World geography

Index
S.no

Topic

1.

The Universe

2..

Solar system

3.

The earth

14

4.

world climatic conditions

5.

Atmosphere of Earth

29

6.

Pressure belts and winds

33

Page no

23

7.

Earths surface wind system

8.

Oceans

9.

Economic Geography : Agriculture

10.

Worlds Forestry & Fishery

11.

Minerals

12.

Additional information

38
41
48
59
62
66

The Universe
The universe of which our earth is an insignificant fraction consists of
uncountable number of stars, galaxies, nebulae and other celestial bodies.
The universe can be said to be the sum total of potentially knowledgeable
objects.
The science dealing with the nature and origin of the universe is known as
Cosmology.
Origin:
As per present status of knowledge and thought-process of mankind, there is a
philosophical barrier about the infinity of the Universe both in space and time.
Hardly anything can be said conclusively about the origin of the Universe though
various theories have been proposed to explain the possible way of the
formation of the Universe.
To understand these theories, a remarkable astronomical phenomenon called
Red Shift or Doppler Effect must be known.
Doppler Effect and Red Shift:

According to Doppler Effect the frequency of a wave appears to be higher

when source approaches the observer and frequency lowers when the source
recedes from the observer.

In the spectrum of visible light, red has the lowest frequency and longest
wavelength while violet has the highest frequency and shortest wavelength.

It has been observed that light coming from the galaxies shifts to the red end
of the spectrum. This is known as Red Shift.

Assuming it to be true all galaxies must be receding away from us in all

directions. This proportionate increase in red shift of the galaxies with
increasing distance shows that matter in the Universe is in a state of rapid
expansion.

This ides of rapid expansion is central to all the modern theories of the origin
of the Universe.

Big Bang Theory:

A Belgian astronomer-priest, Canon Lemaitre was one of the earliest to propose
such a cosmological theory, referring to it as fireworks theory.
According to Big-Bang theory, some 10 to 20 billion years ago cosmic matter
(universe) was confined in a super dense ball, in a state of extremely high
temperature and pressure. A primordial explosion then occurred, hurling the
broken material far out into space where they are still travelling at thousands of
miles per second.
The sudden cooling that accompanied expansion favour the combination of
atomic particles into atoms of lighter elements which condensed into clouds of
gases and eventually galaxies and other celestial bodies were formed, without
disrupting the expansion of the universe and it happens in all explosions, the
farthest pieces are flying the fastest.
Steady State Theory:

Originally advanced by Hermann Boudi and Thomas Gold and supported/

modified by some other astronomers, this theory proposes that universe
everywhere and every time remained relatively uniform without beginning or
end.

Though galaxies recede from one another their spatial density remains
constant, i.e., as old galaxies move apart new galaxies are being formed from
new matter which is being continuously created from combination of atomic
particles in the space between galaxies.

This concept, designed to get around the philosophical barrier of a universe

with finite beginning and end, is also known as the Continuous Creation
Theory.

Pulsating (Oscillating) Universe Theory:

This theory, advocated among others by Dr. Alan Sandage, proposes that some
12 billion years ago a great explosion started the expansion of the universe
which is likely to go on 29 billion years more when gravitation will halt further
expansion.
Afterwards all matter will begin to contract in a process known as implosion for
some 41 billion years compressing the matter into an extremely superdense
state and then it will explode again.
Thus universe expands and then contracts also in periods running into tens of
billion of years.
In this way we see that Big Bang Theory differs from other theories in two
important respects.
i.

It does not subscribe to the claim of Steady State theory that new matter is
being continuously created in the universe.
(ii) It does not admit the proposition of Pulsating Theory that matter will
contract to original super dense state.

None of the theories are conclusive but recent discoveries based on radio
astronomy and satellite based observations place the Evolutionary Theory of the
universe in a stronger scientific position than the Steady State Theory.
COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer) satellite launched by NASA in 1992 reported
ripples in he cosmic radiation indicating that there was an irregular distribution
of matter and radiation 15 billion years ago at the time of primordial explosion,
thus corroborating Big Bank Theory.
Celestial bodies
Galaxies:A galaxy is a huge congregation of millions of stars held together by its own
gravitational field. On structural analysis, three basic types of galaxies have been
identified:
i. Spiral Galaxies:
Greater concentration of stars in the centre, old ones near the centre and youngers
in the arms. Our galaxy, the Milkyway and Andromeda are examples of spiral
galaxies.
ii. Elliptical Galaxies:
The most numerous (about 2/3 of all galaxies) consist mostly of very old stars.
Measurement units of space
Light year:-

It is the distance covered by light in one year in vacuum at a speed of 3 x

105 Km/S.. It is equal to 5.88 x 106 miles.
Astronomical Units (A.U.):It is the mean distance between Earth and the Sun (1.49 x 10 8 Km). One light year is
equal to 60,000 A.U.
Parsec:It represents the distance at which the mean radius of Earths orbit subtends an
angle of one second of an arc. It is equal to 3.26 light years.
Cosmic/Galactic year:Suns period of revolution around the galactic centre which is 250 million years.

Distance of earth from the Sun = 8 light minutes = 1 A.U.

Distance of earth from the Moon = 1.25 light seconds

Distance of earth from Proxima Centauri = 4.3 light years

iii. Irregular Galaxies:

Comprise about 1/10 of all galaxies, mostly young stars.
The two nearest galaxies to our Milkyway are the aLarge Magellanic cloud and
the Small Magellanic cloud.
Our Galaxy, the Milkyway and the Andromeda galaxy are the two largest
galaxies in a cluster of some 23 galaxies known as the Local Group.
Nebulae:
These are distant stellar systems of luminous bodies made up of gas and dust
particles. ORION Nebulae is situated in the Milkyway.
Constellations:
These are cluster of stars, organised into distinct shapes and figures and named
accordingly. Hydra is the largest constellation.
Comets:
There are huge clouds of frozen gases and dust which have their home in the
cold outer fringes of the solar system. Their Head (also called CDMA if it has no tail)
is formed by the evaporation of solid ice particles when the comet approaches the
sun. they have an extremely eccentric orbit but a definite periodicity, as the
Halleys comet is seen every 76 years. The tail is always away from the sun.
Meteors:
These are small solid matters which, when coming into the atmosphere of ht
earth, bur out due to friction. While burning, they emit light and hence called
shooting stars.
Leonid Shower is a meteor storm, originated in the constellation Leo. These
meteors are actually part of the comet Temple-Turtle and they fall on every 33
years.
Quasars or Quasi Stellar Radio Source:
In the universe, some matters appears small but emit more energy than the
stars of the milky way. Such stars are called Quasars. Such extremely luminous
celestial bodies were discovered in 1961.
Stars:

Stars account for 98% of the matter in the galaxy. Stars are formed by
gravitational contraction from vast clouds of galactic gas and dust. Star-forming
matter is richer in hydrogen and helium.
Life of Stars:Stars pass through a definite evolutionary sequence in the following manner,
depending primarily on their mass and internal structure.
(a) A Proto Star:
It begins to form by the compression of galactic gas and dust. Compression
generates heat which in turn causes Hydrogen (H 2) to be converted into Helium in a
Nuclear Fusion, thereby emitting large amount of heat and light. A STAR is thus
formed.
(b) Red Giants:
Continued Nuclear Fusion over a period of time starts depletion of hydrogen and
the helium core becomes increasingly heavy, resulting into swelling and reddening
of outer regions. Such stars of gigantic dimensions are rightly termed as Red Giants.
This stage gives the first indication of ageing.
(c) Novae and Supernovae:
A giant star phase may end in a Novae/Supernovae stage. These are stars
whose brightness increase suddenly by ten to twenty magnitudes or more due to a
partial or outright explosion in the star. When brightness increases to 20
magnitudes or more, it is called a Supernovae.
(d) White Dwarfs:
A Novale/Supernovae explosion in a small star like our Sun (Stars lighter than
1.2 solar mass) may leave behind a very dense core of that star. A star of this size
cools and contracts to become a White Dwarf, which is no bigger than the earth,
built having central density upto 108 gram per cubic centimeter.
(e) Neutron Star:
A Supernovae explosion in a star bigger than the Sun but not more than twice
as big, may leave behind an extremely dense, residual core of that star, reaching a
density of 1014 grans/cm3, known as Neutron Star.
(f) Pulsars:
Because of small size, neutron Star rotates very speedily. Such fast rotating
Neutron Stars emitting radio waves in regular frequency are called Pulsars.
(g) Black Holes:
Stars having mass greater than three times that of the sun, because of their
great gravitational power, have contracted so much that they have developed super
density of 1016 grams/cm3. It is so dense that nothing, not even light can escape
from its gravity and hence called Black Hole.
Cosmology Some Important Facts
1. The Universe or the Cosmos, as perceived today, consists of millions of Galaxies.
A galaxy is a huge congregation of stars held together by the forces of gravity.
2 . Edwin Hubble in 1924 first demonstrated existence of galaxies beyond Milky
Way. He proved that these galaxies are flying away from each other and that the
farther they are, the faster they fly. This means that the universe is expanding like a
balloon that is being blown up.

3 . In the ancient times, the knowledge about the universe was vague and confined
to mystery and religious perceptions.
In 140 AD, Ptolemy propounded the theory that the earth was the centre of the
universe and the sun and other heavenly bodies revolved around it. In 1543,
Copernicus argued that the sun and not the earth was the centre of the universe.
However, he still equated the universe with the solar system. Kepler supported
Copernicus but said that the sun was the centre of the solar system and not the
universe. In 1805, Hershel made it clear that the solar system was a part of the
much larger system of stars called galaxy.
4 .Our galaxy is Milky Way Galaxy (or the Akash Ganga). It is spiral in shape. It
consists of over a 100 billion stars rotating and revolving about its centre. Nearest
galaxy to ours is Andromeda.
5 . The Big Bang Theory evaluates that 15 billion years ago, cosmic matter
(universe) was in an extremely compressed state, from which expansion started by
a primordial explosion. This explosion broke up the super-dense ball and cast its
fragments far out into space, where they are still traveling at thousands of miles per
second.
It is from these speeding fragments of matter that our galaxies have been formed.
The formation of galaxies and stars has not halted the speed of expansion. And, as
it happens in all explosions, the farthest pieces are flying the fastest.
6 . Later, Pulsating (Oscillating) Universe Theory was given which says that universe
periodically expands from the explosion of the primordial body, then contracts back
and explodes again, over immensely long cycles, ad infinitum.
7 . Stars are self luminous bodies that account for 98 per cent of the material in
the galaxy. The rest 2 per cent consists of interstellar or galactic gas and dust in an
attenuated form.
8. Stars are formed by gravitational contractions from these vast clouds of galactic
gas and dust. Star forming clouds are thousands of times denser than the normal
interstellar gas. Star forming matter is richer in hydrogen and helium.
9 . A stars colour indicates the temperature of its surface. Blue colour denotes
maximum temperature. Then comes yellow, then red, etc.
10. The life of a star is spread over billions of years. It begins to form by
compression of galactic gas and dust. Compression generates heat which in turn
causes hydrogen to be converted into helium in nuclear fusion, thereby emitting
large amount of heat and light.
11. Continued nuclear fusion over a period of time starts depletion of hydrogen and
the helium core becomes increasingly heavy, resulting into swelling and reddening
of outer regions. Such stars of gigantic dimensions are termed as Red Giants.
12. If the star is of suns size, it becomes a White Dwarf. Their central density can
reach up to 10 grams per cubic cm.

13. If die star is bigger than the sun but not more than twice as big, it will turn into a
Neutron Star or Pulsar. Their central density is 1014 grams per cubic cm. They are
formed due to Novae or Super novae explosion.
14. Stars having mass greater than three times that of the sun, because of their
great gravitational power, have contracted so much that they have developed super
density of 1016 grams per cubic cm. It is so dense that nothing, not even light, can
escape from its gravity and hence called Black Hole.
15. Brightest star outside our Solar System is Sirius, also called Dog Star.
16. Closest star of Solar System is Proxima Centauri (4.2 light years away). Then
come Alpha Centauri (4.3 light years away) and Barnards Star (5.9 light years
away).

OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

The solar system consists of the Sun and 8 planets revolving around it in
different orbits.
SUN
Age
: About 5 Billion years
Distance
: 149.8 Million Kms
Diameter
: 1,38,400 Kms.
Photosphere temperature
: 5,770 K
Core temperature
: 150,000,000 K
Absolute visual magnitude
: 4.75
Rotation (as seen from the earth at the equator)
:
25.38 days
Rotation (near the poles)
: 33 days
The sun consists of 71% of Hydrogen, 26.5% Helium and 2.5% of other elements.
The rays of the Sun take about 8 minutes to reach the earth.
The Sun resides in one of the Milky Way's outer spiral arms, known as the Orion

Cygnus Arm or Local Spur.

Next closest star is the triple star system Alpha Centauri(A, B and C), which is

about 4.4 light years away.

The stars next closest to the Sun are the red dwarfs Barnard's Star(at 5.9 light

years), Wolf 359 (7.8 light years), and Lalande 21185(8.3 light years). The largest
star within ten light years is Sirius.
What is Galactic Year?
The Sun lies between 25,000 and 28,000 light years from the Galactic Centre, and
its speed within the galaxy is about 220 kilometres per second (140 mi/s), so that it
completes one revolution every 225250 million years. This revolution is known as
the Solar System's galactic year.
The conditions to be satisfied for planet-hood status :
1. A planet has to orbit the Sun. Pluto does that.
2. A planet needs enough gravity to pull itself into a sphere. Okay, spherical. Plutos
is spherical.
3. A planet needs to have cleared out its orbit of other objects. Uh oh, Pluto
hasnt done that.
For example, planet Earth accounts for a million times the rest of the material in its
orbit, while Pluto is just a fraction of the icy objects in its realm.

PLANETS
Comparison of planets based
Body
Mean
Volume
radius
(109 km3)
(km)
Sun
696,000 1,412,000,00
0
Jupiter 69,911
1,431,280
Saturn 58,232
827,130
Uranu 25,362
68,340
s
Neptu 24,622
62,540
ne
Earth 6,371.0 1,083.21
Venus 6,051.8 928.43
(w/o gas)
Mars
3,390.0 163.18
Mercu 2,439.7 60.83
ry
Moon 1,737.1 21.958

on size, radius, density, surface gravity:

Mass
Density Surface
1021 kg
g/cm3
gravity
(Yg)
(m/s2)
1,989,100,00 1.409
274.0
0
1,898,600
1.33
24.79
568,460
0.70
10.445
86,832
1.30
8.87
102,430

1.76

11.15

5,973.6
4,868.5

5.515
5.24

9.78033
8.872

641.85
330.2

3.94
5.43

3.7
3.7

73.5

3.3464

1.625

The inner Solar System is the traditional name for the region comprising the
terrestrial planets and asteroids. The four inner or terrestrial planets have dense,
rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed
largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates, which form their crusts and
mantles, and metals such as iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of the
four inner planets (Venus, Earth and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to
generate weather; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features such as rift
valleys and volcanoes.
(1) MERCURY
It is the planet nearest to the earth and smallest one in solar system.
Mercury has no natural satellites
Average distance to the Sun
: 57.6 Million Kms.
Diameter
: 4,849.6 Kms.
Period of revolution
: 88 days
Period of rotation
: 58 days 15 hrs 30 mts. 34sec.
(2) VENUS
It is also known as the Morning Star or the Evening Star.
It is the brightest of all the planets.
It is close in size to Earth (0.815 Earth masses) and, like Earth, has a thick silicate
mantle around an iron core, a substantial atmosphere, and evidence of internal
geological activity.
Venus has no natural satellites.
It is the hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400 C (752F), most likely
due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
Diameter
: 12,032 Kms.
Period of revolution : 225 days
Period of rotation
: 243 days 14mts.

(3) EARTH
Surface Area
: 510,100,500 Sq.Kms.
Polar radius
: 6,357 Kms.
Land Surface
: 148,950,800 (29.08%)
Water Surface
: 361,149,700 (70.92%)
Equatorial circumference
: 40,075 Kms.
Polar circumference
: 40,008 Kms
Equatorial radius
: 6,377 Kms.
Equatorial Diameter
: 1,22,756 Kms.
Polar Diameter
: 12,714 Kms.
Mean distance from the Sun : 14,95,97,900 Kms.
Period of revolution
: 365 days 5 hours 48 mts. 45.51 Sec.
Period of rotation
: 23 hrs. 56 mts. 4.091 Sec.
Escape Velocity from the earth : 11 Km per Sec. (minimum)
Some important Data about Earth:
The Earth is a sphere but it is not a perfect sphere. It is slightly
flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator. The circumference of the earth is
approximately 25,000 miles (40,000 Kms).It rotates on its axis once in every 24
hours, spinning from west to east. Besides spinning on its axis, it also moves round
the Sun, called the revolution.
Its orbit round the Sun is oval or ecliptical. The time taken to complete one
revolution is approximately 365 days or one year. For convenience, one year is
taken as 365 days and the shortfall of day each year is made good in the
Leap Year which consists of 366 days. The Earths axis inclined to the plane of its
orbit at an angle of 66 position in the course of its revolution about the Sun, and
to the inclination of its axis. The Equator is an imaginary line drawn round the Earth
midway between the Poles. There are two other lines, namely,Tropic of Cancer
(23 N) and the Tropic of Capricon (23 S). The word tropic means, turning
place. The inclination of the Earths axis together with its revolution round the Sun
is the cause of the varying length of day and night in different parts of the
world. On March 21 (Vernal Equinox) and September 23 (Autumnal Equinox)
the Sun is over- head at the Equator. On these dates, except at the Poles,
(a) days and nights are equal all over the world; and
(b) the Sun rises exactly due east and set exactly due west at all places on the
Earths surface.
At the Equator itself days and nights are equal throughout the year.
Between March 21 and September 23, when the North Pole is tilted towards the
Sun, the days are longer than the nights throughout the Northern Hemisphere and
there is continuous daylight at the North Pole. Similar conditions are experienced in
the Southern Hemisphere and the South Pole between September 25 and March
21.
(4) MARS
Diameter
: 6,755.2 Kms. is smaller than Earth and Venus (0.107 Earth masses).
Its surface, peppered with vast volcanoes such as Olympus Mons and rift valleys
such as Valles Marineris.
Its red colour comes from iron oxide (rust) in its soil.
Mars has two tiny natural satellites (Deimos and Phobos) thought to be captured
asteroids
Distance from the Sun : 225.6 Million Kms.

Period of revolution
Period of rotation

:
:

687 days
24 hrs 37 mts. 22.663 sec.

Outer planets of Solar System:

The four outer planets, or gas giants (sometimes called Jovian planets), collectively
make up 99% of the mass known to orbit the Sun
(5) JUPITER
This is the largest planet in the solar system.
Diameter
: 141,968 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 772.8 Million Kms.
Period of revolution
: 11.9 years
Period of rotation
: 9 hrs 50 mts. 30 sec.
It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's strong internal heat creates
a number of semi-permanent features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and
the Great Red Spot.
Jupiter has 67 known satellites.
The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa. Ganymede, the largest
satellite in the Solar System.

(6) SATURN
It was discovered by Galileo.
Diameter
:
119,296 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 1,417.6 Million Kms.
Period of revolution
: 29.5 years
Period of rotation
: 10 hrs 14 mts.
least dense planet in the Solar System.
Saturn has 62 confirmed satellites; two important moons are Titan and Enceladus.
Titan, the second-largest moon in the Solar System
(7) URANUS
Diameter
: 52,096 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 2,852.8 Million Kms.
Period of revolution
: 84 years
Period of rotation
: 16 hrs 10 mts.
Its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic.
Uranus has 27 known satellites, the largest ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel,
Ariel, and Miranda.
(8) NEPTUNE
Diameter
: 49,000 Kms.
Distance from the Sun : 4,497 Million Kms.
Period of revolution
: 165 years
Period of rotation
: 18 hrs 26 mts.
Neptune has 14 known satellites. The largest, Triton, is geologically active, with
geysers of liquid nitrogen
(9) PLUTO : It's not a planet anymore. But it is the coldest and smallest of all
planets. It is also the most distant one(while it was planet)
Diameter
: 3,040 Kms.
Distance from the Sun
: 5,865.6 Million Kms.
Period of revolution
: 248 years
Period of rotation
: 6 days 9 hrs and 18 mts.

10

MOON : Moon is a dead planet. Moon is earth's satellite. Its period of rotation
and Period of Revolution are the same. i.e.29.5 days.
Some other Important Points:
The asteroid belt occupies the orbit between Mars and Jupiter
Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid, a protoplanet, and a dwarf planet
Uranus and Neptune are called Ice Giants.
Saturn's ring system is easily observed from Earth.
Eris (68 AU average) is the largest known scattered disc object, and caused a

debate about what constitutes a planet.

Kuiper belt
The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt, but consisting
mainly of objects composed primarily of ice. It extends between 30 and 50 AU from
the Sun. The Kuiper Belt is a disc-shaped region of icy objects beyond the orbit of
Neptune -- billions of kilometers from our sun. The makeup of Kuiper Belt Objects is
similar to the composition of comets a mixture of frozen water, ammonia and
various hydrocarbons, such as methane.

Centaurs
The centaurs are icy comet-like bodies with a semi-major axis greater than Jupiter's
(5.5 AU) and less than Neptune's (30 AU). The first centaur discovered, 2060 Chiron,
has also been classified as comet (95P) because it develops a coma just as comets
do when they approach the Sun.
Comet Vs Asteroid
Comets have eccentric orbits so their distance from the Sun varies considerably.
The nucleus of a comet is composed of volatile material. When a comet is far from
the sun, this material usually stays pristine but when the comet comes closer to the
sun, solar radiation and solar winds cause it to lose some volatile compounds from
its surface. This gives it a coma i.e. a nebulous appearance and a thin, transient
atmosphere, which differentiates it from asteroids.
Comet: A comet is a relatively small solar system body that orbits the Sun. When a
comet enters the inner Solar System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface
to sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas and dust often visible to
the naked eye.
Asteroid: Asteroids are small solar system bodies that orbit the Sun. Made of rock
and metal, they can also contain organic compounds. Asteroids are similar to
comets but do not have a visible coma (fuzzy outline and tail) like comets do.
Meteoroid: A meteoroid is a small rock or particle of debris in our solar system.
They range in size from dust to around 10 metres in diameter (larger objects are
usually referred to as asteroids).
Meteor: A meteoroid that burns up as it passes through the Earths atmosphere is
known as a meteor. If youve ever looked up at the sky at night and seen a streak of
light or shooting star what you are actually seeing is a meteor.

