the two sides equal to two sides respectively, and have also the base
equal to the base, they will also have the angles equal which are contained by the equal
straight line
[Translation: If you have two s ABC and DEF with AB = DE and AC = DF and the bases equal
i.e. BC = EF; then the BAC = EDF

We have ....
Two triangles ABC and DEF with the sides AB = DE and AC = DF, and
The bases BC = EF

To Prove
BAC = EDF

Proof
We can place the ABC onto the DEF so that the point B is placed on the point E and the
straight line BC onto the straight line EF
Then the point C will also coincide with F, because BC = EF
Then if BC coincides with EF:
BA will coincide with ED and AC coincide with DF because, if the base BC coincides with the base
EF, and the side BA coincides with ED and AC coincides with DF but fall outside the triangle as
EG and GF:
Then, given two straight lines constructed on a straight line (lines extended) and meeting at a
point there will have been constructed on the same (extended) straight line, two other straight
lines (EG and FG) meeting in another point (G) and equal to the original lines (ED an FD) but
we cannot construct such lines,
it is NOT possible that, if the base BC is on the base , the sides BA and ,AC should not coincide
with the sides ED and EF

25

Therefore they WILL coincide

So, the BAC WILL also coincide with EDF and will be equal to it

Q.E.D.

26

Proposition 9
To bisect a given rectilineal angle
[Translation: Cut any angle exactly in half so that there are two angles of equal size]

D
B

E
F

Construction
Mark any point D on the line AB
Mark another point E on AC such that AD = AE
Join DE
Construct an equilateral on DE DEF
Join AF

To Prove
The angle BAC has been bisected by the line AF

Proof
AD = AE (by construction)
AF is common to both s
The two sides DA and AT are equal to the two sides EA and AF respectively
The base DF is equal to the base EF
Therefore the angle DAF is equal to the angle EAF Proposition 8
Therefore the angle BAC has been bisected by the line AF

Q.E.F.

27

Proposition 10
To bisect a given finite straight line
[Translation: Cut a given straight line in half so that the two parts of the line are equal]

C
B

A
B

A
B

D
B

Construction
Given the straight line AB construct an equilateral on it Proposition 1
Bisect the angle ACB by the line CD Proposition 9

To Prove
The line CD bisects the line AB

Proof
AC = CB (sides of an equilateral )
The two sides AC, CD are equal to the two sides BC and CD respectively, and
The angle ACD is equal to the angle BCD Proposition 4
Therefore the line AB has been bisected at D

Q.E.F

28

Proposition 11
To draw a straight line at right angles to a given straight line from a given point on it
[Translation: From a point on a line draw a line at 900 to the line pr perpendicular as it is als
oknown]
F

A
B

D
B

C
B

E
B

A
B

Construction

D
B

C
B

E
B

Draw the line AB and mark any point C on it

Mark any point D on the line AB
Mark another point E s that DE = CD
Using DE as the base draw an equilateral Proposition 1
Draw the line FC

To Prove
The line FC is perpendicular to the line AB

Proof
DC = CE (Construction)
CF is common to both s FDC and FCE
DC = EC and CF = CF and the line DF = line FE
DCF = ECF Proposition 8
And they are adjacent angles
But, when a straight line drawn on a straight line makes the adjacent angles equal to one
another each of the angles is a right-angle Definition 10
DCF and FCE are both right angles
the straight line CF has been drawn at right angles to the given line AB form the given point C
on it

Q.E.F.
29

Proposition 12
To a given infinite straight line, from a given point which is not on it, to draw a
perpendicular straight line
*So youve got a straight line and a point which isnt on the line draw a line from the point to
the line which is at right-angles to the line]

C
B

C
B

.
A
B

A
G
B
B

B
B

Construction

H
B

E
D B
B

B
B

Mark any point D which is on the other side of the line from C
Put the point of compasses on the point C and draw a circle with radius CD (NOTE: it cuts
the straight line at G and E)
Bisect the straight line EG at H Proposition 10
Draw the straight lines CG, CH and CE

To Prove
CH is perpendicular to the straight line AB

Proof
GH = HE (we have just bisected it by construction)
HC is common
CA = CB radii of the same circle)
So, CHG CHE
Therefore the angle CHG = angle CHE
Since the two angles are equal and equal to 1800 (angles in a straight line) they must both be
equal to 900
Therefore CH is perpendicular to AB

Q.E.D
30

Proposition 13
If a straight line set up on a straight line makes angles, it will make either two right
angles or angles equal to two right angles
[Translation: If you draw a straight line, and then draw another straight line onto the first line
you will end up with EITHER two right angles or two angles which add up to two right angles]

E
B

D
B
Construction

D
B

B
B

A
B

Draw a straight line DB

Pick any point on DB and draw a straight line AB to make the angles ABD and CBA

To Prove
That, either the two angles ABD and CBA are both right angles, or are EQUAL to two right angles

Proof
Suppose, to start with, that angle CBA = angle ABD
Then they are two right angles Definition 10
But, if they are NOT equal, draw a line BE at right angles to CD Proposition 11 then the
angles CBE and EBD are both right angles
Then angle CBE is equal to the sum of the angles CBA and ABE
Let angle EBD be added to each
So, we have angles CBE + EBD are equal to angles CBA + ABE + EBD
And, we know that angle DBA is equal to angle DBE + angle EBA
Now let the angle ABC be added to this sum
We have angles DBA + ABC = angles DBE + EBA + ABC
But the angles CBE + EBD were proved equal to the same three angles, and things which are
equal to the same ting are also equal to each other
Therefore the angle CBE+ EBD = angles DBA + ABC
But the angles CBE and EBD add up to two right angles
Therefore the angles DBA + ABC are also equal to two right angles
31