11

Meteorite: A meteoroid that survives falling through the Earths atmosphere and
colliding with the Earths surface is known as a meteorite.
Heliopause
The region surrounding the solar system at which pressure from the outgoing solar
wind equals the pressure from the interstellar medium (made up mostly of
hydrogen and helium), and the solar wind can penetrate no further. It is considered
to be the outer boundary of our solar system
Origin of Solar System
Various theories have been given by different persons to explain the origin of Solar
System.
Gaseous Hypothesis
Nebular Hypothesis
Planetesimal Hypothesis
Tidal Hypothesis

Kant
Laplace
Chamberlin and Moulton
James Jeans & Harold
Jeffrey
H. N. Russel
Ross Gun
A.C. Banerji
Hoyle & Lyttleton

Binary Star Hypothesis

Fission Hypothesis
Cepheid Hypothesis
Nova Hypothesis
Electromagnetic
H. Alfven
Hypothesis
Interstellar
Dust
Schmidt
Hypothesis
Nebular Cloud Hypothesis Dr. Von Weizsacker
Protoplanet Hypothesis
G. Kuiper
Solar System Some Facts
Biggest Planet
Jupiter
Smallest Planet
Mercury
Nearest Planet to Sun
Mercury
Farthest Planet from Sun Neptune
Nearest Planet to Earth
Venus
Brightest Planet
Venus
Brightest star after Sun
Sirius
Planet
with
maximum
Jupiter
satellites
Coldest Planet
Neptune
Hottest Planet
Venus
Heaviest Planet
Jupiter
Red Planet
Mars
Biggest Satellite
Gannymede
Smallest Satellite
Deimos
Blue Planet
Earth
Morning/Evening Star
Venus
Earth's Twin
Venus
Green Planet
Neptune

12

Gaseous Hypothesis
Kant
Planet with a big red spot Jupiter
Lord of the Heavens
Jupiter
Greatest
Diurnal
Mercury
Temperature

13

Earth Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a mixture of a layer of gases enveloping the earth, held to it by
gravitational force. Almost all the atmosphere (97 per cent) lies within 29 km of the
earths surface.
Beyond about 100 km, recent data from satellites suggest that the lightest gases
separate out, forming several concentric layers around the earth. The innermost of
these is the nitrogen layer (between 100-200 km); then comes oxygen (200-1100
km); helium (1100-3500) and then hydrogen only, to which there is really no clearly
defined upper limit.
Up to about 50 km the atmosphere is composed of:

Nitrogen 78 09%
Oxygen 20 95%
Argon 0.93%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
(Others are Neon, Helium, Ozone, Hydrogen etc.,)

Water vapour, besides being the immediate cause of condensation and

precipitation, absorbs the insolation coming from the sun, reducing the amount
reaching the earths surface.
Carbon dioxide is important for absorption of heat from the sun as well as from the
earth. A high concentration of carbon dioxide leads to Greenhouse Effect.
Dust particles scatter and diffuse insolation and also act as hygroscopic nuclei for
condensation (for the formation of clouds).
Layers of Atmosphere
Atmosphere Troposphere

Layer nearest to earths surface. Thickness varies from 8 km at the poles to 16

km at the equator.

All weather phenomenons occur here.

Densest of all and contains water vapour, moisture and dust.

Dust particles present in this layer hold the water vapour and contribute to the
occurrence of twilight and the red colours of sunlight and sunset.

In this, at every 165 m there is a drop of 1c (or 6.4c per km). This is called
Normal Lapse Rate of Temperature.

Tropopause separates troposphere from stratosphere.

Atmosphere Stratosphere

Extends from 16 km to 50 km ht. The temperature ceases to fall with the

increase of height in this layer.

Little weather is generated here as there is very little water vapour and virtually
no dust present.

Stratosphere provides ideal conditions for flying large airplanes.

Contains ozone (25-30 km from earths surface), region being called

Ozonosphere. It absorbs the ultra-violet rays from the sun. This layer has a

14

comparatively higher temperature due to the absorption of ultra-violet radiation

from the sun (temperature increases as we go up).
Atmosphere Mesosphere

Up to a height of about 80 km.

In this, the temp decreases with height and falls to about -100c at 80 km ht.

Atmosphere Ionosphere

Extends to about 500-600 km.

Called so as it contains electrically charged particles (ions) that reflect the radio
waves back to the earth thus making radio communication possible.

Also protects earth from harmful radiation. This causes increase in temperature
with height in this layer.

It also protects earth from falling meteorites, as most of them burn out in this
region.

Exosphere

Here the earths gravity is extremely weak.

Upper limit quite uncertain.

The outer part is called Magnetosphere.

The ionized particles increase in frequency with increasing heights. There are
2 belts in the upper atmosphere having a high concentration of ionized
particles. They are known as Van Allens Radiation Belts. The inner belt lies
about 2600 km from the earths surface, while the outer lies at about 13,000
to 19,000 km from it. These belts represent concentrations of highly charged
particles, protons and electrons from the sun, trapped within lines of force of
the earths external magnetic field- the Magnetosphere.

The final boundary between the earth and the outer space is called
Magnetopause.

Note:
The auroras are produced by the charged particles from the sun captured by earths
magnetic field at heights of about 100 km. it is a luminous phenomenon seen in the
sky at night in high latitudes.
It may be visible as arcs of light or as coloured curtains, streamers or rays. Auroras
occur most frequently during the intense periods of the 11-year sunspot cycle.
In the Northern Hemisphere, they are called aurora borealis and in the Southern
Hemisphere as aurora australis.

15

Earth Latitude and Longitude

Earth Latitude

Imaginary lines drawn parallel to the equator. Measured as an angle whose apex
is at the centre of the earth
The equator represents 0 latitude, while the North Pole is 90 N and the South
Pole 90 S 23 N represents Tropic of Cancer while 23 S represents Tropic of
Capricorn.
66 N represents Arctic Circle while 66 S represents Antarctic Circle.
There are total 181 latitudes including the equator. Each parallel of latitude is a
circle, but they are not equal.
The circle becomes smaller towards the poles. Equator is the Greatest Circle
that can be drawn on the earths surface.
The distance between any two parallels of latitude is always equal.

Earth Longitude
It is the angular distance measured from die centre of the earth. On the globe
the
lines of longitude are drawn as a series of semicircles that extend from the North
Pole to the South Pole through the equator. They are also called meridians.
The distance between any two meridians is not equal. At the equator, 1 degree
= 111 km. At 30N or S, it is 96.5 km. It goes on decreasing this way until it is
zero at the poles.
There are 360 meridians of longitude. The prime meridian is a longitude of 00,
passing through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich near London.
This meridian is taken by geographers to divide the earth into the eastern and
the western hemispheres.
Each meridian of longitude is a semi-circle. 180 meridian (International Date
Line) lies exactly opposite to meridian. Such points are called Antipodl Points.
The earth is divided into 24 longitudinal zones, each being 15 or 1 hour apart in
time (4 minutes / degree).
Longitude and Time
Places that are on the same meridian have the same local (sun) time. Since the
earth makes one complete revolution of 360 in 24 hours, it passes through 15
in one hour or 1 in 4 minutes.
The earth rotates from west to east, hence places east of Greenwich see the sun
earlier and gain time whereas places west of Greenwich see the sun later and
lose time.
A suitable memory acronym can be: East-Gain-Add (E.G.A.) and West-LoseSubtract (W.L.S.). So, if it is noon in London (near 0), 15 east will be one hour
ahead of London or 1 p.m. and Chennai of 80E will be 5 hours 20 minutes
ahead. To avoid confusion about having many local times within one country, a
particular Meridian is chosen for the whole country whose time is known as
standard time.
Generally, the standard meridians are chosen to differ from the Greenwich
meridian by the multiples of fifteen degree or seven and a half degree, i.e., by
exact number of hours or half hours. The world is thus divided into a number of
time zones. Larger countries like Russia, Canada, USA etc., have greater eastwest extension, so they adopt several time zones. Russia has 11 time zones
while USA and Canada have 5 time zones.

16

India, whose longitudinal extent is approx. 30, has adopted only one time zone,
selecting the 82.5E for the standard time which is 5 hours and 30 minutes
ahead of GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).
Eccentricity:

The shape of the earths orbit also changes in a cyclic period running between
90,000 to 100,000 years. So the orbit of the earth may become more elliptical
sometimes or it may form a more circular path around the sun at other times. It is
argued by some scholars that ice Ages and Global Warming are effects of such
eccentricity of earths orbit.
Precession:
This is the conical motion of the axis of the spinning earth, just like a spinning
top. This extremely slow motion of the earths axis takes about 26,000 years to
compete one cycle. Presently the earths axis is pointing to the Pole star, but in A.D.
4000 it will point to the star Alpha Cephei and in A.D. 14,000 to the star Vega.
Inclination of Earths Axis:
The imaginary earth axis has a constant angle of inclination of 66 0 with the
plane of the elliptic, i.e., the plane in which the earth orbits round the sun.
Another characteristics of earths axis, called Parallelism, is that as the earth
revolves around the sun, the earths axis remains, parallel to its preceding
position.
This results in changes in the altitude of the mid-day sun at different times of the
year, in varying lengths of day and night at different times of the year and in
four reasons.
Varying lengths of Day and Night:
Due to revolution and constant angle of inclination of earths axis, on 21 st June,
the sun is vertically overhead at the tropic of Cancer.
As we go towards the North Pole the length of day light increases and in fact
beyond 66 0 N the region has 24 hour light for six months.
On 21st June, the Northern Hemisphere will have its longest day and shortest
night. This is known as summer solstice.
By 22nd December, exactly the same conditions are experienced by the Southern
Hemisphere when the sun is vertically overhead at the tropic of Capricorn. This is
Winter Solstice when the Southern Hemisphere experiences its longest day and
shortest night.
On the 21st March and 23rd September, the sun is directly over the equator and
all parts of the world have equal days and nights. Hence 21 st March and 23rd
September are called Vernal and Autumnal Equinox.
International Date Line
It is the 180 meridian running over the Pacific Ocean, deviating at Aleutian
Islands, Fiji, Samoa and Gilbert Islands.
Travelers crossing the Date Line from west to east (i.e., from Japan to USA)
repeat a day and travelers crossing it from east to west (i.e., from USA to Japan)
lose a day.

17

Earth Eclipses
Earth Lunar Eclipse
When earth comes between sun and moon.
Occurs only on a full moon day. However, it does not occur on every full moon day
because the moon is so small and the plane of its orbit is tilted about 5 with
respect to the plane of the earths orbit. It is for this reason that eclipses do not
occur
every
month.
Can last up to one hour 40 minutes. The moon does not become completely dark
during most lunar eclipses. In many cases, it becomes reddish.The earths
atmosphere bends part of the suns light around the earth and towards the moon.
This light is red because the atmosphere scatters the other colors present in
sunlight in greater amounts than it does red.
Earth Solar Eclipse
When moon comes between sun and earth.
Can be partial or total.
Occurs only on a new moon day when the moon is in line with the sun. However,
due to the inclination of the moons orbit, a solar eclipse doesnt occur on every
new moon day.
Earth Movements
The Earth also called Blue Planet. It is the densest of all planets.

Earth Circumference : 40,232 Kilometers.

Earth Area : 510 million Square Kilometers Average distance from sun: 149 millionKilometers.
Earth Perihelion : Nearest position of earth to sun. The earth reaches its perihelion
on January 3 every year at a distance of about 147 million-Kilometers.
Aphelion : Farthest position of earth from sun. The earth reaches its aphelion on
July 4, when the earth is at a distance of 152 million Kilometers.
The shape of the earth is oblate spheroid or oblate ellipsoid (i.e. almost spherical,
flattened a little at the poles with a slight bulge at the centre).
2 Types of Earth Movements:
Rotation or daily movement.
1. Revolution or annual movement.
Earth Rotation

18

Spins on its imaginary axis from west to east in 23 hrs, 56 min and 40.91 sec.

Rotational velocity at equator is 1667 Kilometers/h and it decreases towards

the poles, where it is zero.

Earths rotation results in

i . Causation of days and nights;

ii . A difference of one hour between two meridians which are 15 apart;
iii. Change in the direction of wind and ocean currents;

Rise and fall of tides everyday.The longest day in North Hemisphere is June
21, while shortest day is on 22 Dec (Vice-versa in S. Hemisphere).

Days and nights are almost equal at the equator.

Earth Revolution

It is earths motion in elliptical orbit around the sun. Earths average orbital
velocity is 29.79 Kilometers/s.

Takes 365 days, 5 hrs, 48 min and 45.51 sec. It results in one extra day every
fourth year.

Revolution of the earth results in

i . Change of seasons
ii . Variation in the lengths of days and nights at different times of the year
iii . Shifting of wind belts
iv . Determination of latitudes.

Inclined Axis: The axis is an imaginary line running from north to south and
passing through the centre of the earth. It always remains inclined at an
angle of 66 to the plane of the earths orbit, and is tilted 23 from a line
perpendicular to this plane. The two facts, i.e., a fixed angle of the earths
axis to the plane of the orbit and the axis always pointing in the same
direction, when combined with the earths movements, results in varying
lengths of days and nights, seasonality and changes in the altitude of sun at
different times of the year.

Earth Seasons are periods into which the year can be divided as a result of
the climatic conditions, largely due to the changes in the duration and
intensity of solar radiation.

The 4 Earth Seasons are:

Spring: On March 21, the sun is directly overhead the equator. This is the
season of spring in the northern hemisphere.

Summer: On June 21, the sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Cancer. Thus,
the northern hemisphere experiences summer.

Autumn: On September 23, the sun returns to the equator, and the northern
hemisphere experiences autumn.

19

Winter: On December 22, the sun is at the Tropic of Capricorn, and the
northern hemisphere experiences winter.

20

Earth Climate
The average weather conditions over a large area is called the climate of a place.
Weather conditions over a specific length of time, usually a period of 31 years, are
taken into consideration.
On a large scale, the climate of a particular region is determined by:
i. Latitude and tilt of the earths axis, which determines the amount of solar
radiation received by the area
ii. The distribution of land and sea and proximity of ocean currents
iii. The altitude and topography of the area
iv. The location of the area in relation to the main circulation belts of the earth.
Climate can be classified on the basis of temperature, rainfall, evaporation,
evapotranspiration and water balance. One of the universally accepted climate
classifications is by Koeppen which is being described here.
Types of Climates
1. Tropical Rain Forest Climate
Also called equatorial type of climate or Selvas.
5 10 of equator, nights and days equal.
Average monthly temperature is 24 27c, annual range least. Diurnal range of
temperature far greater than the annual range. Here night is the winter.
Called Belt of Calm or Doldrums.
Convectional rainfall. Annual rainfall is 250 cm.
Broad-leaved evergreen dense forests. Trees are gregarious and there is
competition for sunlight. Have more species of plants and animals than in all
others combined.
In Amazon basin, Congo basin, Indonesia.
2. Tropical Monsoon Climate
Complete seasonal reversal of winds.
Rainfall seasonal (generally in summers). Due to this vegetation is deciduous.
Approx. 200 cm of rainfall.
Occurs in Western Guinea coast of Africa, South-Eastern Asia, Northern Australia,
some parts of Amazon valley and West Indies.
3. Tropical Grasslands/Savanna Climate
Average annual temperature is 23c. Annual rainfall is about 150 cm. AreaAfrica, East and Central South America.
Bounded by tropical rain forest climate towards the equator and dry climate
towards the poles, the Savannah type is characteristic of grasslands in tropical
and subtropical latitudes. Grasslands are dotted with scattered trees and bushes
that can survive the drought season.
Rainfall in summer owing to convectional ascent of air. Distinct dry season in
winter. Trees with longer roots, fire-resistant.
4. Tropical-Subtropical hot Desert
Situated in the trade wind belt. Occupy the western margins of continents. The
area includes North America Colorado Desert Mexican Desert; Africa-Sahara,
Kalahari, Namib Desert; S W.Asia-Arabian ,Iranian,Thar desert, South American
Atacama,Australia- Great Australian Desert.

21

 Average annual temperature is 38 c; annual summer temperature is 40 c,

annual winter temperature is 15 c. average annual rainfall is about 25-40 cm.
Greatest diurnal temperature.
Highest insolation, as there is no clouds cover to scatter the insolation.
Vegetation is xerophytic.
5. Middle Latitude Desert Climate
Found between 35-50 N and S.
Area: Tarim, Gobi, Russian Turkistan and C. Iran. In Southern Hemisphere, only in
Patagonia.
Unlike the hot deserts, they have very cold winters because of their interior
location.
6. Tropical and Subtropical Steppes
Transition belt between hot deserts and humid climates. Occupy pole-ward
margins of the tropical and subtropical deserts.
Average annual temperature is 21 c.
Semi-arid climate characterized by abundance of shrubs and grasses.
Known by different names:
Prairies North America
Pampas South America
Veldt South Africa
Downs Australia
Steppes Eurasia
Canterbury New Zealand
Postaz Hungary
Manchurian Russia
7. Mediterranean Climate
In the western coast of continents between 30-45 N & S; Around the
Mediterranean Sea, in South Europe, North Africa, California coast, Central Chile,
Cape of Good Hope and South East Australia.
Characterized by dry summer and humid winter. Off-shore trade winds blow in
summer; they are dry and give no rainfall. Cyclonic rainfall in winter.
Average annual temperature is 16 c. average winter temperature, 10 c,
summer 25c annual rainfall is 40-60 cm.
Olives, grapevine and citrus family fruits are the chief products of these regions
which are also known for grain farming.
8. China Type Climate
Average annual temperature is 19 c, annual rainfall 120 cm.
In the eastern coasts of continents between 25- 45 N & S. Areas- China, South
East USA, South Brazil, Eastern Argentina, South East Africa, South East
Australia, South Japan. It is the eastern counterpart of the Mediterranean type.
Characteristics-Hot summers and mild winters. Rainfall throughout the year.
9. West European Type Climate
On the western side of continents between 40-65 N & S. Areas- North West
Europe including British Isles, West coat of Canada, South Chile, Southern New
Zealand.

22

 Summers are moderate to cool (15-18); winters mild (2-10). Average annual
temperature is 10 c.
Annual Rainfall: 75-100 cm. No dry season as the westerly winds blow from the
ocean throughout the year. Rainfall is mostly of cyclonic origin.
10. Cool East Coast Climate
The Corn Belt of US has this type of climate; that is why it is known as Corn-Belt
climate.
Average summer temp is 21-24c; it is long, warm and humid.
Winter temp average-4 to 1.7 for a period of 3-5 months.
11. Continental Type Climate
Coldest winter month average -12 to -6.7c.
Hottest summer months average 18c to 21c.
In the interior parts of big continents.
12. Taiga Climate
Taiga means snow forests or coniferous forests; needle shaped leaves, composed
of evergreen spruce, fir and pine. Extends in two large belts in east-west
direction from Alaska to Newfoundland in North America and from Norway to
Kamchatka Peninsula in Eurasia.
Cool and short summers (around 10c) and very cold and long winters (below
0c).
Annual range of temperature highest. (In Verkhoyansk, Jan temp is -50, annual
range being 64c)
Total annual precipitation below 50 cm.
These forests are the most important source of softwood and fur bearing animals.
13. Tundra Climate
Summers are warm enough to melt the thin snow cover or small water bodies,
with the result that land is water soaked and marshes, swamps are common.
Precipitation less than 30 cm.
Blizzards blow.
Lichens and mosses common.
14. Highland Climate
Experienced in the mountainous regions.
Determined by elevation, shape of the highland, exposure to winds and location.
Here winds are much stronger than at low levels.
Vegetation varies as we move up.
Important Deserts of the World:
Sahara
N. Africa (Includes the Libyan and the Nubian Desert)
Australian
Australia (Includes Gibson, Simpson, Victorian, Great
Sandy)
Arabian
Arab Countries (Includes Rubal Khali & An-Nafad of S. Arabia
and Dast-e-Lut & Dast-e-Kavir of Iran)
Kalahari
Africa (mainly in Botswana)
Gobi
Mongolia
Atacama
Central Chile

23

Patagonian
Nabib
TaklaMakan
Karakum
Sonoran
Thar

Argentina
Namibia
Sinkiang, China
Turkmenistan
Arizona and California (USA)
India

Isopleth
Lines drawn on map along which the value of a particular phenomenon is uniform.
Some Important Isopleths are:
Isopleth
Reactions
Isobars
Equal pressure
Isobaths
Equal depth in sea
Isobronts
Thunder-storm at the same time
Isohaline
Salinity
Isohels
Sunshine
Isohyets
Rainfall
Isohypse (or Contour Lines) elevation above sea-level
Isonif
Snow
Isotherms
Temperature
Isoneph
Cloudiness
Isodapan
Equal transportation cost distance
Isocline
Slope

24

Insolation and Heat Budget

1. Insolation is the energy received on the earths surface from the sun. It is the
most important single source of atmospheric heat.
2. The earths surface does not absorb all the energy that it receives. The proportion
of the solar radiation reflected from the surface is called Albedo.
3. On an average, insolation is highest near the tropics, marginally lower at the
equator and lowest at the poles.
4. Although the earth receives energy continuously from the sun, its temperature
remains fairly constant, the only variations being the long-term climatic changes.
This is so because the atmosphere loses an amount of heat equal to the gain
through insolation. This mechanism of maintaining the same temperature by the
atmosphere is called the Heat Budget or Heat Balance.
5. Assuming that 100 units of energy reach the top of the atmosphere of the earth,
14 units are absorbed directly by the atmosphere and 35 units are lost to space
through
reflection.
The remaining 51 units reach the earths surface and are absorbed by the earth due
to which the surface gets heated. The heated surface of the earth starts radiating
energy in the form of long waves and this process is called Terrestrial Radiation.
Out of the total 51 units given up by the surface in the form of terrestrial radiation,
the atmosphere (mainly carbon dioxide and water vapour) absorbs about 34 units
and the remaining 17 units escape to space.
In this manner, the atmosphere receives a total of 14 + 34 = 48 units and this
amount is radiated back to space by the atmosphere. The total loss of energy to
space thus amounts to 100 units: 35 units reflected by the atmosphere, 17 units
lost as terrestrial radiation and 48 units from the atmosphere. In this manner, no net
gain or loss of energy occurs in the earths surface.
Although the earth and its atmosphere as a whole have a radiation balance, there
are latitudinal variations. The heat/energy is transferred from the lower latitudes to
the higher latitudes through winds and ocean currents.
Internal Structure of Earth
The Crust of Earth

It is the outermost and the thinnest layer of the earths surface, about 8 to 40
km thick. The crust varies greatly in thickness and composition as small as 5
km thick in some places beneath the oceans, while under some mountain ranges
it extends up to 70 km in depth.

The crust is made up of two layers- an upper lighter layer called the Sial (Silicate
+ Aluminium) and a lower density layer called Sima (Silicate + Magnesium).

The average density of this layer is 3 gm/cc.

The Mantle of Earth

25

This layer extends up to a depth of 2900 km.

Mantle is made up of 2 parts: Upper Mantle or Asthenosphere (up to about

500 km) and Lower Mantle. Asthenosphere is in a semi-molten plastic state, and
it is thought that this enables the lithosphere to move about it. Within the
asthenosphere, the velocity of seismic waves is considerably reduced (Called
Low Velocity Zone).

The line of separation between the mantle and the crust is known as Mohoviricic
Discontinuity.
The Core of Earth

Beyond a depth of 2900 km lies the core of the earth.

The outer core is 2100 km thick and is in molten form due to excessive heat out
there. Inner core is 1370 km thick and is in plastic form due to the combined
factors of excessive heat and pressure. It is made up of iron and nickel (Nife) and
is responsible for earths magnetism. This layer has the maximum specific
gravity.

The temperatures in the earths core lie between 2200c and 2750c.

The line of separation between the mantle and the core is called GutenbergWiechert Discontinuity.

Note:
Temperature Inside the Earth: In the first 100 km, 12 increase per km. In the
next 300 km, 2 increase per km. After that it is 1 increase per km.
Composition of Earth

Made up of over 100 elements.

The following 8 are important:

Major Earth Layer Discontinuity:

i. Moho Discontinuity: Between Crust and Mantle
ii. Canard Discontinuity: Between outer and inner crust
iii. Welchart-Gutenberg Discontinuity: Between mantle & Core
iv. Repetite Discontinuity: Between upper and lower Mantle
v. Transition Discontinuity: Between outer and inner Core
Continental Drift Theory:
The theory of continental drift was postulated by Alfred Wegener in 1915 in
which
he gave sound evidences to support the idea of the movement of continents
over the
surface of the earth.
According to him, about 250 million years ago, in the carboniferous period, all
the continents were united as a super continent known as Pangaea which was
surrounded by a large ocean, called Panthalsa.
According to Wegenaer, Pangaea started breaking up in the Carboniferous
period. In his view, continents made up of lighter sial were moving over the
ocean basins which are composed of denser sima.
The continents drafted in two directions-towards the equator due to gravitational
attraction of equatorial bulge (resulting in the formation of Himalayas, Alps, Atlas

26

etc) and towards the west owing to tidal forces of the moon and the sun (forming
the mountains of Rockies and Andes).
Plate Tectonics:
In the late 60s, the basic concepts of Wegeners theory and sea floor spreading
were united, in the light of great strides made in the field of earth sciences, into
a much more encompassing theory known as Plate Tectonics.
The revolutionary theory of Plate Tectonics provides the most rational
explanation for the distribution of oceans and continents, orogenic, volcanic and
seismic zones and related processes.
The theory of Plate Tectonics postulates that outer rigid lithosphere comprises a
mosaic of rigid segments, called Plates that move on the plastic upper mantle
(asthenosphere), carrying the continents and oceans along with them.
Their thickness varies from 80-100 km along the oceans to over 100 km in the
continents. Six major and many minor plates have been identified.
Plate Boundary Interactions:
All tectonic activities occur along the boundaries of the plate which are of three
types.
i. Diverging Boundary Interaction:
Along this boundary marked by the oceanic ridge system, two plates move away
from each other. Hot magma from deep mantle erupts through cracks and
fissures and spreads laterally forming new crust.
Hence these are termed as constructive boundaries. These are characterized by
rift valleys, ridges basaltic volcanism and shallow-foci earthquakes. Mid-Atlantic
ridge system is the best example of this type.
ii. Converging Boundary Interactions:
Along this boundary, two plates move towards each other. If both the plates are
oceanic, one heavier plate boundary plunges down beneath the other along the
oceanic trenches, resulting into formatation of volcanic island arcs, e.g. Japan.
If one of the plates is continental, the heavier oceanic plate boundary subducts
beneath the continental one forming cordilleran mountains such as Rockies and
Andes. When both the plates are continental, no subduction occurs, volcanism,
ceases and plate edges and sediments are compressed, thrusted and folded to
form gigantic mountains like the Himalayas. High intensity earthquakes occur in
this boundary interaction.
iii. Conservative/Transform Boundary Interaction:
Here two plates just slide past each other along the transform fault. There is no
volcanism, no crust is created or destroyed but strong earthquakes occur along the
fault. Along the San Andreas fault of California, American plate and Pacific plate
move past each other. Frequent earthquakes occur in this region.
Earth Clouds
Earth Clouds are masses of minute water droplets and / or ice crystals formed by
the condensation of water vapour and held in suspension in the atmosphere.
Condensation, which results from cooling, usually takes place around nuclei such as
dust, smoke particles and salt. Such particles are called condensation nuclei.
Earth Clouds are of different types and they can be classified on the basis of their
form and altitude.
On the basis of form, there are two major groups:
1. Stratiform or layered types, and
2. Cumuliform or massive types.
Stratiform Clouds

27

These clouds, which are fairly thin and blanket like, are sub-divided into three main
categories on the basis of altitude.
High Clouds (mean ht 5-13 km)
1. Cirrus Clouds: Indicates fair weather.
2. Cirrocumulus Clouds: Forms the mackerel sky.
3. Cirrostratus Clouds: Produces a halo around sun and moon.
Middle Clouds (mean ht 2-7 km)
Altocumulus Clouds
: Indicate fine weather.
Alto-stratus Clouds
: Associated with development of bad weather.
Low (mean ht up to 2 km)
1. Stratus Clouds
: Brigs dull weather, usually accompanied with a drizzle.
2. Nimbostratus Clouds : If rain or snow is falling from a stratus cloud, it is called
nimbostratus.
3. Stratocumulus Clouds : Indicators of fair or clearing weather.
Cumulus Clouds
They are massive clouds having a vertical extent from 1,500 to 9,000 m. They
resemble the head of a cauliflower. When these clouds are sunlit, they are brilliantly
white and are called wool-clouds. They occur mainly in summer and are produced
by convection.
Cumulonimbus Clouds:
Under different weather conditions, a cumulus cloud may develop into
cumulonimbus, the thunderstorm cloud mass of enormous size which brings heavy
rainfall, thunder and lightning and gusty winds.
Precipitation Clouds
It refers to falling of water, snow or hail from the clouds and results when
condensation is occurring rapidly within a cloud.
The most common form of precipitation is rain and it is formed when many cloud
droplets coalesce into drops too large to remain suspended in the air. Rainfall occurs
when the dew point of air is above the freezing point.
Sometimes the raindrops freeze before reaching the ground and precipitation occurs
in the form of ice pellets, called sleet.
Snow is produced when condensation takes place at a temperature below freezing
point, so that the minute crystals (spicules) of ice form directly from the water
vapour.
Hail consists of masses of ice with a layered structure. It occurs when there are
very strong updrafts in the clouds carrying raindrops up to a high altitude, causing
them to freeze. Hail stone is a rounded lump of ice having concentric layers.
Conditions for Precipitation
There are three possible ways by which precipitation is produced.
Convectional Precipitation
It is caused by heating of moist air in the lower layers of atmosphere which rises,
expands, and is cooled adiabatically to its dew point.
Convection rain is often accompanied by lightening and thunder. It occurs in regions
near the equator in the afternoon as a result of the constant high temperature and
high humidity.
Orographic Precipitation
In this, precipitation is caused by moisture-laden air being forced to rise over a relief
barrier (mountain ranges). As the air rises in the windward side, it is cooled at the
adiabatic rate. If sufficiently cooled, precipitation results; when the air descends on

28

the leeward side, it gets warmed and dry, having no source from which to draw up
moisture. A belt of dry climate, often called a rain shadow, may exist on the leeward
side.
Cyclonic frontal Precipitation
When the air is caused to rise upwards due to cyclonic circulation, the resulting
precipitation id said to be of the cyclonic type

29

Cyclones & Anticyclones

Cyclones in World
It is a system of very low pressure in the center surrounded by increasingly high
pressure outwards.
In this, the winds blows in a circular manner in Anticlockwise direction in Northern
Hemisphere. Clockwise direction in Southern Hemisphere.
In the temperate region, they occur due to the coming close and imperfect mixing
of two masses of air of contrasting temperature and humidity conditions. Cycles of
this type are also known as Wave Cyclones or Temperate Cyclones.
On the other hand, in the tropical regions, they occur due to intense heating up of
air in some regions causing very low pressure in these locations. Tropical seas and
oceans are most conducive to the development of tropical cyclones.
These are known as:

Cyclones in the Indian Ocean

Hurricanes in the Caribbean Islands

Typhoons in the China Sea

Willy-Willies in the North West Australia

Tornadoes in coastal US.

Twisters in Mississippi Valley, USA

Tornadoes are very strong tropical cyclones of a smaller size. They are especially
feared in the Mississippi Valley in US and here they are called Twisters. They differ
from cyclones in that they generally develop over land. They are more destructive
than cyclones as the speed of winds is very high, exceeding 320 km per hour.
Anticyclones

They are opposite to cyclones in all respects. They are the centers of high
pressure with gentle outward flow of air.

The air circulation is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in

the southern hemisphere.

Weather associated with an anticyclone is fair weather.

30

Earth Humidity
Earth Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour present in the air.
The ratio between the amount of water vapour actually present in the air mass and
the maximum amount that the air mass can hold at that temperature is called
relative humidity. It is expressed as a percentage. It varies inversely with
temperature, given a fixed amount of water vapour.
Absolute humidity denotes the actual quantity of water vapour present in the air
and it is defined as the weight of water vapour (grams) in a given volume of air
(cubic meter).
The term specific humidity is applied to express the ratio of weight of water vapour
to the weight of moist air (including water vapour). It is stated as grams of water
vapour per kilogram of moist air.
Earth Humidity is measured by an instrument called hygrometer. Another
instrument used for the same purpose is sling psychrometer.
Condensation, Dew Point and Related Aspects
The physical process of transformation from the vapour to the liquid state is
condensation. This is the basis of all types of precipitation- the fall of water from the
atmosphere to the ground in any form.
Dew point is the temperature at which the air is fully saturated and below which
condensation normally occurs.
Dew is the deposition of water droplets on the ground. It occurs when the
temperature of the ground surface falls and the air in contact with it is cooled below
its dew point. Dew is likely to occur on clear and calm nights.
Frost is a weather condition that occurs when the air temperature is at or below 0c
moisture on the ground surface and objects freezes to form an icy deposit.
Fog is made of the droplets of water suspended in the lower layers of the
atmosphere, resulting from the condensation of water vapour around nuclei of
floating dust or smoke particles. A visibility of less than 1 km is the internationally
recognized definition of fog. Fog is not considered as a form of precipitation.
Smog (Smoke + Fog) is a form of fog that occurs in areas where the air contains a
large amount of smoke.
Mist is the term for reduction of visibility between 1-2 km, caused by condensation
producing water droplets within the lower layers of atmosphere.
Haze is formed by water particles that have condensed in the atmosphere and the
visibility in this case is more than 1 km but less than 2 km. Haze may also be
produced by presence of dust and smoke, which reduce visibility.

31

Earth Mountains

Types of Mountains

Fold Mountains of the World

They are formed when the rocks of the crust of the earth folded under stress,
mainly by forces of compression (as a result of series of earthquakes).

E.g. All big mountain systems: Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rockies, Atlas,
etc.

On the basis of age, fold mountains are grouped into: Young / New Fold
Mountains

Came into existence after the continental drift. E.g. Himalayas, Andes,
Rockies, Alps. Himalayas are regarded the youngest mountains in the world.

Old Mountains

They belong to pre-drift era, then subjected to denudation and uplift; many
faults were formed; occur as relict mountains today. E.g. Pennines (Europe),
Appalachians (US), Aravallis (India).
Block Mountains of the World

These are formed when great blocks of earths crust may be raised or
lowered. During the uplift of structural mountains, sometimes magma flows
upwards into the crust.

On its cooling and hardening beneath the surface, it contracts and the overlying
rock may crack into large blocks moving up or down. An intense folding of rocks
is generally followed by faulting of strata due to horizontal forces of tension.

The land between the two parallel faults either raises forming Block Mountains or
Horsts, or subsides into a depression termed as Rift Valley or Graben.

Eg: Narmada, Tapti and Damodar valley in India, the Vosges in France and Black
forest in Germany (through which Rhine River flows).

Volcanic Mountains of the World

Formed as a result of volcanic eruption & the outflow of lava (through crater, the
opening). Also called Mountains of Accumulation. Have a gentle slope.

E.g: Cotopaxi in Andes, Vesuvius and Etna in Italy, Fujiyama in Japan, Mauna Loa
and Kilauea (Most active volcano) in Hawaii, Ojos del Salado in Argentina / Chile
(Highest active volcano), Popocatepeti in Mexico, Raineer of Washington,
Stromboli in Mediterranean (called Lighthouse of the Mediterranean), Mirapi and
Krakatao in Indonesia, etc.

Relict Mountains

32

Sometimes, the mountains are carved out as a result of erosion of plateaus &
high planes by various agents of erosion. E.g., Highlands of Scotland, Sierras of
Spain, Catskill mountains of New York and Nilgiri, Parasnath, Girnar, Rajmahal of
India.

Major Mountain Ranges of the World

Andes

South America 6,960

Himalayas-Karakoram-Hindukush

South
Asia

Rockies

North America 4,401

Great Dividing Range

East Australia

2,228

Western Ghats

Western India

2,637

Caucasus

Europe, Asia

5,642

Alaska

USA

6,194

Alps

Europe

4,808

Apennines

Europe

2,912

Ural

Asia

1,895

Pennines

Europe

893

Pyrenees

Europe

3,404

Appalachian

North America 2,040

33

Central

8,850

ROCKS
Overview

Rocks are naturally occurring solid aggregates of minerals or

mineral-like substance that does not exhibit crystallinity)

The Earths outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rocks

Rocks are generally classified into three types

o

Igneous rocks

Sedimentary rocks

Metamorphic rocks

mineraloids (a

The structure and composition of rocks change over time, causing one

type of rock to be reclassified as another

The study of rocks is called petrology

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Overview

Igneous rocks are rocks which form from the cooling and solidification

of magma
They are the results of volcanic processes

The magma can be derived from melts of pre-existing rocks in either the crust or
mantle. Typically, rocks melt under conditions of extremely high temperatures,

low pressures or changes in composition

Igneous rocks can be of two types:
o

Intrusive (plutonic) rocks

Extrusive (volcanic) rocks

Igneous rocks make up about 90% of the Earths crust. However, they are

hidden from the surface by a thin layer of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
Igneous rocks can be seen at mid ocean ridges, areas of volcanism and intra-

plate hotspots
They are crystalline and impervious

They are resistant to erosion and weathering

Since igneous rocks come from the mantle, the minerals and chemistry

of igneous rocks give information about the composition of the mantle

Their features are characteristic of a particular tectonic environment, allowing

reconstitution of tectonic conditions

They host important mineral deposits such as uranium, tungsten, tin, chromium,

platinum
Mineralogical composition of igneous rocks

Felsic rock: highest content of silicon with predominance of quartz and feldspar.

These rocks are usually light coloured and have low density
Mafic rock: lesser content of silicon, predominance of

mafic

minerals

(manganese and iron). These rocks are usually dark coloured and have higher
density than felsic rocks

34

Ultramafic rocks: lowest silicon content, with more than 90% of mafic minerals

Intrusiv
e
Extrusi
ve

Felsic

Mafic

Granit
e
Rhyolit
e

Gabbr
o
Basalt

Ultrama
fic
Peridotite
Komatite

Intrusive igneous rocks (plutonic rocks)

Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within

the crust
These rocks are coarse-grained. Mineral grains in these rocks can be identified

by the naked eye

The central cores of most mountain ranges are made of intrusive rocks
(usually

granite). These

large

formations

of

intrusive

rocks

are

called batholiths
Examples of intrusive igneous rocks include granite and diorite

Extrusive igneous rocks (volcanic rocks)

Extrusive igneous rocks are formed at the surface, from magma released into

the surface from volcanic eruptions

Extrusive rocks cool and solidify quicker than intrusive

Extrusive rocks are fine grained in nature

Examples of extrusive rocks include basalt and rhyolite

Large Igneous Provinces are extremely large accumulations of igneous rocks

(both intrusive and extrusive)

They refer to igneous rocks extending over 100,000 sq km, that formed

in a short geological time scale of a few million years or less

LIPs usually consist of basalt and rhyolite rocks

When created, LIPs often have an area of few million sq km and volume on the
order of a million cubic km. Majority of the LIPs volume is emplaced in less than

a million years.
LIPs are postulated to arise from hotspots of linear chains of volcanoes

LIPs are often linked to mass extinction events. This is said to arise from
the enormous quantities of sulphuric acid released into the atmosphere, the

subsequent global cooling and absorption of oceanic oxygen.

The Deccan Traps, one of the largest volcanic features on Earth, is an
example of a Large Igneous Province. The Traps consist of multiple layers of
basalt, more than 2 km thick and cover an area over 500,000 sq km, and were
formed as a result of volcanic eruptions in the Western Ghats about 66 million
years ago. It is believed that the enormous volcanic eruptions led to global
cooling of around 2C, and were instrumental in the mass extinction of non-avian
dinosaurs.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Overview

35

Sedimentary

rock

is the

type

of

rock

formed

sedimentation of

material. This sedimentation can occur on the Earths surface or within bodies

of water
Sedimentary rocks form the thin outermost layer of the earths crust,

making up about 5% of the total volume of the crust

Sedimentary rocks are deposited in strata called bedding

Coal is a sedimentary rock

Examples of sedimentary rocks include shale, sandstone, limestone

Study of sedimentary rocks provides information about subsurface, which is

important in civil engineering for construction of roads, bridges etc

Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources like

fossil fuels, water, ores etc

The study of sedimentary rock strata serves as the main source of scientific

knowledge about the Earths geological history

Sedimentary rocks are the only rocks that contain fossils.Sedimentary
rocks contains fossils because, unlike igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form
at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossils

Composition of sedimentary rocks

Most sedimentary rocks contain either quartz or calcite

Unlike igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks do not contain

multiple major minerals

Carbonate rocks contain carbonate minerals like calcite, aragonite or dolomite

Siliclastic rocks contain silica-bearing minerals like quartz

Clastic sedimentary rocks

Clastic rocks are composed of fragments, called clasts, of pre-existing

rocks
Clastic sedimentary rocks are those that are formed from rocks that have been
broken down due to weathering, which are then transported and deposited

elsewhere
Clastic sedimentary rocks come in various grain sizes. They range from fine clay
in shales, to sand in sandstone and gravel, cobbles and boulder size fragments

in conglomerates and breccias

Conglomerates are clastic sedimentary rocks with rounded fragments, while
breccias consist of clasts with angular fragments. Both conglomerates and

breccias contain clasts larger than sand (> 2 mm)

Examples include shale, sandstone, siltstone

Organic sedimentary rocks

Organic sedimentary rocks contain materials generated by living

organisms
They usually contain carbonate minerals generated by these organisms

Examples include corals, chalk, coal and oil shale

36

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studies, global geography

Chemical sedimentary rocks

Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed from minerals in solution that become

oversaturated
They usually occur as a result of evaporation

Examples include limestone, barite, gypsum

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Overview

Metamorphic rocks form as a result of transformation of an existing

rock, in a process called metamorphism. The existing rock is called protolith

Metamorphic rocks are formed when the protoliths are subject to extreme

temperatures and pressures

They form from tectonic process, intrusion of magma, or simply by
being deep beneath the earths surface (being subject to high temperatures

and pressures of rock layers above)

Much of the lower continental crust is metamorphic

Examples of metamorphic rocks include gneiss, slate, marble

Composition of metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks are composed of metamorphic minerals

Metamorphic minerals are those that form only at high temperatures

and pressures. These include sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite, staurolite and

garnet (all of which are silicates)

Metamorphic rocks also contain smaller amounts of micas, feldspars and quartz.
However, these are not products of metamorphism, and are instead leftovers
from the protoliths

Contact metamorphic rocks

Contact metamorphic rocks are those that form when magma is injected into

surrounding rock
The cooling magma leads to igneous rocks, and around this is a zone

called contact metamorphism aureole where metamorphic rocks are formed

The extreme temperatures cause sandstones to metamorphise into quartz,

limestone into marble and shale into cordierite

Igneous rocks are harder to transform than sedimentary rocks since they form at
even greater temperatures