Q.E.D

Proposition 14
If with any straight line, and at a point on it, two straight line not lying on the same side
make the adjacent angles equal to two right angles, the two straight lines will be in a
straight line with one another
[Translation: Draw a straight line and go to one end of it and draw two straight lines- one in
each direction. If the angles which these lines make with the original line add up to two right
angles (1800) then the two lines make a straight line]

Construction

C
B

D
B

Draw any straight line AB

Draw two lines BC and BD, one on either side of the point B
When drawing the lines BC and BD make it so that angle ABC + angle ABD = 2 right angles

To prove
DBC is a straight line

Proof
Suppose BD is NOT in straight line with CB
Draw a line BE and let BE be in a straight line with CB
Then, since the straight line AB stands on the straight line CBE (weve just drawn it to be so)
the angles ABC + ABE = two right angles - Proposition 13
But, the angles ABC + ABD are also equal to two right angles
So, the angles CBA + ABE = CBA + ABD
Subtract the angle CBA from both sides
Therefore the remaining angle ABE is equal to the remaining angle ABD:
The smaller angle is bigger than the larger angle which is IMPOSSIBLE
So, BE is not in a straining line with CB
Similarly, we can prove that neither is any other straight line except BD
Therefore CB is in a straight line with BD

Q.E.D
32

Proposition 15
If two straight lines cut one another, they make the vertical angles equal to each other.
EUCLID uses the words vertical angles we would use the words opposite angles
[Translation: If you draw any two straight lines which cut each other the opposite angles,
made by the crossing of the lines, are equal]

E
D

Construction

Draw any two lines and let them cross at E

To Prove
AEC = DEB
AED = CEB

Proof
Since AE cuts the line CD making the angles CEA and AED, the angles CEA + AED = 2 right angles
Proposition 13
Again, since the straight line CE cuts the line AB making the angles AED and DEB:
AED + DEB = two right angles (1800) Proposition 13
But CEA + AED also = two right angles
CEA + AED = AED + DEB Postulate 4 and Common Notion 1
Subtract AED from both sides of the equation
CEA = BED Common Notion 3
Similarly it can be proved that CEB = DEA

Q.E.D.
33

Proposition 16
In any , if one of the sides be produced, the exterior angle is greater than either of the
interior and opposite angles.
[Translation: If you draw any and extend one of the sides the exterior angle you produce is
bigger than either of the two angles on the far side of the ]

.E
B

C
D

C
D

Construction 1
Draw any ABC and extend the side BC to D

To Prove
ACD is greater than either of the interior and opposite angles CBA or BAC

Proof
Bisect AC at E (Proposition 10) and join BE and extend in a straight line to F
Extend BE to F so that EF = BE Proposition 3
Join FC Postulate 1
Extend AC to G Postulate 2
Then, since AE = EC and BE = EF
AE = CE and EB = EF
And AEB = FEC
Because they are vertical angles Proposition 15
Therefore AB = FC
And ABE= CFE
And the remaining angles are equal to the remaining angles respectively, namely those which
the equal sides subtend Proposition 4
Therefore BAE = ECF

34

But ECD > ECF Common Notion 5

Therefore ACD > BAE
Similarly if BC is bisected BCG (equal to ACD - Proposition 15) can be proved greater than
ABC as well

Q.E.D.

35

Proposition 17
In any two angles taken together in any manner are less than two right angles.
[Translation: In any , if you add any TWO angles together the sum will always come to less
than two right angles 1800]

Construction

C
D

C
D

Draw any ABC

To Prove
Any two angles, when added together, must be equal to less than two right angles

Construction
Produce BC to D

Proof
ACD is an exterior angle of the ABC
It is greater than the interior and opposite ABC Proposition 16
Now add the angle ACB to each
angles ACD + ACB are greater than the angles ABC + BCA
But, ACD + ACB is greater than two right angles Proposition 13
ABC + BCA is less than two right angle
Similarly, we can prove that the angles BAC + ACB are less than two right angles and so are the
angles CAB + ABC, as well

Q.E.D

36

Proposition 18
In any the greater side subtends the greater angle.
[Translation: In any the largest angle is opposite the largest side]

A
D

Construction

Draw any ABC with AC bigger than AB

Draw the line BD so that AB = AD Proposition 3

To Prove
ABC is larger than BCA
Proof
ADB i an exterior angle of the BCD
it is greater than the interior and opposite DCB Proposition 16
But ADB = ABD the base angles of an Isosceles are equal
ABD is also greater than the angle ACB
ABC is much greater than the angle ACB

Q.E.D.

37

Proposition 19
In any the greater angle is subtended by the greater side.
[Translation: In any the biggest side is opposite the biggest angle]

A
B

Construction

Draw any ABC with the angle ABC greater than the angle BCA

To Prove
The side AC is greater than the side AB

Proof
If AC is not bigger than AB then either:
AC = AB or AC <AB
We know that AC AB because then ABC = ACB Proposition 5
But it is not (we drew the with them not being equal)
Therefore Ac AB
Neither is AC < AB because the angle ABC would also have been less than the angle ACB

Proposition 18
Bit it is not
Therefore AC is not less than AB
And we have proved that it is not equal either
Therefore AC is greater than AB

Q.E.D

38

Proposition 20
In any two sides taken together in any manner are greater than the remaining one.
[Translation: In any , if you add the length of any two sides together the length will be bigger
D
than the length of the third side]

A
A
B

To Prove
In any :