Regional metamorphic rocks

Regional metamorphic rocks are those that form due to metamorphism over a

wide area
Regional metamorphism tends to make rocks foliated

Regional metamorphic rocks tend to form at great depths simply under the

temperature and pressures of upper layers of rock

Continental crusts are examples of regional metamorphic rocks

37

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studies, global geography
IMPORTANT ROCK TYPES

Rock
Basalt

Classification
Composition
Igneous
Feldspar,
extrusive volcanic pyroxene

Granite

Igneous
(intrusive, felsic)

Shale

Sedimentary
(clastic)
Sedimentary

Limesto
ne

Sandsto
ne

Sedimentary

Slate

Metamorphic

Gneiss
Marble

Metamorphic
Metamorphic

Quartzit
e

Metamorphic

Notes
Present on moon, Mars, Venus
Basalt rocks sustain microbial
life
Fine texture
Quartz, feldspar
Coarse texture
Massive, hard and tough
Exhibit radioactivity (uranium)
Clay
Contain organic matter
Contains multiple thin layers
Calcite (calcium Used
in
quicklime,
mortar,
carbonate)
cement, concrete
Soluble in water
Host of most cave systems
Quartz, feldspar
Common building material
Porous, allows water percolation
Host of water aquifers and
petroleum reservoirs
Clay,
volcanic Used to make roofing, flooring
ash
It is an electrical insulator, used
for switchboards
Can host even microscopic
amounts of fossils
Garnet, biotite
Calcite
Comes from metamorphism of
(calcium
limestone
carbonate)
Pure white marble comes from
pure limestone
Colours, swirls, veins come from
mineral impurities
Important source of calcium
carbonate, used in toothpaste,
paint
Quartz
Comes from metamorphism of
sandstone
Used as a decorative stone
Used for railway ballast

IMPORTANT ROCK FORMATIONS/STRUCTURES

Formation/structu
re
Deccan Traps
Siberian Traps

Location

Classification

Deccan
Plateau, India
Siberia, Russia

Large
Igneous One
of
the
largest
Province (LIP)
volcanic features on earth
LIP
One of the largest known
volcanic
events
(250
million years ago)

38

Notes

Acasta Gneiss

Metamorphic

Devils Tower

Quebec,
Canada
Wyoming, USA

Blue Lias

England

Red Fort
Hawa Mahal
Mahabalipuram
sculptures
Mount Augustus
Savandurga

Delhi
Jaipur
Mahabalipura
m
Western
Australia
Karnataka

Limestone
shale
Sandstone
Sandstone
Granite

Sphinx

Egypt

Sandstone and
conglomerate
Gneiss
and
granite
Limestone

Phobos monolith

Mars

Igneous

Igneous

39

Oldest known rock in the

world (4.28 billion years)
Monolithic rock that rises
1200
feet
above
surrounding terrain
and Rich in dinosaur fossils

Largest monolith in the

world
Largest monolith in India
Oldest
known
monumental sculpture
Largest monolith statue
in world

Earth Volcanoes
A volcano is a vent or opening usually circular in form through which heated
materials consisting of gases, water, liquid lava and fragments of rocks are ejected
from the highly heated interiors to he surface of the earth.
Volcanic eruptions are closely associated with several interconnected processes
such as

The gradual increase in temperature with increasing depth at a rate of 1c

per 32 m due to heat generated by degeneration of radioactive elements inside
the earth

Origin of magma because of lowering of melting point caused by reduction in

pressure of overlying rocks due to fractures caused by splitting of plates

Origin of gases and water vapour due to heating of water

Ascent of magma due to pressure from gases and vapour

Occurrence of volcanic eruptions. These eruptions are closely associated with

plate boundaries.

Classification of Volcanoes
Volcanoes are classified under different schemes:

1. Classification
on the
basis of Periodicity of Eruptions:
Active Volcano: Volcano which erupt periodically. E.g. Maona Loa in Hawaii,
Etna in Sicily, Vesuvius in Italy, Stromboli in Mediterranean Sea, etc.

Dormant Volcano: Volcano which has been quiescent for a long time but in
which there is a possibility of eruption. E.g. Fujiyama in Japan, Krakatoa in
Indonesia, Barren island Volcano in Andamans, etc.

2. Classification on the basis of Mode of Eruption

Central Eruption Type or Explosive Type: E.g. Hawaiian type, Strombolian

type, Volcanian type, Pelean type, Vesuvius type, etc.

Fissure Eruption or Quiet Eruption Type: Large quantities of lava quietly

flow up from fissures and spread out over the surrounding areas. Successive lava
flow results in the growth of a lava plateau. E.g. Deccan Plateau, etc.
Distribution of Volcanoes in the World

About 15% of worlds active volcanoes are found along the Constructive or
Divergent plate margins, whereas 80% volcanoes are associated with the
Destructive or Convergent plate boundaries.

1. The Circum Pacific belt or the Ring of Fire. It extends across the Kamchatka
Peninsula, Kurile Islands, the Islands of Japan, Philippines, New Guinea, New
Zealand and the Soloman Islands. It also passes through the Antarctica and the
western coast of America.
2. The Mid Continent belt includes volcanoes of Alpine mountain chain, the
Mediterranean Sea and the fault zone of eastern Africa. E.g. Stromboli, Vesuvius,
Etna, Kilimanjaro, etc.
3. The Mid Atlantic belt in which the volcanoes are fissure eruption type. E.g.
Iceland, Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Azores, etc.

40

Earth Pressure and Winds

Air moving in a particular direction is called wind. The principal cause of winds is
difference in pressure. Air always moves from areas of high pressure to those with
low pressure. The slope of the pressure from high to low is known as Pressure
Gradient and the direction of this direction decides the direction of winds.Wind
velocity is directly related to the steepness of the pressure gradient.
In addition, the direction of winds is affected by the Coriolis Force, which is caused
by the rotation of the earth. Under the influence of this effect, winds are deflected
to their right in the Northern Hemisphere and to their left in the Southern
Hemisphere.
This is referred to as Parrels Law. Coriolis force is absent at the equator and
increases towards the poles. Due to this, the winds, which would blow at right
angles to the isobars under the pressure gradient, blow obliquely to them.
Global Pressure Belts
Equatorial Low Pressure Belt (or Doldrums)

From 5N to 5S.

Tremendous heat, thus warm air rises creating low pressure. Also, the centrifugal
force is very high at the equator, where the velocity of rotation is high. Hence,
the air masses tend to be thrown out, resulting in low pressure.

Wind speed low, thats why called Doldrums (Belt of Calm).

Tropical High Pressure Belt (or Horse Latitudes)

From 30 to 35 N and S.

Apart from 2 months, usually high temperature.

Here the pressure is high, although high temperature, because here pressure
depends on the rotation and movement of air (as winds from Doldrums belt rises
up and accumulate here. Also winds from Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt
accumulate here).

Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt

From 60 to 65N and S

Here the low pressure is created because of intense high pressure at the poles.

Winds and Their Types

3 broad categories are:

1. Regular Winds/Prevailing Winds/Planetary Winds: (E.g.: Trade winds,
Westerlies and Polar Easterlies).
2. Periodical Winds (which blow seasonally): Monsoons
3. Variable Winds: Cyclones and other local winds

Trade Winds

Trade in German means Track. To blow trade means to blow steadily in the same
direction and in a constant course.

41

These are steady currents of air blowing from the sub-tropical high pressure
belts towards the equatorial low pressure areas (doldrums). Under the influence
of the Coriolis force they blow from the north-east in the northern hemisphere
and from the south-east in the southern hemisphere.

Westerlies

Blows from subtropical high pressure to sub-polar low pressure belt.

In the northern hemisphere, land masses cause considerable disruption in the

westerly wind belt. But between 40 and 60 S lies the almost unbroken ocean
belt. Westerlies are strong and persistent here, giving rise to mariners
expressions- Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties and Shrieking Sixties.

Polar Easterlies

Move from high pressure poles to sub-polar low pressure areas.

These are deflected by the Earths rotation to become east winds, or the polar
easterlies.

Local Winds
Land
and They are experienced in coastal areas. Due to differential heating, the
Sea Breeze atmospheric pressure over the land mass is lower than over the
neighboring sea during the day. Therefore, winds blow from sea to land
(sea breeze). At night the air pressure over land is higher due to a lower
temperature than over the adjacent ocean and the wind starts blowing
from land to sea (land breeze). Land breeze is not as strong as sea
breeze.
Chinook

Hot, dry wind in Rockies, also called 'snow eater'.

Foehn

Hot, dry wind in the Alps.

Khamsin

Hot, dry wind in Egypt.

Sirocco

Hot, moist wind from Sahara to Mediterranean Sea.

Solano

Hot, moist wind for Sahara towards Iberian Peninsula.

Harmattan Hot, dry wind blowing outwards from the interior of West Africa, also
called 'Guinea Doctor'.
Bora

Cold, dry wind blowing outwards from Hungary to the north of Italy
(near AdriaticSea).

Mistral

Very cold wind, which blows down from the Alps over France.

Punas

Cold, dry wind blowing down towards the western side of Andes.

Blizzard

Very cold winds in Tundra region.

Brickfielder Hot wind in Australia.

Purga

Cold wind in Russian tundra.

Levanter

Cold wind in Spain.

Norwester

Hot wind in New Zealand.

Santa Ana

Hot wind in Southern California in USA.

42

Earthquakes
1. Tremors or vibrations of earths surface produced by internal forces.
2. The point of origin of earthquake is called Seismic focus. Most of the earthquakes
originate at the depth of 50-100 km inside the earth.
3. The point on the earths surface vertically above the earths surface is called
Epicentre.
4. The passage of earthquake waves is recorded by Seismograph.
5. The magnitude of waves is measured on Richters scale. For measurement of the
intensity of the earthquake (damage caused), the Modified Mercalli Intensity
Scale is used.
Types of Waves Earthquakes
1. Primary Waves (P-Waves): Travel from the point of happening by the
displacement of surrounding particles. They are transmitted through solids,
liquids and gases. Travels fastest.
2. Secondary Waves (S-Waves): Travels through solids only. Thus they cannot
pass through core.
3. Surface Waves or Long Waves (L-Waves): Travels on earths surface and
causes maximum destruction. They are recorded after the P and S waves.
Distribution of Earthquakes

Around the Pacific Ocean along a belt of volcanoes known as the Ring of Fire. 68
per cent of the volcanoes are experienced in this region.

From the middle of Asia (Himalayas, Caspian Sea) through the Mediterranean
Sea to West Indies. 21 per cent earthquakes are experienced in the region.

Mid-Atlantic ridge belt which accounts for 11 per cent of the earthquakes.

43

FORESTS
Overview

Forests are areas with a high density of trees

Forests cover approximately 9.4% of the Earths surface i.e. about 30%

of total land area, although they used to cover as much as 50% of land area
Forests are differentiated from woodland by the extent of canopy coverage: in
forests, the foliage of trees meet and interlock while in woodlands there is

enough gap between trees allowing sunlight to penetrate to the ground

Forests are one of the most important aspects of the Earths biosphere

The functions of forests include

Habitat for organisms

Hydrologic flow modulation

Soil conservation

Human factors affecting forest sustenance include logging, urban sprawl,

agriculture, industries, human-induced forest fires etc. Natural factors affecting

forests include forest fires, insects, diseases, weather etc

Only about 20% of the worlds original forests remain in undisturbed

forest. Of this, 75% are in Russia, Canada and Brazil

Distribution of forests

In general, forests can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth
(at altitudes up to the tree line), except where natural disturbance is too high or

human activity has altered the environment

The areas between latitudes 10 N and 10 S are mostly covered in
tropical rainforests, and between 53N and 67N have boreal forests

(taiga)
Forests can contain many species in a small area (like rainforests) or relatively

few species in a large area (like taiga and montane coniferous forests)
Forests have higher biomass per unit area compared to other vegetation
types. Much of the forest biomass occurs below the ground in root

systems and partially decomposed detritus

The major types of forest systems are
o

Rainforests (both tropical and temperate)

Taiga

Temperate broadleaf forests

Tropical dry forests

Old growth forests

Old growth forests (also called primary forests, ancient forests) are

forests that contain trees which have attained great age

Old growth forests typically contain large and old live trees, large dead trees and

large logs
Death of individual trees creates gaps in the canopy layer allowing light to
penetrate and create favourable conditions for undergrowth

44

Old growth forests are often home to rare and threatened species, making them
ecologically significant. For instance, the Northern Spotted Owl is reliant on

old growth forest

The importance of old growth forests include
o

They contain rich communities of plants and animals due to the long

period of forest stability

They serve as a reservoir for species that cannot thrive or regenerate in

younger forests
They store large amounts of carbon both above and below the ground

(either as humus or in wet soils as peat)

Forests that are regenerated after disruptions must wait several
centuries to millennia before they can reach the stable equilibrium that

signifies old growth forests

Due to increased human activity, old growth forests have been substantially
destroyed over the last century. Of the old growth forests that still remain, 35%
are in Latin America (Brazil), 28% in North America (mainly Canada) and 19% in
northern Asia (Siberia)

Second growth forests

Second growth forests (secondary forests) are forests that have regrown after a major disturbance such as fire, insect infestation,

logging, windthrow etc

Second growth forests tend to have trees closer spaced than primary forests and

have more undergrowth

Second growth forests usually have less biodiversity than old growth forests,

since the former have had lesser time to develop and reach stable equilibrium
Secondary forests are common in areas under shifting agriculture, areas with

forest fires, and forests that are recovering from harvesting and agriculture
Secondary forests can several generations of trees (centuries) to
resemble the original old growth forests. However, in some areas,
secondary forests do not succeed due to soil nutrient loss and erosion (especially

in tropical rainforests)
Most of the forests of eastern North America and of Europe are
secondary forests

Distribution of tropical rainforests in the World

Overview

Rainforests are forests characterised by high rainfall, with minimum

annual rainfall as high as 1700-2000 mm

Rainforests are responsible for

28%

of

the

worlds

oxygen

turnover.However, rainforests do not contribute much to the net oxygen

additions to the atmosphere. Instead, they are vital in storing carbon in bio
sequestration

45

The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the area near the equator where
winds originating in the northern and southern hemispheres meet, plays a

significant role in creating the rainforests

Despite the growth of vegetation, soil quality in a rainforest is poor.Most

trees have roots near the surface due to lack of nutrients below the ground
More than half the worlds species of plants and animals are found in

rainforests
Tropical Rainforests

Tropical rainforests are rainforests in the tropics, near the equator between the

Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn

Tropical rainforests are found in South America (Brazil), Central America (Yucatan
Peninsula), Sub-Saharan African (Congo), Northeast India, Southeast Asia (Indo-

Malaya, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea)

Tropical rainforests are called worlds largest pharmacy, since over

25% of modern medicines originate from these plants

Tropical rainforests are home to half of all the plant and animal species

on earth
Tropical rainforests are characterised by heavy rainfall, resulting in poor soil due

to leaching of nutrients
Temperatures range 15 C to 50 C. Rainfall ranges from 1250 mm to 6600 mm
annually

Temperate Rainforests

Temperate rainforests are rainforests that occur in the temperate zone and

receive high rainfall

Temperature range 4 to 12 C. Rainfall minimum is around 1400 mm annually

Temperate rainforests are found in close proximity to oceans, and

usually occur in coastal mountains. This is because temperate rainforests
depend on the proximity to oceans to moderate seasons, creating milder winters
and cooler summers. Coastal mountains increase rainfall on the ocean facing

slopes
Wildfires are uncommon in temperate forests due to the high moisture

content in the forest

Mosses are abundant in temperate rainforests

Temperate rainforests sustain the highest levels of biomass of any

terrestrial ecosystem
Temperate
rainforests

proportions, including coast redwood, coast douglas fir, sikta spruce etc
Temperate rainforests are found in western North America, south-western South

America, Norway, northern Spain, south-eastern Australia and New Zealand

Rainforests are typically divided into four layers, each with different plants and

are

notable

animals adapted for life in that environment

Emergent layer

46

for

trees

of

massive

The highest layer, formed by a small number of very tall trees

that grow above the general canopy

They reach heights of 45-55 m, occasionally even 70-80 m

Need to be able to withstand high temperatures and strong winds

Eagles, butterflies, bats and some monkeys inhabit this layer

Canopy layer
o The canopy layer consists of the largest number of tall trees, which
o

provides a more or less continuous cover of foliage by adjacent treetops

Usually reach heights of around 30-45 m

The canopy layer is the densest area of biodiversity in a

rainforest. It is estimated that the canopy layer is home to about 50% of
all plant species and 25% of all insect species

Understory
o The understory layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor
o

Leaves are much larger at this level

Only about 5% of sunlight incident on the rainforest reaches the

understory layer
This layer is home to a number of birds, snakes, lizards, and predators like
jaguar, boa constrictors etc

Forest floor
o The forest floor is the bottom most layer
o

The forest floor receives only about 2% of the sunlight. Only plants

adapted to low light can grow in this region

Due to low sunlight penetration, forest floor is relatively clear of
vegetation. This makes it possible to walk through a rainforest

Effect on global climate

Rainforests emit and absorb massive quantities of carbon dioxide. Undisturbed

rainforests usually have no net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide

levels
However, rainforests play a vital role in other climatic effects such as

cloud formation and water vapour recycling

Deforestation caused by human activities and drought can cause rainforests to
release massive amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

TROPICAL DRY FORESTS

Overview

Tropical dry forests are located in the tropical and subtropical latitudes

These forests occur in areas that are warm and receive plentiful rainfall
(several hundred centimetres) but experience long dry seasons which

last several months. These seasonal droughts have great impact on the forest
Deciduous trees dominate in these forests

Tropical dry forests are less biologically diverse than rainforests

47

However, they are home to a wide variety of wildlife including monkeys, deer,
parrots, large cats etc. Mammalian biomass tends to be higher in dry

forests than in rainforests.

Characteristics

During the drought season a leafless season occurs. The shedding of

leaves allows trees like teak and ebony to conserve water during these dry

periods
When the trees enter the dry leafless season, the canopy layer opens up
allowing sunlight to reach the ground, thereby enablinggrowth of thick

undergrowth
However, certain areas of tropical dry forests can have evergreen trees. This
happens especially when the forests are on moisture sites or have access to

groundwater
Three tropical dry forest regions have evergreen forests:
o

East Deccan dry evergreen forests (India)

Sri Lanka dry zone evergreen forests (Sri Lanka)

Southeastern Indochina dry evergreen forests (Cambodia, Laos, Thailand,

Vietnam)
The forests of central India are tropical dry forests

Dry forests are extremely sensitive to forest fires, overgrazing and

deforestation. Restoration of dry forests is possible, but challenging

Distribution

Dry forests tend to exist north and south of the equatorial rainforest belt, and

south and north of the subtropical deserts

They usually occur in two bands: one between 10 and 20 N latitudes and the

other between 10 and 20 S latitudes

The most diverse dry forests of the world are found in southern Mexico

and Bolivia
The dry forests of central India and Indochina are notable for their diverse and

large vertebrate fauna

Other tropical dry forests are found in New Caledonia,

Madagascar, south

eastern Africa and the Pacific coast of South America

TEMPERATE BROADLEAF AND MIXED FORESTS
Overview

Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests are a temperate and humid

biome (ecological system)

These forests typically have four layers
o

Canopy layer: contains mature trees 100-200 ft high

Understory: shade tolerant layer of trees that grow to about 30-50 feet

shorter than the canopy

Shrub layer: low growing woody plants

Herbaceous layer: this is the ground cover, most diverse layer

48

Characteristic broadleaf trees these forests include oaks, birches,

beeches and maples. Mixed trees are basically coniferous trees such as

pines, firs and spruces

Areas of temperate broadleaf and mixed forests include northeast USA, northern
India, eastern Australia, New Zealand, southwest China

Distribution

Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests occur in areas with distinct

warm and cool seasons, with moderate annual average temperature (5-

15 C)
They usually occur in moderately warm and rainy climates, sometimes with a

distinct dry season

Annual rainfall is typically over 600 mm and sometimes over 1500 mm

Taiga
Overview

Taiga is a biome characterised by coniferous forests

The Taiga is the worlds largest terrestrial biome

The taiga experiences relatively low precipitation (250mm 750 mm), mostly in
the form of fog, snow and summer rain. However, since evaporation is also low,

there is enough moisture to enable dense vegetation growth

Taiga soils tend to be young and nutrient-poor. The soil tends to be acidic and

hence the forest floor only has lichens and mosses growing
Characteristics

The taiga has harsh continental climate and large range of temperatures: -54 C

to 27 C
Except for the tundra and permanent ice caps, the taiga is the coldest biome on

earth
There are two main types of taiga:
o

Closed forest: closely spaced trees with mossy ground cover

Lichen woodland: trees that are farther apart and have lichen ground

cover. More common in colder areas

In the northern taiga areas, forest cover is not only sparse but also stunted

The forests of taiga are mainly coniferous consisting of larch, spruce,

fir and pine

Taiga trees tend to have shallow roots to take advantage of thin soils.

Since the sun is low on the horizon most of the time, it is difficult to
photosynthesise. Pine and spruce do not lose their leaves in winter and can

photosynthesise using their older leaves

The adaptation of evergreen needles (on pines) limits water lost to

transpiration and the dark green colour increases sunlight absorption

Distribution

49

The taiga covers most of Canada, Alaska, Sweden, Finland, Norway, the
Scottish Highlands and Russia. It is also found in parts of northern USA,

northern Kazakhstan, northern Mongolia and northern Japan

Large areas of Siberias taiga have been destroyed in recent years

In Canada, less than 8% is protected development and more than 50% has been

allocated for logging

The taiga is home to a large number herbivorous mammals and smaller rodents

Some of the animals, like bears, eat in summer and hibernate in winter. Others

have evolved layers of fur to insulate them from the cold

Due to the climate, carnivorous diets are inefficient for obtaining

energy.
A significant number of birds like Siberian thrush, white throated sparrow, black
throated green warbler migrate to the taiga to take advantage of long summer
days

50

OCEANS
Division of Ocean depths
The

World

Ocean

is

global,

interconnected

continuous

body

of

saline

water. Approximately 71% of the earths surface is covered by the ocean

For human convenience, the ocean has been divided into several smaller

divisions known as oceans and seas

There are five major divisions of the world ocean: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean,

Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean and Southern Ocean

Evaporation of water from the oceans is the source of most rainfall, and ocean

temperatures determine climate and wind patterns on land

Life within the ocean evolved about 3 billion years prior to life on
land. More than 230,000 marine life forms are currently known, but the actual
number may be 10 times as much

Physical properties

The total area of world ocean is 361 x 10 6 sq km, and volume is approx 1.3

billion cu km
The average depth of the ocean is 3790 m and maximum depth is

10,923 m
The average density of sea water is 1.025 g/ml and has a freezing point of -2 C

Sea water contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater, especially

sodium and chloride. On average, sea water has a salinity of 3.5 %.