AB + AC > BC
AB + BC > AC
CB + CA > AB

Construction
Extend the line BA to the point D so that DA is equal to CA
Join DC

Proof
Since DA = AC then
ADC = ACD Proposition 5
the BCD > ADC
And, since DCB is a having the angle BCD > angle BDC
And the greater angle is opposite the greater side Proposition 19
DB is greater than BC
But DA is equal to AC (we constructed it that way),
BA + AC > BC
We can prove the other relationships:
AB + BC > CA and
BC + CA > AB

Q.E.D.
39

Proposition 21
If on one of the sides of a , from its extremities, there be constructed two straight line
meeting within the , the straight lines so constructed will be less than the remaining
two sides of the , but will contain a greater angle.
[Translation: If you draw a and choose one of its sides and draw two straight lines to meet at a
point inside the the lengths of the sides drawn added together will add up to less than the
lengths of the two remaining sides, but the angle they make will be bigger than the angle made
by these two sides]

A
E
D

D
B

Construction
Draw any ABC
Draw two extra lines within the BD and DC, so that they meet at D within the

To Prove
BD + DC is less than BA + AC, BUT the angle BDC > BAC

Proof
Extend the line BD to E
Since, in any , the lengths of two sides added together are greater than the length of the third
side Proposition 20, then:
In the ABE, the two sides AB+AE > BE
Let EC be added to each
Then BA + AC > BE + EC
Again, since in CED:
CE + ED > CD
Add DB to each side
CE + EB are greater than CD + DB

40

But BA + AC have been proved to be greater than BE + EC

BA + AC are much greater than BD + DC
Again, since in any triangle the exterior angle is greater than the interior and opposite angle

Proposition 16
, in CDE:
The exterior BDC > CED
For the same reason, in the triangle ABE:
The exterior CEB > BAC
But the angle BDC was proved greater than the CEB
Therefore BDC is much greater than BAC

Q.E.D.

41

Proposition 22
Out of three straight lines, which are equal to three given straight lines, to construct a
: thus it is necessary that two of the straight lines taken together in any manner
should be greater than the remaining one.
[Translation: If you can draw a with three given lengths of line then the lengths of any two
lines added together must be longer than the length of the third line]

B
C

Construction
Draw three lines which will be the sides of the remember that two of the straight
lines added together should be longer than the third. Label the lines A, B and C
Draw a straight line DE (it can be of any length)
Mark three points on the line such that DF is the same length as the line A, FG is the
same length as B and GH is the same length as C
With centre F and radius FD draw a circle DKL
With centre G and radius GH draw a circle KLH
Join KF and KG

To Prove

The has been constructed out of the lines A, B and C

42

Proof
The point F is the centre of the circle DKL, so
FD = FK
But FD also equals the line A (we used these line lengths to draw the )
Also, since the point G is the centre of the circle LKH, so
GH = GK
But GH = C (another of the line lengths we used to draw the )
KG is also = to C
And FG is also equal to B
Therefore the three straight lines KF, FG, GK are equal to the three straight lines A, B, C
Therefore out of the three straight lines KF, FG, GK which are equal to the three given straight
lines A, B, C the KFG has been constructed

Q.E.F

43

Proposition 23
On a given straight line and at a point on it to construct a rectilineal angle equal to a
given rectilineal angle.
[Translation: So, you are given a straight line and an angle size and you need to construct an
angle of the same size on the line you have been given}

To Start With .....

Draw a straight line AB with the point A marked on it

Draw the angle DCE

To Construct
We have to construct an angle on the line AB, at the point A, an angle equal to the one we have
been given i.e. DCE

Construction
On the straight line CD and CE mark two points D and E anywhere on the two lines
Join DE
Now draw a AFG with the same length sides as those we have just drawn i.e. CD, DE and CE,
so that:
CD = AF, CE = AG and DE = FG Proposition 22
Since the sides DC and CE are equal to the sides FA and AG (we have just drawn them to be so)
and the third side DE = FG (again we have drawn it) then
DCE = FAG Proposition 8
Therefore on the given straight line AB, and at the point A on it, the angle FAG has been
constructed equal to the angle DCE we were given originally

44

Q.E.F

Proposition 24
If two s have the two sides equal to two sides respectively, but have the one of the
angles contained by the equal straight lines greater than the other, they will also have
the base greater than the base.
[Translation: If you have two s which have two sides equal, but one of the included angles is
bigger than the other included angle then the third side will also be larger]

E
G

Construction
Draw two s ABC and DEF with two corresponding sides equal i.e. AC = DF and AB = DE
Draw the s such that CAB is bigger than FDE

To Prove
That CB is greater than FE

Construction
Draw the angle EDG equal to the BAC

Proof
The CAB is greater than FDE (we have just drawn it to be so)
Draw the angle EDG so that EDG = BCA Proposition 23
Draw DG equal to either of the lines AC or DF
Draw lines to join EG and FG
We have AB = DE and AC = DG, so BA = ED and AC = DG
45

And the BAC = EDG

Therefore, the base BC = base EG Proposition 4
Again, since DF = DG the DFG = DFG Proposition 5
Therefore, EFG is much greater than the angle EGF
And, since EFG I a having the angle EFG greater than the EGF and the greater angle is
opposite the greater side Proposition 19:
The side EG is also greater than EF
But, we also have EG = BC
Therefore BC is also greater than EF

Q.E.D.

46

Proposition 25
If two s have the two sides equal to two sides, respectively, but have the base greater
than the base, they will also have the one of the angles contained by the equal straight
lines greater than the other.
[Translation: If you have two s with two sides in one equal to two sides on the other, but the
third side in one is bigger than the third side in the other then the inclusive angle in that one
will be bigger than the inclusive angle in the other]

A
D

Construction
Draw two s ABC and DEF, such that
AB = DE and AC = DF
The base EF is greater than the base BC

To Prove
EDF is greater than BAC

Proof
If BAC is NOT greater than EDF then is MUST be either EQUAL to it or LESS than it
The BAC is NOT equal to the EDF, because then the base BC would also have to be equal to
the base EF Proposition 4; but IT IS NOT
Therefore, BCA is NOT EQUAL to EDF

47

Neither is BAC less than the EDF, because then the base BC would also have to be less than
the base EF Proposition

24; but IT IS NOT

Therefore, the BAC is NOT less than the angle EDF

But we have also proved that it is NOT EQUAL either
Therefore the BAC is greater than the EDF

Q.E.D.

48

Proposition 26
If two s have the two angles equal to two angles respectively, and one side equal to
one side, namely, either the side adjoining the equal angles, or that subtending one of
the equal angles, they will also have the remaining sides equal to the remaining sides
and the remaining angle to the remaining angle.
[Translation: If two s have two angles in one equal to two angles in the other, and one side
equal to a side in the other (with the side containing the angles or the side opposite one of the
equal angles the remaining sides and angles will be equal} Thi is an examples of proving
congruence between two

A
G

Construction
Draw two s ABC and DEF such that:
ABC = DEF and BCA = EFD and
BC = EF

To Prove
AB = DE and AC = DF
And BAC = EDF

Proof
Lets start with proving AB = DE
If AB DE then ONE OF THEM MUST BE BIGGER THAN THE OTHER
Suppose AB is the bigger and let BG be made equal to DE and join GC
Since BG = DE (we have just drawn it so) and BC = EF (we drew the lines equal at the start), then:
GB = DE and BC = EF
49

And the GBC = DEF

Therefore the base GC = base DF
And the GBC is equal to the DEF, so the remaining angles will be equal to one another

Proposition 4
Therefore, GBC = DEF
But, DFE = BCA (we drew it this way originally)
Therefore BCG = BCA where BCG is bigger than BCA which is clearly nonsense!
Therefore AB is NOT UNEQUAL to DE
And so is EQUAL to it
But BC is also equal to EF, therefore:
AB = DE and BC = EF
And ABC = DEF
Therefore the base AC is equal to the base DF
And the remaining BAC = EDF Proposition 4
Lets now turn our attention to the sides AB and DE
If we know that AB = DE then we need to prove that AC = DF and BC = EF and theta the
remaining BAC = EDF

Proof
Suppose BC EF then one of them MUST be larger than the other
Suppose BC is the larger and mark off BH equal to EF and draw the line AH
Now, since BH = EF (we have just drawn it so) and AB = DE (part of the original construction)
then we have:
AB = DE and BH = EF and they contain equal angles
Therefore the line AH = DF
And the ABH the DEF
So, the remaining angles in the one will be equal to the remaining angles in the other

Proposition 4
50

Therefore, BHA = EFD

But the EFD = BCA
Therefore, in the AHC the exterior angle BHA is equal to the interior and opposite angle BCA
which is IMPOSSIBLE! Proposition 16
Therefore BC EF
And so MUST be equal to it
But, AB = DE
Therefore AB = DE and BC = EF and they contain equal angles
Therefore AC = DF
The ABC DEF
And the remaining BAC = EDF Proposition 4

Q.E.D

51

Proposition 27
If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the alternate angles equal to one
another, the straight lines will be parallel to one another
[Translation: If you have two straight lines and a line cutting them, and the alternate angles
made by the cutting line, are equal the two lines are parallel]

B
G

Construction
Draw two straight lines AB and CD
Draw the line EF to cut the two straight lines at E and F
Suppose we measure the alternate angles AEF and EFD and find they are the same

To Prove
AB is parallel to CD

Construction
Suppose that AB is not parallel to CD
Then we can extend AB and CD and they will meet at, say, G

Proof
If AB is NOT parallel to CD then the two lines must meet either in the direction of BD or in the
direction of AC
Lets assume they will meet in the direction of BD at a point G and draw the appropriate lines
BG and DG
In the GEF the exterior angle AEF is equal to the interior and opposite angle EFG, which is
impossible

Proposition 16
Therefore AB and CD when produced will NOT meet in the direction of BD
Similarly, we can prove that they will NOT meet towards AC
But, straight lines which do not meet in either direction are PARALLEL

Q.E.D.

Therefore AB is parallel to CD
52

Proposition 28
If a straight line falling on two straight lines make the exterior angle equal to the
interior and opposite angle on the same side, or the interior angles of the same side
equal to two right angles, the straight lines will be parallel to one another.
[Translation: If you draw two straight lines and then cut them with a third and the exterior
angle is equal to the interior and opposite angle on the same side, or the angles on the same
side equal two right angles (1800) then the straight lines are parallel to each other]

E
A

B
G

H
F

Construction
Draw two lines AB and CD
Draw a line EF to cut AB and CD at G and H

Let the straight line EF which cuts the line AB and CD make exterior angle EGB = GHD
Or BGH + GHD = 1800

To Prove
AB parallel CD

Proof
EGB = GHD (weve drawn it this way) and
EGB = AGH Proposition 15
AGH = GHD and they are alternate
Therefore AB is parallel to CD Proposition 27

53

Similarly, since
BGH + GHD = 1800 and
AGH + BGH = 1800
The angle AGH + BGH = BGH + GHD
Subtract the angle BGH from both sides:, to get
AGH = GHD
And they are alternate angles
Therefore AB is parallel to CD Proposition 27

Q.E.D.