The causes of high salinity of sea water include

River runoff causing concentration of sodium in the ocean

Sodium leaching out of the ocean floor when the ocean was formed

Chloride abundance due to volcanic activity and hydrothermal vents on

the ocean floor

Ocean salinity has been stable for billions of years

Sea level

Mean Sea Level (MSL) is a measure of the average height of the

oceans surface
Mean Sea level is usually taken to be the half way point between mean high tide

and mean low tide

Sea level change can be measured in two ways
o

Local change: local mean sea level can be affected by vertical

movement of land, and changes in atmospheric pressure, ocean currents

and local ocean temperature

Eustatic change: is the alteration of global sea levels, such as changes
in volume of water in the world oceans and changes in volume of ocean

basins
Short term changes in sea level can arise from tides, atmospheric pressure,
storm surges, El Nino etc

51

Medium term changes in sea level arise mainly from two factors: atmospheric
temperature and the mass of water locked up as fresh water in rivers, lakes,

glaciers, ice caps etc

Geological changes in

sea

levels

mainly

arise

from

changes

in

the

configuration of continents and sea floors due to plate tectonics and seafloor

spreading
On a geological time scale, long term sea level has always been higher
than today (except at the Permian-Triassic boundary 250 million years ago). As
a result, sea level is more likely to rise than fall today, even due to small

changes in climate
Over the past 100 years, sea level has been rising at an average of 1.8
mm per year. The majority of this rise is attributed to thermal expansion of
ocean water due to increase in ocean temperatures

MARINE GEOGRAPHY

Oceanic basins

Oceanic basins are large geologic basins (large scale rock strata) that are below

sea level
In a sense, oceanic basins are the complement to continents

Ocean basins serve as sedimentary basins that collect sediments eroded from

continents
Ocean basins can be actively changing or inactive depending on plate tectonics.
The Atlantic and Antarctic Ocean basins are actively growing while the
Mediterranean is shrinking. Inactive ocean basins include the Gulf of Mexico, the

Sea of Japan and the Bering Sea

The continental shelf is the extended perimeter of a continent which is

currently under sea

Continental shelves were part of the continents during glacial periods (when sea

levels were low) but are under sea during interglacial periods (like today)
The continental shelf usually ends at a point of decreasing slope, called
the shelf break. The sea floor below the shelf break is called the continental
slope. Below the slope is the continental rise, which merges into the deep

ocean floor (called abyssal plain)

Due to the availability of sunlight in shallow waters, continental
shelves teem with life, compared to the biotic deserts in the deep ocean

abyssal plains
Continental shelves consist of thick sediments from the continents

Continental shelves extend on average about 80 km from the coast. The

largest shelf, the Siberian Shelf in the Arctic Ocean, stretches to about 1500 km,
while certain areas have no shelves at all such as the coast of Chile and the west
coast of Sumatra (Indonesia)

52

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) defines
the extent and regulates usage of continental shelves by sovereign
nations
o The continental shelf was defined as the natural prolongation of land
to the continental margins outer edge, or 200 nautical miles from
o

the coast, whichever is greater.

However, the shelf is to not exceed 350 nautical miles, and it is to not

exceed 100 nautical miles beyond the 2500m isobath

The coastal nations have the exclusive right to harvest mineral

and non-living material in the subsoil of the continental shelf

Coastal states also have exclusive rights to living resources attached to
the shelf, but not to creatures living there freely

Mid Ocean Ridges

A mid ocean ridge is an underwater mountain range formed by plate tectonics

Mid ocean ridges are caused by seafloor spreading i.e. magma rising through the

crust and emerging as lava which then cools to form new oceanic crust
A mid ocean ridge demarcates the boundary between two tectonic plates, and is

called a divergent plate boundary

The various mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form a single
global mid ocean ridge system which covers every ocean. Thus, the mid ocean

ridge system is the longest mountain range in the world (over 65,000 km)
Mid ocean ridges are geologically active, with new magma constantly

emerging onto the ocean floor

Ocean Trenches

Ocean trenches are large scale long but narrow depressions on the sea

floor. They are the deepest parts of the ocean floor

Trenches are found at convergent plate boundaries, where one plate subducts
(descends) beneath another. On average, oceanic crust moves into trenches at a

rate of about 0.1 sq m per second

They are usually located parallel to volcanic arcs at a distance of about 200 km

Ocean trenches typically extend about 3-4 km below the level of the surrounding

sea floor
The deepest ocean depth known is the Challenger Deep point of the
Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean (10,911 m)

Trench
Mariana
Trench

Location
Depth
Western Pacific 10,91
Ocean
1m
(near
Philippines and
Japan)

Tonga Trench

Southern Pacific

10,88

53

Notes
Deepest known part of the ocean
Lowest elevation on the surface of the
earths crust
Maximum depth is recorded at
Challenger Deep, a small valley at its
southern end
Formed by the subduction of Pacific
plate under Mariana plate
Formed by subduction of Pacific plate

(near
Zealand)

KurilKamchatka
Trench
Philippine
Trench
Kermadec
Trench

New 2 m

under Tonga plate and Indo-Australian

plate
Fastest plate velocity recorded on
earth (24 cm per year)

Northern Pacific

10,54
2m

Philippines
(Pacific Ocean)
New Zealand
(Pacific Ocean)

10,54
0m
10,04
7m

Extraterrestrial oceans

The earth is the only known planet to have liquid water on its surface

However, liquid water is known to be present under the surface on

Jupiters moons Europa, and possibly on Ganymede and Callisto

It is believed that Venus once had liquid water and oceans on its surface, but

they have now vanished

Saturns moon Titan is thought to have subterranean water ocean
under its crust (which consists of ice and hydrocarbons)

OCEANIC HABITATS

Coral

reefs

are

aragonite

structures

formed

by

living

animal

colonies.Aragonite is a carbonate mineral, one of the two major naturally

occurring crystalline forms of calcium carbonate (the other being calcite)

Reefs consist mostly of stony corals. These corals are built from polyps that

secrete an exoskeleton of calcium carbonate

Coral reefs grow best in shallow, clear, sunny waters. They are usually found in
shallow depths in the tropics, but deep cold water reefs also exist although on a

much smaller scale

Coral reefs are some of the richest and most diverse ecosystems in the
world. They occupy less than 1% of world ocean surface, but provide habitat to

about 25% of all marine species

Reefs are found in ocean waters containing few nutrients. High nutrient levels,
such as found in agricultural runoff, can harm reefs by encouraging excess algae

growth
Coral reefs are under threat from climate change, ocean acidification, overfishing
and overuse of reef resources

Coral reef
Location
Great
Barrier Queensland,
Reef
Australia
(northeast
Australia)
Belize
Reef

Barrier Belize

Notes
Largest coral reef system in the world
Worlds biggest structure made by living
organisms
Area of approx 344,000 sq km
Second largest coral reef in the world
Part of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef that
stretches along eastern coast of Central America

54

New Caledonia New

Barrier Reef
Caledonia
(southwest
Pacific)
Andros
Bahamas
(Bahamas)
(Caribbean)
Barrier Reef
Red Sea Coral Red Sea
Reef
Pulley Ridge
Florida, USA
(southeast
USA)
Maldives
Indian ocean
Raja
Ampat Indonesia
Islands

from Mexico to Honduras

French territory in southwest Pacific
Home to endangered dugong, and nesting site
for green sea turtle

Deepest photosynthetic coral reef in the world

(about 60-80 m)
Consists of about 1200 coral islands
Contains the highest marine life diversity in the
world

Deep sea and trenches

As the ocean depth increases, sunlight decreases and water pressure increases.

In general, sunlight is not able to penetrate the ocean water beyond a depth of
200 m. This depth is considered to be the beginning of aphotic
zone (deep sea). Unusual and unique creatures inhabit these depths including

giant squid, gluper eel, angler fish and vampire squid

In the trenches, water pressure is extreme and sunlight is non
existent. However, small flounder fish (family Soleidae) and shrimp have been

observed even at these depths

Seamounts (extinct undersea volcanoes that rise to shallow depths) provide

natural habitats for fish and other species to spawn and feed
Hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor support

unique

life

forms, deriving essential nutrients from the chemicals released by volcanic

activity
Open Ocean

The open ocean is relatively unproductive due to lack of nutrients. However,

simply due to its vastness, it possesses the largest number of life forms in total
In the aphotic zone, energy for life forms is mainly supplied in the form
of detritus, which is non living organic material consisting of dead organisms

and fecal material

The open ocean consists mainly of jelly fish and its predators like the mola mola

Intertidal and shores

Intertidal zones are those areas close to the shore, which are constantly being

covered and exposed by the tides

These areas can be underwater anywhere from daily to very infrequently

A huge array of life forms is found in this zone. This includes crabs, snails etc

Earth Ocean Currents

Actual transportation of water from one part of ocean to another. Because of
differences in density, salinity, temperature of ocean waters, rotation of earth,

55

shape of coastline and the prevailing winds.Currents circulate in clockwise direction

in Northern Hemisphere and in anti-clockwise direction in Southern Hemisphere.
Currents in Pacific Ocean
a. North-Equatorial Current (Warm): Flows across from east to west, i.e., from
North America it reaches the Philippines.
b. Kuroshio Current (Warm): N. Eq. current along the Philippines, Taiwan & Japan
coast form this current. From the S.E. Japan the current, under the influence of
prevailing westerlies, flows right across the ocean.
c. After reaching the west coast of N. America, it bifurcates into 2
branches :
i. Alasca Current (Warm) : Along the coast of British Columbia & Alasca.
ii. California Current (Cold)
: It moves southward along the coast of California
d. Oyashio Current (Cold) : Flows along the east coast of Kamchatka peninsula.
e. Okhotsk Current (Cold) : Comes from the N. Pole & merges with the Oyashio
current.
f. East Australian Current (Warm): Flows from east to west in S. Pacific Ocean.
g. Peru Current (Cold): Cold current near the west coast of S. America.
Currents of Atlantic Ocean
a. Guinea Current (Warm)
: Flows off the W. African coast (hot).
b. Florida Current (Warm)
: Along the coast of US up to the cape Hatterus.
c. Gulf Stream (Warm)
: Beyond the Cape Hatterus up to the Grand Banks
of
New Found Land, florida current is known as Gulf Stream. From the Grand Banks the
Gulf Stream moves eastward across the Atlantic as the Atlantic Drift.
d. Atlantic Drift divides into 2 branches:
i . Norwagian Current: The main current passes along the Norway coast & enters the
Arctic Ocean.
ii . Canary Current : The south branch of N. Atlantic drift flows near Spain by this
name.
e. 2 Cold Currents : The East Greenland Current & the Labrador Current flows from
the Arctic Ocean into the Atlantic Ocean.The Labrader Current meets the Gulf
Stream. The influence of these 2 currents produces the famous fogs around New
Found Land. [Most busy fishing ground of the world]
f. Brazil Current (Warm) : Flows along the S. American coast from North to South
g. Benguela Current (Cold)
: Cold current from S. to N near the Cape of Good
Hope,
h. Falkland Current (Cold) : Cold flowing along the S.E. coast of S. America from S. to
N. (meets the Brazil current)
Currents of the Indian Ocean
The currents in the N. Indian Ocean differ entirely from the general pattern of
circulation. They change their direction from season to season in response to the
seasonal rhythm of the monsoons.
In winters the N. Equatorial current & the S. Equatorial current flows from East to
West.
Mozambique Current
: Warm current flowing through the Mozambique
Channel.
Agulhas Current
: Warm current at the South-East coast of Africa.

56

World Continents

Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe, Australia and Antarctica are the
seven continents of the world.
These seven continents were believed to be part of Pangaea which was a single
landmass around 250 million years ago.
Due to the tectonic movement, the landmass broke up and the component
continents separated and moved away to its present position. All these took around
1 million years to complete.
Pangaea was surrounded by a sea, the Panthalassa.
The continents of the world map will give you information about the geographical
positions of the continents as well as their political divisions.
The Continents of the World,

Asia Continents Countries

Africa Continents Countries

North America Continents Countries

South America Continents Countries

Europe Continents Countries

Australia Continents Countries

Antarctica Continents Countries

World Continents: Some Facts

Continents

Biggest
Country

Highest Peak

Longest
River

Asia

China

Mt. Everest (8850 m)

Yangtze
Kiang

Africa

Sudan

Mt. Kilimanjaro (5895 m)

Nile

North
America

Canada

Mt. Mckinley
Mississippi

South
America

Brazil

Mt. Aconcagua (6960 m)

Amazon

Europe

Russia

Mt. Elbrus (5642 m)

Ob

Australia

Australia

Mt. Coscuisco (2228 m)

Darling

Antarctica

Vinson Massif (5140 m)

SEVEN CONTINENTS OF THE WORLD

57

(6194

m) Missouri

Name

Area in sq.km

Approx. % of
the
world's land

Asia

44,493,000

29.6

Africa

30,293,000

20.2

North America

24,454,000

16.3

South America

17,838,000

11.9

Antarctica

13,975,000

9.3

Europe

10,245,000

6.7

Oceania

8,945,000

6.0

Agriculture : Top 5 Producers

Rice

China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh,

Vietnam

Wheat

China, India, USA, Russia, France

Maize

USA, China, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina

Groundnut China, India, Nigeria, USA, Indonesia

Tea

India, China, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Turkey

Cotton

China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil

Rubber

Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, India,

China

Coffee

Brazil, Vietnam, Indonesia, Colombia,

Mexico

Pulses
Total

Brazil, India, China, Myanmar, Mexico

TYPES OF CULTIVATION:
Only 11% of total landmass of the world comes under the agricultural activity in
which 50% of worlds population is engaged. Following types of agriculture are
generally practiced in the world.
1. Shifting Agriculture:
This primitive form of agriculture is prevalent in the tribes of torpical forest,
which is also called slash and burn agriculture and bush-fellow agriculture.
Shifting agriculture is called Bewar, Dehia, Peda in M.P. and Chattisgarh, Podu in
Andhra Pradesh, Kaman, Bingaand Dhavi in Orissa, Kumari in Kerala etc.
2. Subsistence Agriculture:
This type of agriculture is done for the consumption of farmers family involving
mainly farming of food grains. Subsistences agriculture is practiced in the
monsoonal climatic regions of Asia in which maximum utilization of agricultural land
is done.
3. Commercial Agriculture:
In this agriculture practiced mainly by the developed countries, crops are grown
for the commercial purpose. Wheat is the most important food crop.
4. Intensive Agriculture:

58

The main purpose of this agriculture, practiced in the regions of high population
density, is to extract maximum production from the minimum agricultural land.
Intensive subsistence agriculture is practiced in the developing countries and
intensive commercial agriculture is practiced in the developed countries.
5. Extensive Agriculture:
This agriculture involves growing of crops by the modern scientific methods on
large farms in which minimum labor and maximum use of machines are done. In
this agriculture per hectare production is very low but per labour and total
production is very high. The regions of temperature Grasslands are noted for
extensive agriculture.
6. Plantation Agriculture:
Also called estate farming, in this type of commercial agriculture huge amount of
capital and labour is required Banana in the West Indies, Central America and
Ecuadore; sugarcane in Cuba and Venezuela; coffee on the plateau of Brazil and
Columbia; Coco in West Africa; tea and coffee on East Africa Plateau; Tea in North
East India and Sri Lanka; Rubber in Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia and coconut in
Philippines are major plantation crops. The development of this agriculture has
taken place mainly in the coastal areas of tropical regions, where facility of marine
navigation is available for the export of agricultural products.
7. Mixed Agriculture:
In the mixed agriculture both crops and live stocks are raised for the commercial
purpose. This type of agriculture is practiced mainly in the densely populated areas
of developed countries.
8. Mixed Cropping:
In this agriculture crops of different maturity period are grown simultaneously in
a farm.
9. Multiple Cropping:
It refers to growing of two or more crops alternatively on farm within the same
year.
10. Crop Rotation:
In this, different crops are grown in a systematic succession in each field of a
farm for the maintenance of soil nutrients for a long time.
11. Dry Farming:
Farming done without the facility of irrigation in the regions of inadequate rainfall
is called dry farming.
12. Truck Farming:
The intensive, specialized production of fresh vegetables, fruits and flowers at
considerable distances from the metropolitan markets is called truck farming in
which the produce is sold. When it is less specialized and nearer to the market, it is
called market gardening. Truck farming is practiced on large scale in Florida and
California of USA, Britain, France, Denmark, Italy etc.

59

Famous Industrialised Countries of the World

Country Associated Industry

Afghanistan
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Brazil
Canada
Chile
China
Cuba
Denmark
England
Finland
France
Germany
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Japan
Italy
Kuwait
Malaysia
Mexico
Netherlands
Russia
Saudi Arabia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Taiwan
South Africa
U.S.A

Carpets, wool and dry

fruits
Wheat, wool, meat
Machinery, Textiles
Glass, Textiles
Coffee
Wheat, Newsprint
Copper
Rice, Wheat, Silk
Sugar, Tobacco
Dairy Products
Textiles, Machinery
Textiles
Textiles, Wine
Machinery
Mica, Tea, Jute, Textiles
Rubber, Cinchona
Petroleum, Carpets
Petroleum, Dates
Electronics, Automobiles
Mercury, Textile
Petroleum
Tin, Rubber
Silver
Electrical goods
Heavy
Machinery,
Petroleum
Oil and Dates
Lead
Matches
Watches
Camphor
Gold
and
Diamond
Mining
Automobiles, Machinery

60

Towns Associated with Industries

Town (Country)
Baku (Azerbaijan)
Bangkok (Thailand)
Belfast (Ireland)
Buenos Aires (Argentina)
Cadiz (Portugal)
Chicago (U.S.A)
Cologne (Germany)
Dhaka (Bangladesh)
Detroit (U.S.A)
Dresden (Germany)
Glasgow (Great Britain)
Havana (Cuba)
Hollywood (U.S.A)
Johannesburg (S. Africa)
Kimberlay (S. Africa)
Leeds (England)
Lyons (France)
Manchester (England)
Mauritius (Indian Ocean)
Milan (Italy)
Morocco (North Africa)
Munich (Germany)
New Orleans (U.S.A.)
Osaka (Japan)
Pittsburg (U.S.A.)
Plymouth (England)
Sheffield (England)
Venice (Italy)
Vienna (Austria)
Wellington (New Zealand)

Associated Industry
Petroleum
Ship building
Ship building
Meat
Cork
Agricultural implements, Meat
Cotton and woollen Industries
Jute
Motor cars
Optical and photographic apparatus
Machinery
Tobacco, Cigars
Film Industry
Gold mines
Diamond mining
Woollen Goods
Silk Industries
Cotton Industry
Fishing, Shipping, Sugar
Silk
Leather
Lenses
Cotton industry
Cotton fabrics
Iron and Steel
Ship-building
Cutlery
Glass manufacturing
Glass manufacturing
Dairy Product

61

Biggest, Highest, Largest, Longest in the World

Tallest Animal in the World

Giraffe

Largest Archipelago in the World

Indonesia

Fastest Bird in the World

Swift

Largest Bird in the World

Ostrich

Smallest Bird in the World

Humming Bird

Longest Railway Bridge in the World

Huey P.
(U.S.A)

Tallest Building in the world

Burj Dubai, UAE

Canal, Longest Irrigational

The Kalakumsky Canal

Longest Canal in the World

Suez Canal

Highest Capital in the World

La Paz (Bolivia)

Biggest City in Area in the World

Mount Isa (Australia)

Largest City in Population in the World

Tokyo

Long

Bridge,

Louisiana

Costliest City in the World

Tokyo

Highest City in the World

Van Chuan ( China )

Largest Continent in the World

Asia

Smallest Continent in the World

Australia

Biggest Country in the World by Area

Russia

Largest Country in the World by Population

China

Largest Country in the World by Electorate

India

Largest Creature in the World

Blue whale

Largest Delta in the World

Sunderban ( Bangladesh & India )

Largest Desert in the World

Sahara ( Africa )

Largest Desert in Asia

Gobi

Largest Dam in the World

Grand Coulee Dam ( U.S.A )

Dam Highest in the World

Hoover Dam ( U.S.A )

Diamond Largest in the World

The Cullinan

Largest Dome in the World

Astrodome, in Housten ( U.S.A )

Largest Epic in the World

Mahabharat

Largest Irrigation Scheme in the World

Lloyd Barrage, Sukkhur ( Pakistan )

Largest Island in the World

Greenland

Largest Sea in the World

Mediterranean Sea

Deepest Lake in the World

Baikal ( Siberia )

Largest Lake ( Artificial ) in the World

Lake Mead ( Boulder Dam )

Highest Lake in the World

Titicaca (Bolivia)

62

Largest Lake (Fresh water) in the World

Superior

Largest Lake (Salt water) in the World

Caspian

Largest Library in the World

United States Library of Congress,

Washington D.C

Highest Mountain Peak in the World

Everest ( Nepal )

Longest Mountain Range in the World

Andes ( S. America )

Largest Museum in the World

British Museum, London

Largest Ocean in the World

Pacific

Biggest Palace in the World

Vatican ( Italy )

Largest Park in the World

Yellow Stone National Park ( U.S.A )

Largest Peninsula in the World

Arabia

Coldest Place (Habitated) in the World

Verkhoyansk (Siberia)