54

Proposition 29
A straight line falling on parallel lines makes the alternate angles equal to one another,
the exterior angle equal to the interior and opposite angle, and the interior angles on
the same side equal to two right angles.
[Translation: If you draw two parallel straight lines and cut them both with a single straight line
the exterior angles will be equal to the opposite interior angles and the interior angles on the
same side will be equal to two right angles (1800)]

E
A

E
G

D
F

Construction
Draw two straight parallel lines AB and CD
Draw a straight line EF which cuts both lines

To prove
AGH = GHD
EGB = GHD
BGH + GHD = 1800

Proof
Suppose AGH GHD then one of them is bigger than the other
Suppose AGH is bigger than GHD
If we add the BGH to both AGH and GHD
Then AGH + BGH is bigger than BGH + GHD
55

But, AGH + BGH = 1800 Proposition 13

Therefore BGH + GHD < 1800
But, straight lines produced indefinitely from angles less than 1800 MEET Postulate 5
Therefore the lines AB and CD, if produced indefinitely, will meet
But THEY WILL NOT meet because we have drawn them not to meet!
Therefore, AGH is NOT equal to GHD
THEREFORE IT IS EQUAL TO IT
Again, the AGH = EGB Proposition 15
Therefore the EGB = GHD Common Notion 1
Suppose we add the angle BGH to both EGB and GHD
Then EGB + BGH = BGH + GHD Common Notion 2
But the EGB + BGH = 1800 Proposition 13
Therefore BGH + GHD also = 1800

Q.E.D.

56

Proposition 30
Straight lines parallel to the same straight line are also parallel to one
another.
[Translation: If straight lines are all parallel to another straight line they are also all parallel to
each other]

A
E

G
H

E
C

B
F
D

Construction
Draw a straight line EF
Draw two further straight lines AB and CD which are parallel to the line EF

To prove
AB is parallel to CD

Proof
Draw a line GK which cuts the three lines
Since the line GK has cut the parallel lines AB and EF
The AGK = GHF Proposition 29
Also, since the straight line GK cuts the straight lines EF and CD:
The GHF = GKD Proposition 29
But the angle AGK has already been proved to be equal to GHF
Therefore AGK = GKD Common Notion 1
And they are alternate
Therefore AB is parallel to CD

Q.E.D.
57

Proposition 31
Through a given point to draw a straight line parallel to a given straight line.
[Translation: you are given a point and a straight line (not through the point) draw a line thorugh the
point which is parallel to the line given]

.A

Construction
Mark any point and label it A
Draw any straight line and label it BC

To Construct
A straight line through the point A parallel to the straight line BC

Construction
Make a point D anywhere on BC
Join the points D and A
On the straight line DA and at the point A on it construct the angle DAE the same size as the
angle ADC Proposition 23
Extend the straight line EA to F
Now, since the straight line AD cuts the two straight lines BC and EF and makes the alternate
angles EAD and ADC equal to one another:
Therefore the line EAF is parallel to the line BC Proposition 27
Therefore we have drawn, through the point A, a line (EAF) parallel to the given straight line BC

Q.E.D.

58

Proposition 32
In any , if one of the sides be produced, the exterior angle is equal to the two interior
and opposite angles, and the three interior angles of the are equal to two right
angles.
[Translation: In a ABC, extend BC to D, then f = g + h and g + h + k = 1800]

h
B

k f
C

Construction
Draw any ABC and extend BC to D

To Prove:
ACD = ABC + BAC
And
ABC + BCA + CAB = two right angles (1800)

Proof
Draw a straight line from C parallel to the straight line AB Proposition 31
Then, since AB is parallel to CE and the line AC cuts both lines - BAC = ACE Proposition 29
Also, since AB is parallel CE and the straight line BD cuts them both:
The exterior ECD = ABC Proposition 29
But we have already proved that ACE = ACE
Therefore the whole ACD = BAC + ABC
Now add the ACB to each side
We get:

59

ACD + ACB = ABC + BCA +CAB

But we know that ACD + ACB = 1800 Proposition 13
Therefore ABC + BCA +CAB also = 1800

Q.E.D.

60

Proposition 33
The straight lines joining equal and parallel straight lines (at the extremities which
are) in the same directions (respectively) are themselves also equal and parallel.
[Translation: If any two equal parallel straight lines BA and CD are joined at their respective ends, the
lines joining are also equal and parallel]

Construction
Draw any two equal straight lines (AB and CD) parallel to each other
Join the ends of the lines BD and AC

To Prove
Lines BD and AC are equal and parallel

Proof
Draw in the line BC
We know that AB is parallel to CD and that BC cuts both lines, so
The alternate angles ABC = BCD Proposition 29
And, since AB = CD (this is what we drew in the first place) and BC is common to the two s ABC
and BDC
AB = DC and BC = CB and ABC = BCD
Therefore the line AC = BD
And the ABC DCB
And so the remaining angles will be equal to the remaining angles in the two s Proposition

4
Therefore ACB = CBD
And, since BC cuts the two lines BA and DC and makes the alternate angles equal to one
another:
AC is parallel to BD Proposition 27
And it was also proved equal to it

Q.E.D.
61

Proposition 34
In parallelogrammic areas the opposite sides and angles are equal to one another, and
the diameter bisects the areas.
[Translation: In any parallelogram ABCD the sides AB and CD are equal and so are the sides AC and BD. In
addition A = D and C = B. Finally, either diagonal bisects the area of the parallelogram e.g.
CB)

Construction
Draw any parallelogram ACDB and draw either of the diagonals BC or AD (or diameters
as Euclid calls them)

To Prove
Opposite angles of the parallelogram are equal (ACD = DBA and CAB = CDB)
The diagonal BC bisects the parallelogram

Proof
Since the lines AB and CD are parallel and the line BC cuts them:
The alternate angles ABC = BCD Proposition 29
Also, since AC is parallel to BD and BC cuts both lines
The alternate angles ACB = CBD Proposition 29
Therefore ABC and DCB are two s having two pairs of angles equal (ABC = DCB and BCA =
CBD) and a common side equal BC
Therefore they will have the remaining sides equal to the remaining sides respectively and the
remaining angles equal to the remaining angles respectively Proposition 26
There fore AB = CD and AC = BD
And, BAC = CDB
And, since ABC = BCD
And the CBD = ACB
62

The whole angle ABD = whole ACD Common Notion 2

And the angle BAC was also proved = CDB
Therefore in the parallelogram the opposite sides and angles are equal to one another
Now we need to prove that the diagonal bisects the parallelogram
We have AB = CD
And BC is common
The sides AB = DC and BC = CB respectively
And the angle ABC = BCD
Therefore AC = DB
And the s ABC DCB Proposition 4
Therefore the diagonal BC bisects the parallelogram ACBD

Q.E.D.

63

Proposition 35
Parallelograms which on the same base and in the same parallels are equal to one
another
[Translation: If you draw two parallelograms BCDA and BCFE so that they are on the same base (BC) and
between the same parallel lines then they have equal areas]

Construction
Draw two parallelograms ABCD and EBCF on the same base (BC) and within the same
parallel lines AF and BC

To Prove
ABCD EBCF

Proof
Since ABCD is a parallelogram:
AD = BC Proposition 34
For a similar reason:
EF = BC
So that AD is also equal to EF Common Notion 1
And, since DE is common, the whole of AE = the whole of DF Common Notion 2
But AB = DC Proposition 34
Therefore EA = FD and AB = DC
And FDC = EAB, the exterior to the interior Proposition 29
Therefore EB = FC and the EAB FDC Proposition 4
Lets subtract the DGE from both s
Then the trapezium ABGD which is left is equal to the trapezium EGCF Common Notion 3
Lets add the GBC to each of the trapezia ABGD and EGCF
Then, the whole parallelogram ABCD = the whole parallelogram EBCF

Q.E.D.
64

Proposition 36
Parallelograms which are on equal bases and in the same parallels are equal to one
another
[Translation: If you draw two parallelograms BCDA and FGHE with the same size base (i.e. BC = FG) (but
NOT necessarily the same base) and between the same parallels then their areas are equal]

Construction
Draw two parallel line AH and BG
Draw any two parallelograms ABCD and EFGH with the same size bases (BC = FG) within
the parallels.

To Prove
Parallelogram ABCD parallelogram EFGH

Proof
Draw the lines BE and CH
Then, since BC = FG (we drew the parallelograms on equal bases)
And FG = EH (opposite sides of a parallelogram)
BC is also = EH Common Notion 1
But they are also parallel and EB and HC join them
But straight lines joining (at the ends of the lines) equal and parallel straight lines are equal and
parallel Proposition 33
Therefore EBCH is a parallelogram Proposition 34
And is equal to ABCD because it has the same base BC and is in the same parallels BC and AH

Proposition 35
For the same reason EFGH EBCH Proposition 35
Therefore the parallelogram ABCD parallelogram EFGH

65

Q.E.D.

Proposition 37
s which are on the same base and in the same parallels are equal to one another.
[Translation: If you draw two s ABC and DBC, so that they have the same base (BC) and are drawn
between the same parallels then they have the same area]

Construction
Draw two parallel lines Ad and BC
Draw two s ABC and DBC so that they have the same base (BC) and are within the
parallel lines AD and BC

To Prove
ABC DBC

Proof
Extend the line ED in both directions to E and F
Draw the line BE so that it is parallel to CA
Draw the line CF so that it is parallel to BD
Then each of the figures EBCA and DBCF is a parallelogram and they are equal, because they are
on the same base BC and in the same parallels BC and EF Proposition 35
Also, the ABC is half of the parallelogram EBCA because the diagonal bisects it Proposition

34
And the DBC is half of the parallelogram DBCF because the diagonal bisects it Proposition

34
But the halves of equal things are equal to one another
Therefore the ABC DBC

Q.E.D.

66

Proposition 38
s which are on equal bases and in the same parallels are equal to one another.
[Translation: This proposition is similar to Prop 37 except in this case we can have TWO
DIFFERENT bases BC and EF, so long as they are the SAME SIZE and the s will be equal]

Construction
Draw two s ABC and DEF with the same size bases (BC and EF) between two parallel
lines

To Prove
ABC = DEF

Proof
Extend AD in both directions to G and H
Draw a line BG so that it is parallel to CA Proposition 31
Draw another line FH so that it is parallel to DE
Then we have the two shapes GBCA and DEFH are parallelograms, which gives us:
GBCA DEFH because they are on equal bases BC and EF and between the same parallels BF
and GH Proposition 36
Also the ABC is half of the parallelogram GBCA because the diagonal bisects it Proposition 34
And the FED is half the parallelogram DEFH because the diagonal bisects it Proposition 34
But the halves of equal things are equal to one another
Therefore the ABC DEF

Q.E.D.

67

Proposition 39
Equal triangles which are on the same base and on the same side are also in the same
parallels.
[Translation: If you draw two s ABC and DBC which are equal in area, and have the same base (BC)
then they are drawn between the same parallel lines]

D
E

Construction
Draw two s ABC and BDC so that:
They have the same base (BC)
They are equal in area

To Prove
The two s ABC and BDC are located between parallel lines

Proof
Draw the line AD
AD is parallel to BC because, if it isnt draw the line AE from A parallel to the straight line BC

Proposition 31 and draw the line EC

Then the ABC is equal to the EBC because it is on the same base BC and within the same
parallels Proposition 37
But ABC = DBC (we drew them as equal s)
Therefore DBC is also equal to EBC Common Notion 1
This implies that the greater is equal to the les which is impossible!
Therefore AE is NOT parallel to BC
Similarly we can prove that neither is any other straight line except AD
Therefore AD is parallel to BC

Q.E.D.