Dryest Place in the World

Iqique ( in Atacama Desert, Chile )

Hottest Place in the World

Azizia ( Libya, Africa )

Rainiest Place in the World

Mausinram ( Meghalaya, India )

Biggest Planet in the World

Jupiter

Brightest Planet in the World

Venus

Smallest Planet in the World

Mercury

Highest Plateau in the World

Pamir ( Tibet )

Longest Platform in the World

Kharagpur ( India )

Longest Railway in the World

Trans - Siberian railway

Largest Railway Station in the World

Grand Central
( U.S.A )

Longest River in the World

Nile ( Africa )

Largest River in the World

Amazon ( S. America )

Largest Sea-bird in the World

Albatross

Brightest Star in the World

Sirius

Tallest Statue in the World

Statue of
( Russia )

Largest Telescope Radio in the World

New Mexico ( U.S.A )

World's Tramway first in the World

New York

Longest Tunnel (Railway) in the World

Tanna ( Japan )

Longest Tunnel (road) in the World

Mont Blanc Tunnel between France

and Italy

Highest Volcano

Ojos del Salado ( Andes, Ecuador )

Most Volcano Active in the World

Maunaloa ( Hawaii - U.S.A )

Longest Wall in the World

Great Wall of China

63

Terminal,

Motherland,

Chicago

Volgograd

Highest Waterfall in the World

Angel ( Venezuela )

Lowest Water body in the World

Dead Sea

Largest Zoo in the World

Kruger National Park, South Africa

Important Boundaries
Durand Line
Pakistan & Afghanistan
MacMohan Line
India & China
Radcliffe Line
India & Pakistan
Maginot Line
France & Germany
Oder Niesse Line
Germany & Poland
Poland & Germany (at the time of First
Hindenberg Line
World War)
38th Parallel
North & South Korea
49th Parallel
USA & Canada
Important Cities on River Banks (World)
Adelaide
Amsterdam
Alexandria
Ankara
Bangkok
Basra
Baghdad
Berlin
Bonn
Budapest
Bristol
Buenos Aires
Chittagong
Canton
Cairo
Chung King
Cologne
Dandzing
Dresden
Dublin
Hamburg
Kabul
Karachi

Australia
Netherlands
Egypt
Turkey
Thailand
Iraq
Iraq
Germany
Germany
Hungary
UK
Argentina
Bangladesh
China
Egypt
China
Germany
Germany
Germany
Ireland
Germany
Afghanistan
Pakistan

Khartoum

Sudan

Lahore
Leningrad
Lisbon
Liverpool
London
Moscow

Pakistan
Russia
Portugal
England
England
Russia

64

Torrens
Amsel
Nile
Kazil
Chao Praya
Eupharates and Tigris
Tigris
Spree
Rhine
Danube
Avon
Laplata
Majyani
Si-Kiang
Nile
Yang-tse-king
Rhine
Vistula
Elbe
Liffy
Elbe
Kabul
Indus
Confluence of Blue & White
Nile
Ravi
Neva
Tagus
Messey
Thames
Moskva

Adelaide
Amsterdam
Montreal
Nanking
New Orleans
New York
Ottawa
Paris
Philadelphia
Perth
Prague
Quebec
Rome
Rotterdam
Stalingrad
Shanghai
Sidney
Saint Louis
Tokyo
Vienna
Warsaw
Washington D.C
Yangoon

Australia
Netherlands
Canada
France
USA
USA
Canada
France
USA
Australia
Czech Republic
Canada
Italy
The
Netherlands
Russia
China
Australia
USA
Japan
Austria
Poland
USA
Myanmar

Torrens
Amsel
St. Lawrence
Yang-tse-kiang
Mississipi
Hudson
Ottawa
Seine
Delaware
Swan
Vitava
St. Lawrence
Tiber
New Mass
Volga
Yang-tse-kiang
Darling
Mississipi
Arakava
Danube
Vistula
Potomac
Irrawaddy

Important Lakes of the World

Lake
Caspian
Superior
Victoria
Huron
Michigan
Tanganyika
Baikal
Great Bear
Malawi
Great Slave

Location
Area (Sq.Km)
Russia and CIS
371000
Canada and USA 82414
Tanzania (Africa) 69485
Canada and USA 59596
USA
58016
Africa
32892
Russia (CIS)
31502
Canada
31080
Malawi (Tanzania) 30044
Canada
28438

Note:

More than 60% of the worlds lakes are in Canada;

this is because of the deranged drainage system that
dominates the country.

65

Adelaide
Australia
Torrens
Amsterdam
Netherlands
Amsel
Finland is known as The land of Thousand Lakes.

The US State of Minnesota is known as The Land of

Ten Thousand Lakes.

The worlds lowest lake is the Dead Sea, bordering

Israel, Jordan at 395 m below sea level.

Lake Huron has the longest lake coastline in the

world: about 2980 km, excluding the coastline of its
many inner islands.

Important Straits of the World

Straits
Bab-alMandeb
Bering
Bosphoru
s
Dover
Florida
Gibralter
Malacca
Palk
Magellan
Sunda

Water
Bodies
joined
Red
Sea
&
Arabian Sea
Arctic Ocean &
Bering Sea
Black
Sea
&
Marmara Sea
North
Sea
&
Atlantic Ocean
Gulf of Mexico &
Atlantic Ocean
Mediterranean
Sea & Atlantic
Ocean
Java Sea & Bay of
Bengal
Bay of Bengal &
Indian Ocean
South Pacific &
South
Atlantic
Ocean
Java Sea & Indian
Ocean

Area
Arabia & Africa
Alaska & Asia
Turkey
England & Europe
Florida & Bahamas
Islands
Spain & Africa
India & Indonesia
India & Sri Lanka
Chile
Indonesia

Smallest and Biggest Countries

Biggest Nations (Area Biggest
Nations
- Wise)
(Population - Wise)
Russia
China
Canada
India
China
USA
USA
Indonesia
Brazil
Brazil
Australia
Pakistan
India
Bangladesh
Argentina
Nigeria
Kazakhstan
Russia

66

Adelaide
Australia
Torrens
Amsterdam
Netherlands
Amsel
Biggest Nations (Area Biggest
Nations
- Wise)
(Population - Wise)
Sudan
Japan
Smallest Nations (Area Smallest
Nations
- Wise)
(Population - Wise)
Vatican City
Vatican City
Monaco
Tuvalu
Nauru
Nauru
Tuvalu
Palau
San Marino
San Marino
Liechtenstein
Monaco
Marshall Islands
Liechtenstein
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Maldives
Antigua and Barbados
Malta
Dominica
Important Ores of the world
Iron Ore
Copper
Ore
Tin
Lead
Zinc
Mangane
se
Aluminiu
m
Cement
Petroleu
m
Natural
Gas
Silver
Coal

China,
Brazil,
Australia
Chili, Peru, USA
China,
Indonesia,
Peru
China, Australia, USA
China, Australia, Peru
South Africa, USA,
Brazil
China,
Russia,
Canada
China, India, USA
Saudi Arabia, Russia,
USA
Russia, USA, Canada
Peru, Mexico, China
China, USA, India

67

Adelaide
Amsterdam

Australia
Netherlands

68

Torrens
Amsel

Geography of India
Index
S.no
Topic

Page no

1.

Physical Geography of India

2.

Drainage system of India

3.

Climate

4.

Soils of india

5.

Natural Vegitation of India

6.

Source of Irrigation

7.

Multi Purpose Projects

8.

Agriculture in India

9.

Animal Husbandary

10.

Industries

156

11.

Minerals

167

12.

Transportation and communication of India

13.

75
82
91
95
101
116
118
126
150

Demography of India

181
189

69

Indian Geographical Location

India is the seventh largest country in the world which makes it obvious for the
country to have vast geographical features. The map on geography of India by
mapsofindia tries to contain the massive geographical details of the country on a
map, for your convenience.
There are as many as 28 states in India, located in the total area of 3,287,263
km2. The largest of all Indian states is Rajasthan which covers an area of 342240 sq
km. The state of Rajasthan shares its border with Pakistan on the West, Gujarat on
the South West, Madhya Pradesh on the South East and Punjab to the North.
Goa is the smallest state in India located merely in 3702 sq km. The state of
Goa is located to the South West of India and is the most prosperous of all the
states in the country. Uttar Pradesh lying to the North East of the country is the
most populous country in India. The state of Gujarat lying on the extreme west of
India is one of the most prosperous of all Indian states. The awe strikingly beautiful
Jammu and Kashmir is the northernmost state in the country.
Indias eastern border is equipped by states of Manipur, Meghalaya, Assam,
Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh. All these states together are
located in the 7% of the total area in the country. The union territories in the
country are seven in number. Delhi, the capital of India also falls under the category.
The other union territories of the country include Chandigarh located to the North of
the country, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu located to the West of the
country, Lakshadweep located to the South West of the country, Puducherry located
to the South East of the country and Andaman and Nicobar Islands located to the
South East of the country.
Lying between latitude 4 N to 376 N and from longitude 687 E to 9725 E,
the country is divided into almost equal parts by the Tropic of Cancer (passes from
Jabalpur in MP).The southernmost point in Indian Territory, (in Great Nicobar Island)
is the Indira Point (645), while Kanyakumari, also known as Cape Comorin, is the
southernmost point of Indian mainland. The country thus lies wholly in the northern
and eastern hemispheres. The 8230 E longitude is taken as the Standard Time
Meridian of India, as it passes through the middle of India (from Naini, near
Allahabad).
Area Geography & Boundaries Geography
1. India stretches 3,214 km from North to South & 2,933 km from East to West.
2. Geography Area of India : 32,87,263 sq. km. Accounts for 2.4% of the total world
area and roughly 16% of the world population.
3. Mainland India has a coastline of 6,100 km. Including the Lakshadweep and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the coastline measures about 7516.6 km.
4. In India, of the total land mass:
Plains Geography
:
43.3%
Plateaus
:
27.7%
Hills
:
18.6%
Mountains Geography
:
10.7%
5. In the South, on the eastern side, the Gulf of Mannar & the Palk Strait separate
India from Sri Lanka.
6. Total land neighbours: 7 (Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan,
Bangladesh and Myanmar).
7. Indias Islands include the Andaman & Nicobar Islands in Bay of Bengal and
Lakshadweep, Minicoy & Amindive Islands in the Arabian Sea.

70

Indian Physiography
Physiographically, India can be divided into 3 units:
1. Mountains in the North
2. Plains in the Northern India & the Coast
3. Plateau region of the South
To these can be added the fourth, namely, the coasts and islands
Mountains of India
The Himalayas in India
Means Abode of Snow. They are one of the youngest fold mountain ranges in
the world and comprise mainly sedimentary rocks.
They stretch from the Indus River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the
east. Total length is about 5000 km. The width of the Himalayas varies from 500
km in
Kashmir to 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh. Their average height is 2000m.
The Eastern Himalayas made up of Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, Mizo Hills and the
Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Hills are also known as Purvanchal.
The Pamir, popularly known as the Roof of the World, is the connecting link
between the Himalayas and the high ranges of Central Asia.
Can be divided into 3 parallel or longitudinal zones, each with separate features :
The Great Himalayas or The Himadri
Average elevation extends upto 6000m & some of the worlds highest peaks are
here :
Mt Everest (or Sagarmatha or Chomo Langma)

8850 m (in Nepal)

Mt Kanchenjunqa

8598 m (in India)

Mt Makalu

8481 m (in Nepal)

Mt Dhaulaqiri

8172 m (in Nepal)

Mt Cho Oyu

8153m (in Nepal)

Mt Nanga Parbat

8126m (in India)

Mt Annapurna

8078 m (in Nepal)

Mt Nanda Devi

7817 m (in India)

There are few passes and almost all of them have a height above 4,500 m. they
include Shipki La and Bara Lapcha La in Himachal Pradesh, Burzil and Zozi La in
Kashmir, Niti, Lipulekh and Thag La in Uttarankhand, and Jelep La and Nathu La in
Sikkim.
Lesser Himalayas or The Himachal
Average height of mountains is 3700 4500 m.
Mountains and valleys are disposed in all direction ( mountains rising to 5000 m
and the valleys touching 1000 m ).

71

 Its important ranges are : Dhauladhar, Pir Panjal, Nag Tibba, Mussoorie.
Important hill resorts are : Shimla, Chhail, Ranikhet, Chakrata, Mussoorie,
Nainital, Almora, Darjeeling.
Outer Himalayas or The Shiwaliks
Lowest range ( average elevation is 900 1200 m ).
Forms the foothills and lies between the Lesser Himalayas and the plains. It is the
newest range.
Trans Himalayan Zone
This range lies to the north of the Great Himalayas. It has some important ranges
like Karakoram, Laddakh, Zanskar, etc. the highest peak in this region is K2 or
Godwin Austin ( 8611m, in Pak occupied Kashmir ). Other high peaks are Hidden
Peak ( 8068 m ), Broad Peak ( 8047 m ) and Gasherbrum II ( 8035 m ).
The longest glacier is Siachin in the Nubra valley, which is more than 72 km long
( biggest glacier in the world ). Biafo, Baltaro, Batura, Hispar are the other
important glaciers in this region.
This area is the largest snow-field outside the Polar Regions.
Peninsular Mountains
While the Himalayas are Fold Mountains, they are not.
The Aravalli Mountains ( Rajasthan ) : Worlds oldest. Guru Shikhar is the highest
peak on which Mount Abu ( 1,722 m ) is situated.
The Vindhya Mountains
The Satpura Mountains ( highest point at Dhupgarh [1,350 m] near Pachmarhi )
The Western Ghats or Sahyadris : Average height 1200mtrs, 1600km long. Its
southern part is separated from the main Sahyadri range by Palghat Gap ( link
between Tamil Nadu & Kerala ). Other passes are Thalghat ( connects Nasik to
Mumbai ) and Bhorghat (connects Pune to Mumbai).
The Eastern Ghats ( Highest peak : Mahendra Giri ( 1501 m ) ).
The Nilgiris or The Blue Mountains : Meeting place of the Western and the Eastern
Ghats. Two highest peaks are Dodda Betta and Makurti.
The highest peak of Peninsular India is Anaimudi ( 2695 m ) in Anaimalai Hills.
Cardamom hills or Ealaimalai is the southernmost mountain range of India.
Facts about position of states
UP borders the maximum number of States 8 ( Uttarakhand, HP, Haryana,
Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar ). After UP is Assam, which touches
the border of 7 States.
Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 States
Jharkhand, WB, Tripuro, Mizoram.

: Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh,

Indian Standard Meridian passes through 5 States : UP, MP, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, AP.
9 States form the coast of India. They are
: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu. Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal.

72

2 Union Territories, viz. Daman & Diu and Pondicherry are also on the coast.
The Union Territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep are made
up of islands only.
The Plains of India
To the south of the Himalayas and to the north of the Peninsula lies the great plains
of North India. They are formed by the depositional works of three major river
systems, Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. The vast plains of north India are alluvial
in nature and the westernmost portion is occupied by the Thar Desert.
The thickness of the alluvium is maximum in the Ganga plains and minimum in the
Western Plains.
In the Kerala plains are the backwaters or Kayak, which are the shallow lagoons or
inlets of the sea, lying parallel to the coastline. The largest among these is the
Vembanad Lake.
The plains consist of four divisions:
Bhabar

: Along the foothills of Shiwaliks. Highly porous

Tarai

: Re emergence of streams. Zone of excessive dampness

Bhangar
kankar

: Older alluvium of the plains. Studded with calcareous formations called

Khadar

: New alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks.

Peninsular Plateau of India

Spreads south of the Indo Gangetic plains flanked by sea on three sides. This
plateau is shaped like a triangle with its base in the north. The Eastern Ghats and
the Western Ghats constitute its eastern and western boundaries, respectively.
Narmada, which flows through a rift valley, divides the region into two parts: The
Malwa Plateau in the north & the Deccan Plateau in the south.
Most of the rocks are of the igneous type.
Vindhya Plateau is situated south of Malwa plateau.
Chhota Nagpur Plateau lies to the west of Bengal basin, the largest and most
typical part of which is the Ranchi plateau.
The Deccan Plateau is the largest plateau in India. It is made up of lava flows in
the Cretaceous Eocene era through the fissure eruptions.
Islands of India
Total coastline of India : 7516 km. Longest coastline: Gujarat ( Second longest is of
Andhra Pradesh ).
Indian territorial limits include 248 islands:
The Andaman and Nicobar Group

Andamans is a group of 204 islands of which the largest is Middle Andaman.

The Andamans are believed to be extensions of mountains system in the N.E.

part of the country.

Saddle Peak ( 737 m ) in N.Andaman is the highest peak.

73

The Nicobars is a group of 19 islands of which the largest is Great Nicobar. Most
of them are volcanic in nature.

Great Nicobar is the southernmost island and is only 147 km away from Sumatra
island of Indonesia.

Volcanic Islands: Barren and Narcondam Islands. Barren is in the process of

eruption these days after lying dormant for 200 years.

The Arabian Sea Group

All the islands in the Arabian Sea ( Total 25 ) are coral islands and are surrounded by
Fringing Reefs ( North : Lakshadweep, South: Minicoy ).
Note :

Ten Degree Channel separates Andamans from Nicobars ( Little Andaman from
Car Nicobar

Duncan Passage lies between South Andaman and Little Andaman.

Nine Degree Channel separates Kavaratti from Minicoy Island.

Eight Degree Channel separates Minicoy Island ( India ) from Maldives.

74

THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA

The rivers of India play an important role in the lives of the Indian people.
Seven major rivers along with their numerous tributaries make up the river system
of India. Most of the rivers pour their waters into the Bay of Bengal; however, some
of the rivers whose courses take them through the western part of the country and
towards the east of the state of Himachal Pradesh empty into the Arabian Sea.
Parts of Ladakh, northern parts of the Aravalli range and the arid parts of the Thar
Desert have inland drainage. Dr.Francis Buchanan surveyed the courses of the
rivers of India along with their tributaries and branches in 1810-11 AD and
presented a minute account of it.
The shifting of the courses and bed over the centuries is very remarkable. Many of
the channels mentioned in that survey have now become dead , dried or even
extinct.
All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main watersheds:
1. The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges
2. Vindhya and Satpura ranges and Chotanagpur plateau in central India
3. Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India
The Indus:

(Sanskrit-Sindhu) After originating from the northern slopes of the Kailash

range (Tibet). flows north-westwards through tibet and Ladakh.

The river follows a long and nearly straight course in Ladakh. running between
Ladakh Range and Zaskar Range. The Shyok and Gilgit are its important right
bank tributries and the Zaskar is left bank tributary.

After crossing Himalayas through a very deep gorge (5181 metres at Bunji
north of the Nanga Parvat), it turns to the sourth-west and enters Pakistan.

The River has developed antecedent drainage in Jammu and Kashmir state. It
leaves the mountains at Attock and flows roughly southwards until it falls into
Arabian Sea near Karachi. It has a length of 2900 km from its source to the
Arabian sea.

The Jhelum (Sanskrit) Vitasta Emerges from spring at Verinarg, situated in the
south-eastern part of the vale of Kashmir.

It flows northward from its source to Wular lake and further down South-West
wards, till it enters a george lies between Baramula and Muzaffarabad. Its
gradient is gentle in the vale of Kashmir and is navigable between Anantnag
and Baramula.

It turns to the North-West below Uri and South below Muzaffarabad and
continues until Mangla is reached. Kishangange its right banks tributary, joins it
at Muzaffarabd. Between Muzuffarabad and Manga it runs roughly along the
Indo-Pakistan border, and joins Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan. Its length is 400
km.
The Chenab (Sanskrit, Asiknii or Chandrabhanga):

The Chenab of Jammu & Kashmir state is known as Chandrabhanga in

Himachal Pradesh. The Chandra and Bhanga, the head stream of
Chandrabhanga originate from either side of the Bara-Lacha pass in Lahul.

The Chandrabhanga flows North-West wards and runs parallel to the Pir Panjal
range for some distance near Kishtwar it cuts a deep gorge in the Pir Panjal
range and turns southwards and flows in this direction for a short distance,
further down it turns to the west and enters the plain area near Akhnur. Its
length in India is 1180 km.

75

The Ravi (Sanskrit : Parushni or Iravati):

The source of this river lies near the Rohtang pass. From its origin it flows to
the

north-west and drains the area lying between the south-eastern part of Pir
Panjal range and the Daula-Dhar Range. Some and distances below Chamba, it
turns to the south-west and cuts a gorge in Dhaula-Dhar range, enters the
Punjab plain near Madhopur. Before entering Pakistan it runs almost along the
northern boundary of Gurdaspur and Amritsar districts.

It being a part of Indo-Pakistan boundary, the river has some strategic

significance. It joins the Chenab in Pakistan. Its length is 720 km.
The Beas : (Sanskrit: Vipasa or Argikiya):

Emerges from a place known as Beas kund, near the Rohtang pass, In its early
stage it runs from North to South passes Manali and Kulu, where its valley is
popularly known as Kulu Valley. It crosses the Dhaula-Dhar range through a
deep gorge.

Further down, it turns to the west and enters the Punjab plain near Mirthal.
Since some of its tributaries originating from the southern side of the great
Himalaya are snow-fed. So it has relatively large volume of water during the
long dry season.

After debouching on the plain its turns to the south-west and joins the Satlej
near Harike after flowing a distance of 615 km.
The Satlej (Sanskrit : Satadru or Satudri):

Originates from Rakas lake, situated at an altitude of 4555 meter in Tibet. The
lake is connected with Manasarowar Lake by a stream. After following the
North-westward route the river enters the Himachal Pradesh at Shipki pass.
Further it flows westward.

It cuts deep gorges where it pierces the Great Himalayas and other ranges of
the Himalayas. It tributries in Himachal Pradesh are short in length except the
Spiti which drains a large Trans-Himalayas area and joins it at Namgia (near
sipki pass) as its right bank tributary.

Before entering the Punjab plain it cuts a gorge in the Naina Devi Dhar. A dam
has been constructed across this gorge near village Bhakra. known as Bhakra
Dam. After entering the plain it turns to the south.

Below Rupar it turns to the West. The Beas its right bank tributary joins it at
Harika. A short distance below Hariko the Satlej runs almost short distance
below Hariko the Satlej runs almost along the Indo-Pak boundary and enters
Pakistan near Sulemanki.

Its length in India is 1050 km.

The Luni: Its source lies near Ajmer in the Aravali Range. It flows southward and
falls into Rann of Kutch. The Bandi, the Sukri, and the Jawan are its important left
bank tributries.
The Mahi: Having its source in Udaipur district in the southern Aravalli Range flows
towards the south-south-west and pours its water into the Gulf of Cambay through
as estuary.
The Narmada: Emerges from the Amarkantak plateu in Madhya Pradesh, flows
towards the west. Near Jabalpur it makes a water about 10 meters high and flows
ina narrow gorge about 3 km long, which is known as a Marble Rocks. It flows
westward in the rift valley, where its course is nearly straight. It widens below
Braoch and makes an estuary, which enters the Gulf of Cambay. Its legnth is 1290
km.

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The Tapti: Rises in Betual district in the Satpura range and flows westward like the
Narmada. After flowing Satpura range, turns to the south, after emerging out of the
Bhuranpur Gap. It receives the Purna. It flows in the between Satpura range in the
North and Ajanta range in the South. After making an estuary below Surat and falls
into the Gulf of Cambay. Its length is 700 km long.
THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM FALLING INTO THE BAY OF BENGAL
This system drains a very large area with varied relief and structure, the
middle part of the Himalayas in the North and the northern part of the Indian
Plateau, (roughly north of line running along the Vindhyan range, the Amarkantak
Plateau and the watershed lying east of the Suvarnarckha) in the south.
The Ganga

Rises from the Gangotri Glacier, at the height of 5163 metre a part of Great
Himalayas lies in Uttaranchal. The river cuts through the Great Himalayas and
the lesser Himalayas in narrow gorges.

It is called Bhagirathi above Dev Prayag and Ganga below this town. The
Alaknanda, an important affluent joins it at Dev prayag. At Haridwar it leaves
Himalayas, and enters the plain below this town runs towards the south-east
upto Mirzapur and further down eastward in Bihar plain.

It turns south-east near the Raj Mahal and after traversing same distance in
Murshidabad district of West Bengal, it enters Bangladesh.

The Ganga delta in the West Bengal lies the south of this river. BhagirathiHooghly is the western most distributory of the Ganga and it lakes off from the
right bank of this river in Murshidabad district. The hooghly is a tidal river and
is navigable below Calcutta.

The total length of Ganga is about 2510 km.

The Ganga is the most sacrosanct river of India, the most important pilgrimage
centres namely Haridwar, Allahabad, Varanasi are situated on the bank of this
river.
The Yamuna

The right bank tributary of Ganga, rises at Yamunotri glacier, sitauted at the
Wester slope of Banderpoonch. After cutting a deep gorge at lesser Himalays, it
flows towards the South-West and enters the Ganga plain Paonta Sahib. After
crossing Nagtibba range it meets with its tributary Tons.

The Yamuna flows towards the towards the south-east direction till it joins the
Ganga at Allahabad. Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken are its important
tributaries and join it at its right bank. The length of the Yamuna from its
source upto Allahabad is 1300 km.

The Chambal

Rises near Mhow in the Vindhyan range (Janapav 616 meter height) and flows
towards the north generally in a gorge upto Kota.

Passing through Dhar, Ujjain, Ratlam, Mandsaur of Madhya Pradesh, it enters

the Rajasthan state and flows Kota and Bundi, after this it forms the boundary
of Rasthan and Madhya Pradesh and later on Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh.

After reaching Pinhat it turns to the east and runs nearly parallel to Yamuna,
Chambal joins Yamuna near Etawah. It is 1060 km long. Banas is an important
left bank tributary of Chambal.

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The sind,Betdwa and ken are its other tributries. Chambal has carved down
numerous ravines in the alluvial plain of Ganga.
The Banas - Rises in the southern part of Aravalli Range and flows to the northeast direction. It joins the Chambal at a point about 30 km to the east of Sawai
Madhopur.
The Son - It originates from Amarkantak plateau. After flowing for same distance to
the north, it meets the Kashmir range which turns its course towards the north east
and allows it to follow a strike valley. Almost all of its tributries join it on its right
bank. It merges into Ganga near Ram Nagar. In this river the volume of water
fluctuates widely During the rainy season it is often in spate and has very little
water during the dry season. It is 780 km long.
The Ram Ganga - Rises in the Great Himalayas (near Garhwal of Uttaranchal) and
enters the ganga plain near Kalagarh (Bijnor) River Koh joins it from the right bank.
After flowing in Moradabad, Rampur, Bareilly, Badaun and Shahjahanpur, part of
Farrukhabad and Hardoi districts, it merges with Ganga near Kannauj. Its length is
600 km.
The Sarda - It rises from Milap Glacier, from the Great Himalayas. It is known by
various names Kali in Himalayas, Sarda in Pilibhit and Kheri districts and the
Chaukha before it joins the right bank of Ghaghara near Bahramgwat. The Sarada
runs along the Indo-Nepal boundary and levels the Himalayas at Baramed.
The Ghanghara

Originates from Bharchachuga glacier Rakchash - Tal in Nepal. Though its

headwater, the Karnali, also orignates Trans - Himalayan and crosses western
part of Nepal Himalaya as forms deep and narrow gorges.

After crossing the Silwalik ranges, chok, a tributary of Sarda joins it near
Baharampur.Flowing towards east the river forms the district boundaries of
Gonda, Barabanki and Faizabad near Barhaj Bazar at Gorakhpur, from north the
little Gandak (Rapti) joins Ghaghera.

In end it joins Ganga near Chhapra (Bihar).

The river is large and is generally chocked with silt. It often shifts its course. Its
length is 1180.
The Rapti - Originates from Rukunkot Nepal, flows south west then south. Passing
through Bahrajch, Gonda, Basti and Gorakhpur joins Ghaghera near Bahraj.
The Gandak - known as Saligrami in Nepal and Naraini in plain, rises near SinoNepal boundary and drains the central part of Nepal and separates the boundary fo
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. After entering Champaran district (Bihar), it turns to the
south east and joins the left bank of Ganga at Sonpur. Like Ghaghera it often
changes its course and is notorious for its flood.
The Gomi

Originates from the height of 200 meters in Pilibhit district (U.P), flows from
north-west sourth-west in between Ganga Ghaghera Doab. River Kathna and
Sarayan, the two small rivers join left bank of Gomti at Sitapur distrcit.

The river Gomti forms the boundary of Sitapur and Hardoi districts, na denter
Lucknow districts. After flowing Barabanki Sultanpur and Jaunpur joins Ganga
at Gazipur, Lucknow the capital of Uttar Pradesh is situated at its bank.
The Kosi

A left bank tributary of Ganga, is a collective name of seven rivers, Milamchi,

Bhotia, Kosi, Tamba Kosi, Likhu, Dudkh Kosi, Arun and Tambur.

River Arun known as Pangehu in Tibet, emerges from the northern slope of
Gosaithan rane, flows south west of Sapu upto 320 km. The three large rivers,

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the arun, the SUN kosi and the Tamur draining Mt. Everest and Kanchenjuna in
east Nepal, unite north of the Mahabharat range and form the Kosi.

The Kosi enters the tarai of Nepal after cutting a gorge in the Mahabharat
range at Chatra. Its catchment area in Nepal is highly rugged and
mountainous. It measures 59,310 sq km. and is second only to that of
Brahmaputra. Rainfall too is heavy in the catchment area of this river.

Soon after debouching the plain, the river becomes sluggish and begins to
deposit its load.

The Kosi has shifted its course westward in North Bihar and is now 110 km
away from the course it had 200 years ago. Its total length is 730 km. The Kosi
joins Ganga at Karagola.
The Betwa - It originates near Kumra Gaon, (District Raisen M.P.) from Vindhyan
ranges flowing north-ward of Vidisha and Guna districts of Madhya Pradesh enters
the Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh. After flowing near north-eastern boundary of
Tikamgarh, it joins Yamuna near Hamirpur. Its total length is 480 km.
The Mahanadi

It is an important river of Orissa and the south-eastern part of Madhya Pradesh.

The river has its rise in Sihawa range, fringing the southern part of Chattisgarh
plain.

After flowing northward for same distance, it receives Seonathon its left bank, a
little above Seorinarayan.

The upper Mahanadi flows in the Chattisgarh plain which being surrounded by
hill ranges is a large basin. Below Seorinarayan it flows eastwards and turns
southward a little below Hirakud Dam. Further turns eastward near Sonepur.

After crossing the eastern ghats, through a gorge, divides itself into
distributries at Cuttack, and merges with Bay of Bengal. Its total length is 890
km.
Tawa - Originates from Mahadeo hill of Panchmarhi and joins Narmada.
Hasdo - Originates from Kaimur ranges of Sarjuga district. After flowing Bilaspur it
joins Mahanadi.
Indravati - Originates from the Kalahari region of Orissa. After flowing westward, it
forms a fall near Chitrakut, enters the Andhra Pradesh and joins the Godavari.
Kalisind - Originates from Vindhyachal, near Banglo village of Devas. After flowing
Sojapur and Naringhgarh district it joins Chambal at Rajasthan.
Sind : Originates near Shiraj in district Guna flowing Guna, Shivpuri, Datia and
Bhind, joins Chambal near Etawah.
Ken : Orignates from Vindhyan ranges. Flows towards north and joins Yamuna in
Uttar Pradesh.
Parwati : Originates from Vindhyan ranges in Madhya Pradesh, flows through Kota
and Pali districts of Rajasthan, joins Chambal.
Ghaggar - Originates from Himalayas near Kalika, drains the northern fringe of
Haryana state in a rainy season stream and loses itself near Hanumangarh in the
desert.
Banganga - Originates from Bairath hills at Jaipur, drains Bharatpur district and
joins Yamuna at Fatchabad near Agra.
Som - Orginates from Bicchamera at Udaipur, flows South-east thereafter flows
eastward forming the boundary Dungarpur, joins Mahi near Bapeshwar. Jokham,
Gomti and Sarani are its tributary.
Sawarmati - : Originates from the South western part of Gujrat and flows in Gujrat
state. Bakal, Hathmati, Meshwa, Betrak and Majam are its tributaries.

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Berach : Originates from Gomunda hills, north of district Udaipur. After flowing 190
km joins Banas near Chittorgarh.
Brahamputra

Brahamputra takes its rise in a Glacier about 100 km south-east of Mansarowar

lake at the height of 5,510 meters. In tibet it runs parallel to the Himalaya for
about 1200 km. Here it is known as Tsangpo.

It turns to the south along the eastern flank of Nameha Barwa and crosses. the
Assam Himalayas under the noun of Dihang. Near Sadiyer it receives the
Dibang coming from the north and the Luhit coming from the east and enters
the Assam valley, where it is called the Brahamputra, it flows to the west upto
Dhubri na dfurther below it runs to the south and enters Bangladesh.

It is navigable for about 1280 km from the Bay of Bengal to Dibrugarh. Its local
length is 2900 km which is more than that of Ganga by 400 km.

The number of streams joining the Brahamputra on its right bank is greater
than that of those joining it on its left bank.

The Subansiri, the Bhareli and the Manas are its important right bank
tributaries, the Diabang, the Luhit, the Buri Dihing, the Dhanasiri, the Kapili are
large streams and they pour great quantities of water in the Brahmaputra,
which became notorious for floods as well as erosion on its banks.
The Manipur - Rising in the north of Manipur state, flows southwards drains Laktak
Lake and joins the Chindwin in Burma (Myanmar).
The Barak -Originating from Mt Japvo flows southwards in Manipur State, makes a
hairpin bend near the north-western boundary of this state and turns to the north
near Lakhimpur. It turns to the west through Cachar near Indo-Bangladesh border, it
bifurcates, one branch is called the Kusiyara and the other the Surma. They flow
westward for same distance in Bangladesh and again unit.
The Kalandan

It drains the southern part of Mizoram flows southward, traverses, Myanmar

and falls into Bay of Bengal.

The Krishna - The river takes its rise in a place near Mahabaleshwar in Western
Ghats and flows through Satara and Sangli district of Maharashtra, northern
Karnataka and southern Andhra Pradesh state.

The Bhima and Tungabhadra are its important tributaries. Its headwaters
namely Koyna and the Ghatprabha pass through deep valleys or gorges in the
western Ghats and it cuts a gorge in Nammalai hills. I(t has built a fertile delta
near Vijaiwada. It is 1290 km long.
The Cauvery

It is known as the Ganga of South India. It drains the South - Western part of
Karnataka state and the middle part of Tamilnadu state.

Since its drainage basin receives rainfall during the summer monsoon rainy
season as well as the winter season. It is a perennial as well as very useful
river. It rises in the Brahmagiri Hill (Coorge district) in the western Ghats and
flows generally eastwards in Karnataka state.

The Hemavati, and the Krishna are its important left bank tributries and
Kabbari, the Bhavani, the Nozil and the Aurawali its right bank tributaries.

The river has two islands namely Seringapattam and Shivasamudram. Below
Tiruchirapalli it flows into two branches, the coleroon in the North and Cauvery
in the South. These two branches roughly enclose the delta. It is 760 km long.
The river has been dammed at no. of places for the development of irrigation
and hydro-electricity.

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Pennar-Originates in Kolar district (Karnataka), its chief tributries are Chittravati

and Papaghni. it flows through a gorge of cuddapah near Chandikota (Cuddapah
district) and enters the sea near the town of Nellore.
Rivers of the Peninsula in India
Different from the Himalayan rivers because they are seasonable in their flow
( while Himalayan rivers are perennial ).
They can be divided into two groups:
A. East Flowing Rivers of India ( or Delta forming rivers )
Mahanadi River ( 858 km ) : Rises in Raipur distt. in Chhattisgarh. Main
tributaries: lb, Seonath,Hasdo, Mand, Jonk, Tel, etc.
Godavari River ( 1465 km ) : Also called Vriddha Ganga or Dakshina Ganga. It is
the longest peninsular river. Rises in Nasik. Main tributaries : Manjra, Penganga,
Wardha, Indravati, Wainganga, Sabari, etc.
Krishna River ( 1327 km ) : Rises in Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar. Main
tributaries:Koyna, Dudhganga, Panchganga, Malprabha, Ghatprabha, Bhima,
Tungabhadra, Musi, etc.
Cauvery River ( 805 km ) : It is the largest peninsular river ( maximum amount of
water ). Infact, it is the only peninsular river which flows almost throughout the year.
Known as the Ganga of the South. It rises from the Brahmagir range of Western
Ghats. Main tributaries : Hemavati, Lokpawni, Shimsa. It is less seasonal than others
as its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by the S.W monsoon
and the lower catchment area during winter season by the retreating N.E. monsoon.
Its 90% 95% irrigation and power production potential is already being harnessed.
Swarnarekha River ( 395 km ) and Brahmani ( 705 km ) : Rises from Ranchi
Plateau.
B. West Flowing Rivers in India
Narmada River ( 1057 km ) : Has only l / 10th part in Gujarat. Rises in
Amarkantak Plateau and flows into Gulf of Khambat. It forms the famous Dhuan
Dhar Falls near Jabalpur. Main tributaries: Hiran, Burhner, Banjar, Shar, Shakkar,
Tawa, etc.
Tapti River ( 724 km ) : Rises from Betul distt in MR Also known as twin or
handmaid of Narmada. Main tributaries: Purna, Betul,Arunavati, Ganjal, etc.
Sabarmati River ( 416 km ) : Rises from Aravallis in Rajasthan.
Mahi River ( 560 km ) : Rises from Vindhyas in MR
Luni River ( 450 km ) : Rises from Aravallis. Also called Salt River. It is finally lost
in the marshy grounds at the head of the Rann of Kuchchh.
Sharavathi River is a west flowing river of the Sahyadris. It forms the famous Jog
or Gersoppa or Mahatma Gandhi Falls ( 289 m ),which is the highest waterfall in
India.
Inland Drainage
Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage.
Ghaggar ( 494 km ) is the most important of such drainage.
It is a seasonal stream which rises on the lower slopes of the Himalayas and gets
lost in the dry sands of Rajasthan near Hanumangarh. It is considered the old
Saraswati of the Vedic times.
Note:
The largest man-made lake in India is Indira Sagar Lake, which is the reservoir of
Sardar Sarovar Project, Onkareshwar Project and Maheshwar Project in Gujarat MP.

81

Chilka Lake ( Orissa ) is the largest brackish water lake of India. Otherwise also, it
is the largest lake of India.
Wular Lake ( J & K ) is the largest fresh water lake of India. Dul Lake is also there
in J & K.
From Sambhar and Didwana Lake ( Rajasthan ), salt is produced.
Other important lakes are Vembanad in Kerala and Kolleru & Pulicat in AP.
The three important Gulfs in the Indian Territory are:
Gulf of Kuchch (west of Gujarat) : Region with highest potential of tidal energy
generation
Gulf of Cambay or Gulf of Khambat ( Gujarat ) : Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and
Sabarmati drain into it.
Gulf of Mannar ( south east of Tamil Nadu ) : Asias first marine biosphere
reserve.
MORE FACTS ABOUT THE DRAINAGE IN INDIA
Indus though a perennial river, takes most of its water while flowing through
Thar desert. Its delta is mostly waste land and is full of brakishwater.
Brahamputra has different names in different countries e.g. Tsangpo (Tiher),
Brahamputra (India), Jamuna (Bangladesh). During floods, the water of
Brahamputra looks reddish in colour after mixing the red soil of Assam.
Ganga the second longest river in India. The Ganga and Brahmputra flows in
opposite direction. They meet at Bangladesh, and form a delta ( largest in the
world).
Gaumukh (meaning cows mouth, an ice cave of Himalaya is the souces of
Ganga.
Yamuna, the most important tributary on the rightbank of river Ganga, while
Gomati, Ghahra, Gandak, Kosi are the left bank tributries of Ganga. Son is the
only big river to join Ganga directly from southern plateau.
River Damodar, the sorrow of Bengal cause destruction of lives, cattle and crops
due to frequent floods and joins Ganga from the right.
Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Sind and Son from Peninsula India flow towards Ganga.
They rise from Vindhyan Ranges.
Cauvery is shown as a Ganga of South forms Sivasamudram fall.
Narmada forms a magnificent water fall (Marble falls of Bheraghat in M.P.)
Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and Pennar, are the
major river system of India. draining into Bay of Bengal.
Indus Sabarmati, Narmada and Tapti drain into Arabian sea.
Godavari is the largest river system in Peninsular India.
The Cauvery basin is one of the most developed regions of India from the point
of view of power and irrigation.