68

Proposition 40
Equal s which are on equal bases and on the same side are also in the same parallels.
[Translation: If you draw two s ABC and DCE so they have the same area and on equal bases (BC = CE)
then they are drawn between the same parallel lines]

A
F

Construction
Draw two s which are:
Equal in area
Have the same sized base
Label these s ABC and CDE

To Prove
They sit between two parallel lines

Proof
Join AD
We will first prove that AD is parallel to BE
Suppose it isnt
Draw the straight line AF from A parallel to BE (Proposition 31) and also join FE
Therefore the ABC = FCE because they are on equal bases BC and BE and between the same
parallels BE and AF Proposition 38
But, the ABC = DCE (we drew them to be equal)
Therefore the DCE is also equal to the FCE Common Notion 1
Which gives us the contradiction the greater is equal to the less which is impossible
Therefore AF is NOT parallel to BE
Similarly, we can prove that neither is any other straight line except AD
Therefore AD is parallel to BE

Q.E.D.
69

Proposition 41
If a parallelogram have the same base with a and be in the same parallels, the
parallelogram is double of the .
[Translation: If you draw a parallelogram ABCD and a EBC so that they have the same base
(BC) and are drawn between the same parallel lines then the area of the parallelogram is twice
the area of the ]

Construction
Draw two parallel lines AE and BC
Draw a parallelogram ABCD between the two parallels
Draw a BCE so that it has the same base (BC) as the parallelogram

To Prove
The parallelogram is twice the area of the BEC

Proof
Draw a the diagonal line AC
Then the ABC EBC because it is on the same base BC and in the same parallels BC and AE

Proposition 37
But the parallelogram ABCD is double the ABC because the diagonal AC bisects it

Proposition 34
So, the area of the parallelogram is also double the area of the EBC

Q.E.D

70

Proposition 42
To construct, in a given rectilineal angle, a parallelogram equal to a given .
[Translation: You are given any angle. You are required to construct, on that angle, a parallelogram
equal in area to a given triangle

>
>

Construction

>
>

Draw any ABC

Draw any angle D

To Construct
On the given angle D a parallelogram equal in area to the given

The Construction
Bisect BC at E and join AE
On the straight line EC, at the point E, construct the CEF equal to the D Proposition 23
Draw a line AG from A parallel to EC, and Proposition 31
Draw a line CG from C parallel to EF
Then FECG is a parallelogram
And, since BE = EC:
ABE = in area AEC because they are on equal bases BE and EC and between the same
parallels BC and AG Proposition 38
Therefore the ABC is double the AEC
But the parallelogram FECG is also double the AEC, because it has the same base as it and is
within the same parallels
Therefore the parallelogram FECG = ABC
And it has the CEF equal to the D
Therefore the parallelogram FECG has been constructed equal to the given ABC and the CEF
which is equal to D

Q.E.F.
71

Proposition 43
In any parallelogram the complements of the parallelogram about the diameter are
equal to one another.
[Translation: If you construct any parallelogram, and draw one of the diameters, you will be able to
draw an infinite number of parallelograms which are similar to the original (FKGC in the diagram) and
the spaces left (the complements as Euclid calls them) will be equal]

A
E

H
K

D
E

Construction
Draw a parallelogram ADCB and its diagonal AC (or diameter as Euclid calls it)
Using the line AC as the diagonal draw any parallelogram AHKE
Again using line AC as the diagonal draw another parallelogram KFCG to fill the
remainder of the big parallelogram

To Prove
The area of the parallelogram HDFK is equal to the area of the parallelogram EKGB (the
complements, as Euclid calls them)

Proof
Since ABCD is a parallelogram and AC is a diagonal the ABC = ACD Proposition 34
Also, since AHKE is a parallelogram and AK a diagonal the AEK = AHK
For the same reason:
The KFC = KGC
Since AEK = AHK, and
KFC = KGC
The AEK + KGC = AHK + KFC Common Notion 2
And the whole ABC is also equal to the whole ADC
Therefore the complement EKGB = complement HDFK Common Notion 3

Q.E.D.

72

Proposition 44
To a given straight line to apply, in a given rectilineal angle, a parallelogram equal to a
given .
[Translation: Given any straight line and any triangle and any angle; draw on the straight line a
parallelogram with an area equal to that of the triangle and containing the given angle]

C
H

Construction
Draw any C
Draw any angle D
Draw any straight line AB

To Construct
On the line AB a parallelogram having the angle D and an area equal to the C

Construction
Construct the parallelogram BEFG equal to the C, and containing the EBG which is equal to D
Proposition 42
Position the parallelogram BEFG in a straight line with AB
Extend the line FG through to H
Draw the line AH parallel to BG Proposition 31
Join HB
Since the straight line HF cuts the parallel lines AH and EF
AHF + HFE = 1800 Proposition 29
BHG + GFE < 1800, and
Straight lines produced indefinitely from angles less than 180 0 meet Postulate 5

73

Therefore HB and FE, when produced, will meet

Produce the lines HB and FE so that they meet at K
From the point K draw the line KL parallel to EA Proposition 31
Produce the line HA to the point L and the line GB to the point M
Then HLKF is a parallelogram
HK is a diagonal and
HABG and BMKE are parallelograms, and
BALM and GBEF are the so-called complements about the diagonal HK
Therefore the parallelogram BALM = parallelogram FEBG Proposition 43
But FEBG = C
Therefore BALM is also = C Common Notion 1
And. Since GBE = ABM Proposition 15
And the GBF = D
ABM = D
Therefore the parallelogram BALM = C has been applied to the given straight line AB and
contains the ABM which is equal to D

Q.E.F.

74

Proposition 45
To construct, in a given rectilineal angle, a parallelogram equal to a given rectilineal
figure.
Interpretation: Given any quadrilateral and a given angle construct a parallelogram of the
same area as the given quadrilateral and containing the same sized angle as that given

D
F

E
C
K

Construction
Draw any quadrilateral ABCD
Draw any angle E

To Construct
A parallelogram with one angle equal to E and equal in area to the quadrilateral ABCD

Construction
Join the diagonal DB
Construct the parallelogram FGHK equal to the ABD and containing the HKF which is equal to
E Proposition 42
Draw the parallelogram GLMH equal to the DBC on the straight line GH and containing the
GHM which = E Proposition 44
Then, since the E is equal to each of the HKF and GHM:
HKF is also equal to GHM Common Notion 1
Let the KHG be added to both HKF and GHM
Therefore the FKH + KHG = KHG +GHM
But the angles FKH + KHG = `1800 Proposition 29
75

Therefore KHG + GHM also = 1800

Thus we have a straight line GH and, at the point H on it, two straight lines KH and HM not lying
on the same side make the adjacent angles equal to 1800
Therefore KH is in a straight line with HM Proposition 14
And, since the straight line HG cuts the parallel lines KM and FG, the alternate angles MHG and
HGF are equal to one another Proposition 29
Add the HGL to MHG and HGF
MHG + HGL = HGF + HGL Common Notion 2
But MHG + HGL = 1800 Proposition 29
HGF + HGL are also = 1800 Common Notion 1
FG is in a straight line with GL Proposition 14
And, since FK is equal and parallel to HG Proposition 34
And HG equal and parallel to ML:
KF is also equal and parallel to ML Common Notion 1 and Proposition 30)
And the straight lines KM and FL join them (at the lines ends)
Therefore KM and FL are equal and parallel Proposition 33
Therefore KFLM is a parallelogram
And. Since the ABD is equal to the parallelogram FGHK
And DBC = parallelogram GLMH
The whole quadrilateral ABCD = the whole parallelogram KFLM
the parallelogram KFLM has been constructed equal to the given quadrilateral ABCD and
contains the FKM which is equal to the E

Q.E.F

76

Proposition 46
On a given straight line to describe a square.
Interpretation: On the face of it a simple construction given a straight line draw a square
on it with the same length side(s)

C
D

Construction
Draw any straight line AB

To Construct
A square, based on the line AB with side equal to AB

Construction
Draw AC at right angles to the line AB form the point A Proposition 11
Mark of D so that AD = AB
From the point D draw the line DE parallel to AB, and
From the point B draw BE parallel to AD Proposition 31
Therefore ADEB is a parallelogram
Therefore AB = DE and AD = BE Proposition 34
But AB = AD
Therefore the four straight lines BA = Ad = DE = EB
Therefore the parallelogram ADEB is equilateral
Therefore we could speculate that ADEB is also rightangled but we need to prove it:

Proof
Since AD cuts the parallel lines AB and DE:

77

BAD + ADE = 1800 Proposition 29

But BAD = 900
Therefore ADE is also 900
And, in a parallelogram the opposite sides and angles are equal to one another Proposition

34
Therefore each of the opposite angles ABE and BED are also = 900
Therefore ADEB is sight-angled
And, since it was proved to be a quadrilateral:
Therefore it is a square, and it has been drawn on the straight line AB

Q.E.F.

78

Proposition 47
In right-angled s the square on the side subtending the right angle is equal to the
squares on the side containing the right angle
This is the theorem popularly called PYTHAGORAS THEOREM and is perhaps the most famous
theorem in mathematics

F
A

A
K

Construction

Draw any right-angled

To Prove
The square on BC is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides

Proof
Draw squares on each of the sides of the triangle BCED, ACKH and ABFG
From A draw a line AL parallel to CE
Draw the lines AD and FC
Now, since BAC and BAG are both right-angles it follows that with the straight line BA and the
point A on it, the two straight lines AC and AG make the adjacent angles add up to 180 0
Therefore CA is a straight line and continues as a straight line to G Proposition 14
For the same reason:
79

BAH is also a straight line through A

And, since DBC = FBA because they are both right-angles; for each angle add ABC to it
Therefore DBA = FBC Common Notion 2
And, since DB = BC and FB = BA
AB = FB and BD = BC
And the ABD = FBC
Therefore AD = FC
And the ABD = FBC Proposition 4
Now the parallelogram BJLD is double the ABD because they have the same base BD and are
within the same parallel lines BD and AL Proposition 41
But the doubles of equals are equal to one another!
Therefore the parallelogram BJLD is also equal to the square BFGA
Similarly, if AE and BK are joined the parallelogram CELJ can also be proved equal to the square
HKCA
Therefore the whole square BDEC is equal to the two squares BFGA and HKCA Common

Notion 2
And the square BDEC has been drawn on BC
The square BFGA has been drawn on BA
And, HKCA has been drawn on AC
Therefore the square on the side BC is equal to the sum of the squares on the sides BA and AC

Q.E.D.

80

Proposition 48
If in a the square on one of the sides be equal to the square on the remaining side of
the the angle contained by the remaining two sides of the is right.
This might be thought of as the reverse of Pythagoras Theorem you are given the fact that
the square on one side is equal to the sum of the square on the other two sides you have to
prove that the angle opposite this first side is a right-angle.

Construction
Draw a triangle ABC such that the square on BC is equal to the sum of the squares on the
other two sides AB and AC

To Prove
Angle

Proof

81

Glossary of Terms Used in the Elements

Rectilineal
Extremity
Subtended
Acute
Obtuse
Equal
Congruent
Bisect
Inclusive angle
Alternate angles

82

83