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The Climate of India

India has tropical monsoon type of climate. It is greatly influenced by the
presence of the Himalayas in the north as they block the cold the cold air masses
from Central Asia. It is because of them only that the monsoons have a watershed
in India.
The Tropic of Cancer divides India into two almost equal climatic zones, namely,
the northern zone and the southern zone. The warm temperate or the subtropical
climate of the northern zone gives it cold winter seasons and the hot summer
seasons.
The southern tropical climatic zone is warmer than the north and does not have
a clear cut winter season.
The northern zone does not have the midday sun vertically overhead during any
part of the year; the southern zone has the midday sun almost vertically overhead
at least twice every year.
Climate Seasons in India
In India, the year can be divided into four seasons, resulting from the monsoons
which occur mainly due to the differential heating of land and movement of the
suns vertical rays.
The vertical rays of the sun advance towards Tropic of Cancer from mid March,
due to which hot and dry weather arrives. As temperatures rise over most of
northern and Central India, a vast trough of low pressure is created. The highest
temperature experienced in South is in April while in North it is in May and June.
This part of the year is marked by a dry spell and the north western parts of
the country experience hot, dry winds, called loo. In this period, the country also
experience storms / dust storms at various places.
1. Tornado like dust storms in Punjab and Haryana, called Andhis in UP and
Kalbaisakhis in West Bengal. They involve strong convectional movements causing
some precipitation.
2. The Norwesters originate over the Chhotanagpur Plateau and blow in the northeast
direction which brings about 50 cm of rainfall in Assam and about 10 cm rainfall in
West
Bengal and Orissa. This rainfall is very useful for Assam tea and spring rice crops of
West
Bengal.
3. Similarly, Cherry Blossoms are there in Karnataka, beneficial to coffee
plantation and
Mango showers in elsewhere South India, which are beneficial to mango crops.
This weather is followed by hot, wet weather from June to September.
South west monsoon
In May, the south west monsoon sets in. The normal dates of onset of the
monsoon are May 20 in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, June 3 in the Konkan,
June 15 in Kolkata and June 29 in Delhi.
The south west monsoon enters the country in two currents, one blowing over
the Bay of Bengal and the other over the Arabian Sea. This monsoon causes rainfall
over most of the country ( except Tamil Nadu and Thar Desert area ). The S.W
monsoon entering from Western Ghats causes heavy rainfall over Kerala coast, but
Tamil Nadu falls on the leeward side.
In the Thar area, the winds blow parallel to the Aravallis and do not cause rain.
The Bay of Bengal current causes heavy rainfall in the north east parts of the

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country and a part of it turns west along the Himalayas over the Indo Gangetic
plains causing rainfall in this region. But the Bay of Bengal current, by the time it
reaches W Rajasthan, runs out of moisture.
The Bay of Bengal branch after crossing the deltaic region enters the Khasi
valley in Meghalaya and gets entrapped in it due to funnel shape of the region. It
strikes Cherrapunji in a perpendicular direction causing heavies rainfall in
Mawsinram ( Approx. 1400 cm ).
North east monsoon
From mid Sept to mid-Dec, the monsoon retreats. As the suns vertical rays
start shifting towards the Tropic of Capricorn, the low pressure area starts moving
south and winds finally start blowing from land to sea. This is called north east
monsoon. The withdrawal of monsoon is a much more gradual process than its
onset. It causes rainfall in Tamil Nadu as the winds pick some moisture from Bay of
Bengal. This explains the phenomenon why Tamil Nadu remains dry when the entire
country receives rain and why it gets rain when practically the entire country is dry.
The cold and dry weather starts in early December. In this, the average
temperature in south is 24 25c, and while in the north is 10 15c. In the latter
part of December and in January, the dry spell is broken by the westerly depressions
( temperate cyclones ) from Mediterranean Sea, which causes some rain in north
west India.
Almost all the precipitation in India is caused by the monsoons and it is primarily
orographic in nature. Cyclonic storms provide only a little rain, mainly in the North
Climatic Regions of India
India can be divided into a number of climatic regions :
Tropical Rain Forests in India : Found in the west coastal plains, the Western
Ghats and parts of Assam. Characterized by high temperatures throughout the year.
Rainfall, though seasonal, is heavy- about 200 cm annually during May-November.
Tropical Savanna Climate : In most of the peninsula region except the semi arid
zone in the leeward side of the Western Ghats. It is characterized by long dry
weather throughout winter and early summer and high temperature (above 18.2c);
annual rainfall varies from 76 cm in the west to 150 cm in the east.
Tropical Semi Arid Steppe Climate : It prevails in the rain shadow belt
running southward from Central Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the leeward side of
the Western Ghats and the Cardamom Hills. It is characterized by low rainfall which
varies from 38 cm to 80 cm, high temperature between 20 and 30.
Tropical and Subtropical Steppes : Large areas in Punjab, Haryana and Kutch
region. Temperature varies from 12-35c. The maximum temperature reaches up to
49c. The annual rainfall, varying from 30.5 63.5 cm, is also highly erratic.
Tropical desert : This climate extends over the western parts of Banner, Jaisalmer
and Bikaner districts of Rajasthan and parts of Kutch. It is characterized by scanty
rainfall ( 30.5 cm ), which is highly erratic. Rains are mostly in the form of cloudburst. Mean monthly temperature is uniformly high ( about 35c ).
Humid Subtropical Climate with Dry Winters : This area includes south of the
Himalayas, east of the tropical and subtropical steppes and north of tropical
savannah. Winters are mild to severe while summers are extremely hot. The annual
rainfall varies from 63.5 cm to more than 254 cm, most of it received during the
south west monsoon season.
Mountain Climate : Such type of climate is seen in mountainous regions which
rise above 6,000 m or more such as the Himalayas and the Karakoram Range

84

SOILS OF INDIA
Before classifying various type of soils, it is better to take brief account of the
factors that affect the soil formation. These factors are:
1. Parent material:
The parent material, of which the soils are formed, is derived from the
weathering of the rocks exposed on surface. For example the soil derived from lava
and rocks is generally black in colour.
2. Relief features:
They influence the process of soil formation through various ways. The variation
in relief features like slope, underground water etc. affect the colour, composition
and properties of soil.
3. Climate:
Climate is the main important single factor in soil formation. It affects the
conditions of soil formation through the amount and seasonal distribution of
temperature as rainfall. It also effects soil formation indirectly by affecting other
genetic factors like parent material, relief features, natural vegetation, etc.
4. natural vegetation:
The decayed leaf material adds to the fertility of soil by providing to it much
needed content of humus. That is why, the densely forested areas contain some of
the best soils.
Rain water washes the calcium compounds and consequently it cause the soil
deficient in Lime.
Soil deficient in lime are acidic and develop in area of heavy rainfall.
Oxygen combining with iron compounds produces Iron-Oxide, red in colour and it
gives the red colour to the soils.
Chemical weathering is more important in hot tropical climate. Hence, the Indian
subcontinent is prone to chemical weathering.
Leaching is more important in area of heavy rainfall. It is the most common
feature of hilly regions of India.
High temperature of India promotes active decay of vegetation and hence
humus is destroyed. So, Indian soils are generally deficient in humus and require
regular application of nitrogen rich fertilizer.
Titanium salt adds black colour to the soils of Indian Plateau.
Sedentary soil/in situ soil produced after breaking of parent rocks underneath the
surface are usually very deep up to 15 mt. or more on the Deccan Plateau.
Drifted soils/Transported soils/Azonal soils formedin situ but transported by
agents and deposited in valleys and deltas.
Sedentary soils are: Black cotton soils, Leterite Red soil, Podzolic soil of forest,
Saline and Alkaline soil, Peaty soil.

SOILS TYPES
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided the Soils of India
into 8 major groups.
1. Alluvial Soils including the coastal and deltaic alluvium:

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Agriculturally the most important soils. It covers 24% of the countrys total area.
Mainly found in Central plains extending from Punjab to Assam; Eastern and
Western Coastal plains and deltaic region.
Alluvial soil is transported or inter-zonal soil. It is divided into Khadar (newer) and
Bhabar (older). This soil is, however, deficient in nitrogen and humus content;
unsuitable for water retentive plantation e.g. cotton. Suitable for the cultivation of
rice, wheat, sugar cane and vegetables.
Khadar-Finer and newer alluvium. Its texture varies from clayey to sandy loam.
It is light in colour and is formed in the flood-plains of rivers and is generally
acidic, deficient in lime, phosphorus and humus.
Kankar-They are found only few feets below the surface of bhangar which is a
bed of lime nodules known as Kankar. Kankars are collected near Dadri in
Haryana for making cement.
Bhangar-They are older alluvium or coarse gravel, high level soils above 30 Mt.
above flood level where flood water cannot reach. Its texture is more clayey and
the colour is darker.
Alluvial texture varies from sand and loam to silts and heavy clays that are ill
drained and sometimes injurious accumulations of salt and produces a strile
surface called Usar.
In the sub-mountain belts on the foot hills of Siwalik alluvial forms with coarse
often pebbly soils known as Bhabhar. To its south occurs swampy lowlands
with silty soils known as Tarai.
2. Black cotton Soils:
This is also called regur soil. Main areas include Deccan Trap, Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, U.P. and
Rajasthan.
Black Soils are usually deficient in nitrogen, phosphate and humus but rich in
Potash, lime, aluminium, calcium and magnesium. The soil is moisture retentative
and it has a high degree of fertility. Suitable for the cultivation of cotton, cereals,
oilseeds, tobacco, groundnut and citrus fruits.
Black soils develop under semi-arid condition, in area covered with basalt.
Colour of the black soils vary from deep black to light black or chestnut. The
black colour is added due to the presence of Titaniferous magnetite.
They become sticky when wet due to high percentage of clay and develop cracks
in hot-sunny whether.
Black soils are well known for their fertility. Since, the content of water soluble
salt is high they are not suitable for heavy irrigation.
Black soils regions are ideal for dry forming due to their moisture retentive
quality.
3. Red Soils:
Occupies about 70% of the total area in Tamilnadu, Chotanagpur, few parts of
Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. They comprise of red loams and due to oxidation of
ferro-magnesium these soils have developed in Peninsular India.
Red soils have a concentration of iron, absence of lime, Kankar, carbonates,
humus, phosphoric acid and neutral to acid reactions. Favorable for the
cultivation of pulses and coarse grains.
Red soils develop generally on crystalline and metamorphic rocks rich in Ferro
magnesium minerals. Hence they are more sandy and less clayey.
Red soils are found in area of comparatively low rainfall and so are less leached
than the laterite soils.

86

 They are not retentive to moisture so cultivated mostly during the rainy season.
Crops: Rice, Ragi, Tobacco, Vegetables, Groundnut etc. on coarse soil for higher
level; Sugarcane on heavy clay at lower level.
4. Laterite Soils:
They are formed under the conditions of high rainfall and temperature with
alternate wet and dry periods. These soils are rich in oxides of iron and aluminium
but poor in nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid and lime content due to leaching,
highly acidic in nature. These soils are concentrated in Vidhyan Plateau, Satpura,
Mahadeo and Maikal ranges in Madhya Pradesh, Malabar Coast, Orissa Coast and
Meghalaya.
Laterite soils develop in the tropical region which receive heavy seasonal rainfall.
Heavy rainfall promotes leaching whereby lime and silica are leached away and
soils rich in oxides of iron and aluminium are left behind.
If the oxide of aluminium predominates the laterie soils, they are called
Bauxite, the chief industrial ore of aluminium.
Laterite soils are red due to the presence of oxides of iron.
Laterite soils are poor in lime content hence acidic in nature.
Laterite soils of high areas are very poor and least retentive to moisture.
Sometimes they form the barren land topography.
Laterite soils of low level areas hinders the process of laterization due to regular
addition of soil washed down from the neighbouring high areas.
Crops: Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane, Tapioca, Chestnut etc.
5. Forest Soils:
Humus predominates in forest soil but it is the deficient in potash, phosphorous
and lime. It is distributed over the Himalayan and other ranges in the north,
Western Ghats Eastern Ghats and Peninsula. Favourable for plantation crops e.g.
tea, coffee spices and tropical fruits.
1. Podzols (At high Level)-They are formed under high acidic condition and found on
higher slopes of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. They are covered by
coniferous forests. They are highly leached due to excessive moisture and are
greyish brown in colour.
2. Brown Forests Soil (In warm Temperate belt)-They are less acidic than podzol
with high base status. They are rich humus and fertile and extensively used for
crop cultivation.
3. Alpine Medow (In alpine zone of Himalayas)-They are dark coloured, either
sandy-clay or sandy loam. They contains mostly under composed plants.
6. Arid and Desert Soils:
These soils, characterized by high salt and low humus content, are found in
Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Rann of Kutch and other rain-shadow regions, since
these soils consist of high phosphate, fertility increases with irrigation and by
adding nutrients.
Desert soils are found in and arid and semiarid conditions in north-western part
of India, west of Aravalli range.
They are mostly friable and low in moisture content.
They are rich in phosphate but poor in nitrogen and clay content (only 8%).
Crops: Very few crops specially Millets, Jowar, Bajra are grown for want of water
supply.
7. Saline and Alkali Soils:
Develop along arid region in small patches. Also called reh Kallar and Usar, they
are infertile but can be reclaimed by good drainage. These soils are found in
Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, U.P. and Bihar.

87

 Saline and alkaline soils develop at places where desert condition prevails
because of high rate of evaporation and very little leaching.
Saline soils contain free sodium and other salts while alkaline soils have sodium
chloride.
Crops: Rice, Wheat, Cotton, Sugarcane, Tobacco etc. supported by irrigation. For
better fertility application of lime and gypsum and cultivation of salt resistant
crops like Berseem, Rice, Sugarcane can be used.
Alkaline soils are deficient in calcium and nitrogen and are highly impervious and
have very low water holding capacity.
8. Peaty and Organic Soils:
Develop under result of accumulation of large quantity. Highly saline and
deficient in phosphate and potash and occur in central Orissa, Central Bihar, West
Bengal and Tamilnadu.
Peaty and Marshy soils originates in humid regions as a result of an
accumulation of large amount of organic matters.
They may contain considerable solible sale and is called as Kari.
These areas are submerged under water during the monsoon season and as
soon as rain cease the land is put under paddy cultivation.
These soils are black, heavy and highly acidic.
SOIL EROSION
The destruction of soil cover is known as soil erosion. The main reasons of soil
erosion are:
a) Deforestation
b) Over-grazing
c) Irrational Cultivation (eg., Jhoom cultivation in North Eastern India).
d) Floods
e) Winds

88

NATURAL VEGETAION OF INDIA

Before discussing about natural vegetation, it would be better to understand the
distinction between flora, vegetation and forest.
Flora:
It refers to the plants of a particular region of period, listed by species and
considered as a group.
Vegetation:
It refers to the assemblage of plant species living in association with each other
in a given environment-often termed ecological frame.
Forests:
Forest is a large tract covered by trees and shrubs. It consists of forests
grassland scrub. Natural vegetation in India is rich and diverse because of varied
relief features, land forms, terrain, soil, temperature differences and varying amount
of rainfall. India is divided into the following manor vegetational regions.
1. Tropical evergreen or Rain Forests:

These forests occur in areas where the rainfall exceeds 200 cm, the average
annual temperature is between 20 0 C to 270 C and average annual humidity
exceeds 77%. The trees are evergreen and dense and forests have a three
storied appearance.

These forests are found in Western parts of Western ghats, eastern part of
subtropical Himalayas (Tarai), Jaintia and Garo hills and most of Andaman and
Nicobar Islanda.

These forests may be sub-divided into the following sub-types:

i) Tropical wet evergreen forests:

They cover 4.5m ha area and are found along with western side of the western
ghats, in a strip running southwest from Arunachal Pradesh, upper Assam,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Here the rainfall exceeds 300 cms. The forests are lofty, dense, evergreen and
multistoried.

The main species of trees found are poon, toon, chaplas, rosewood, ebony,
sissoo, ironwood, gurjan, pila champa etc. the undergrowth consists of canes,
bamboo, ferns, climbers etc. Due to the dense undergrowth and lack of transport
these forests have not been exploited.
ii) Tropical semi-evergreen forests:

Where the rainfall is somewhat less that 200 cms, the mean annual temperature
between 240 C to 270 C and humidity percentage is 80, the evergreen forests
degenerate into semi-evergreen forests. These cover 1.9 m., area.

These forests are found on the western coast, in the upper Assam, lower slopes
of eastern, Himalayas, Orissa and neighbouring hills and in Andaman and
Nicobar islands.

The forests have evergreen trees mixed with decidus types. The important
species include aini, semul, gutel, mundane, hopea, benteak, kadam, irul,
rosewood, haldu, kanju, champa, mango, Indian chestnut, thorny bushes, canes,
ferns and orchids.
iii) Tropical moist deciduous forests:

Such forests occur in areas of low annula rainfall of 100 cm to 150 cm. The main
annual temperature is between 260 C to 270 C, and humidity percent is 60 to 80.

89

These forests cover 23.3 m. ha., and are found in a belt running north-south on
eastern slopes of western ghat, central plateau including Chotanagpur, Upper
Mahanandi Valley and hills of Madhya Pradesh. Himalayan foothills, hilly areas of
eastern part of deccan including eastern ghats in Tamilnadu and Andaman and
Nicobar island.

These forest trees shed their leaves and are the most important forests yielding
commercial timber.

The the species of trees include salteak, arjun, janrul, laurel, Andaman paduk,
ebony, mulberry, kussum, kanju, ber, gular, palas, haldu, siris, mahua, simul,
har, sandalwood, jamun etc. Most of these forests have been cleared from level
land for cultivation.
iv) Littoral and swamp forests:
These forests cover 6 lakh ha., and occur in and around tidal creeks and river
deltas. They are found in thickest on western coast at a few places but on the
eastern coast they form a continuous belt on the fringe of deltas of Ganga,
Mahanandi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. They are densest in Sunderbans, where
sundari trees predominate. Thee evergreen species likekeora, amur, sundari, bhara
etc have stilt like roots submerged in water.
2. Dry Tropical Forests:
These forests occur in areas having annual rainfall between 75 cms to 125 cms,
mean annual temperature of around 23 0 C to 270 C and humidity between 51 to
58%. They are divided into the following sub-types.
i) Tropical dry deciduous:

These forests cover 29.2 m ha., area and are found on a very large area in an
irregular wide strip running north south from the foothills of Himalayas to
Kanyakumari except in Rajasthan, western ghats and West Bengal.

The important trees, include, teak, tendu, sal, bijasal, rosewood, palas, bel, lendi,
axlewood, anjair, harra, khair etc. large tracks of these forests has been cleared
for cultivation.

ii) Tropical thorn forests:

These forests cover 5.2m, ha., area. They are restricted to areas where rainfall is
very low. i.e., between 50 cm to 75 cm, the mean annual temperature is
between 250 C to 270 C and humidity is less than 47%.

They are found in Kutch, neighbouring parts of saurashtra, a large strip in south
western Punjab, western Haryana, western and northern Rajasthan, Upper Ganga
Plains, Deccan Plateau and lower peninsular India. Here thorny trees especially
acacias predominate.

The trees include tamarix, khair, kokko, dhaman, babool, reunjha, thor, cacti,
khejra, kanlu, palas, AK, neem etc.
iii) Tropical dry evergreen forests:

These forests cover an area of 7 lakh ha.,. and occur in areas where the mean
annual rainfall about 100 cms, mean annual temperature is about 28 0 C and
mean annual humidity is 74%.

These forests are found in the east coast of the peninsula from Tamilnadu north
to Nellore. The important species of trees include khirni, jamun, kokko, ritha,
neem, toddy, palm, gamari etc.
3. Riparian Forests:
Where the rainfall is less than 50 cms, short trees and grass predominate. These
forests are found along banks of rivers and wet lands. Deciduous vegetation like

90

neem, shisham, papal, mango, jamun, khair are usually found. Kans and munjgrass
are found in Abundance.
4. Sub-tropical broad leaved hill forests:
The foests covers 3 lakh hectare area and are found between 915 to 1830 m
height above sea level where the mean annual rainfall is between 75 cm to 125 cm,
mean annual temperature is between 18 0 C to 210 C and humidity percent is 80.
These forests are found in high lands of Bastar. Panchmarthi, Mahabaleshwar,
Nilgiris, Palni and Khasi hills and lower slopes of Himalaya in West Bengal and
Assam. Such forests are called Shola in South India. The trees include jamun,
machilus, celtis etc.
5. Montane wet temperate Forests:
These forest cover an area of 1.6m. ha. They occur at a height of 1800 to 3000
m above sea level in areas where annual rainfall is between 150 to 300 cms, annual
temperature is between 110 C to 140 C and humidity percent is 83. These forests are
found in hills of Tamilnadu, Kerala, Eastern Himalayas, highter hills of West Bengak,
Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The main trees found are deodar, Indian Chestnut,
Mangolia, birch, plum, blue pine, Oak, hemlock etc.
6. Montane moist temperate Forests:
They cover an area of 2.7 m ha. They occur in temperate eastern and western
Himalayas between the pine and alpine forests in Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh,Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Darjeeling and Sikkim between 1600 to 3500
meters. The forests are predominantly coniferous forests and include trees like pine,
deodar, spruce, silver fir, oak, beach, birch, polar, clm, chestnut, maple,
rhodendrons etc.
7. Alpine Forests:
They cover an area of 300 ha. They occur in the Alpine areas of the Himalayas
beyond the limit of tree growth i.e., between 2900j to 3500 m and consist of dwarf
shrubs of juniper, fir, honey, suckle, betula, birch, rhodendrons etc. At still higher
altitude shrubs of low herbs is the only vegetation found.
8. Grass lands:
These grasslands are divided into three types (i) Hilly or upland grassland. They
are found in Himalayas above 100m and in deccan hills (ii) low and grasslands. They
occur in plains of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and north western parts of
Assam (iii) Riverine grass lands. They are found in riverine tracks of northern India
especially in the bhabhar tracks.
Forest zones of India in
terms of
percentage of land covered
Andaman & Nicobar
87%
Mizoram
76%
Manipur
68%
Aruna
61%
Tripura
60%
Nagaland
52%
Meghalaya
42%
Assam
39%
Goa
38%
Sikkim
37%
Orissa
36%

91

M.P. & Chattisgarh

Lakshwadweep
Pondicherry
Diu and Daman
Delhi
Haryana
Punjab
Jammu and Kashmir
Rajasthan
Gujarath
West Bengal

35%
0%
0%
0.5%
2.8%
3.8%
5.8%
9%
9.2%
9.9%
13.3%

FLORA & FAUNA OF INDIA

Owing to a wide range of climatic condition, India can boast of a rich and varied
vegetation. In the remote hilly tracts of the Himalayas and Deccan mountains, a
large number of endemic flora i.e., plants t hat have grown there for millions of
years are not found to grow naturally elsewhere in the world, is found here.
In recent years, many of these endemic plants are facing extinction because of
ecological disturbance. There are eight Floristic regions of India.
(i) The Western Himalayas
(ii) The Eastern Himalayas
(iii) Assam
(iv) The Indus Plain
(v) The Ganga Plain
(vi) Deccan
(vii) Malabar
(viii) Andamans
India has the forest cover of 19.5 per cent while the actual forest covers is only
about 11 percent of the total country area.
Coniferous forest cover only 6 percent and the Broadleaf Deciduous forest
comprises about 94% of the total forest cover.
About 90% of the forests in India are state controlled.
India has some of the world's most biodiverse regions. The political boundaries of
India encompass a wide range of ecozonesdesert, high mountains, highlands,
tropical and temperate forests, swamplands, plains, grasslands, areas surrounding
rivers, as well as island archipelago. It hosts three biodiversity hotspots: the
Western Ghats, the Eastern Himalayas, and the hilly ranges that straddle the IndiaMyanmar border. These hotspots have numerous endemic species.

India, for the most part, lies within the Indomalaya ecozone, with the upper
reaches of the Himalayas forming part of the Palearctic ecozone; the contours
of 2000 to 2500m are considered to be the altitudinal boundary between the
Indo-Malayan and Palearctic zones. India displays significant biodiversity.

One of eighteen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian,

12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish,
and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.

The region is also heavily influenced by summer monsoons that cause major
seasonal changes in vegetation and habitat.

92

The unique forms includes the snake family Uropeltidae found only in the
Western Ghats and Sri Lanka.

The flora and fauna of India have been studied and recorded from early times
in folk traditions and later by researchers following more formal scientific
approaches (See Natural history in India)

India is home to several well known large mammals including the Asian
Elephant, Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Lion, Leopard and Indian Rhinoceros. Some of
these animals are engrained in culture, often being associated with deities.

These large mammals are important for wildlife tourism in India and several
national parks and wildlife sanctuaries cater to these needs.
Diversity

There is insufficient information about the invertebrate and lower forms of India
with significant work having been done only in a few groups of insects notably
the butterflies, odonates, hymenoptera, the larger coleoptera and heteroptera.

There are about 2546 species of fishes (about 11% of the world species) found
in Indian waters. About 197 species of amphibians (4.4% of the world total) and
more than 408 reptile species (6% of the world total) are found in India. Among
these groups the highest levels of endemism are found in the amphibians.

There are about 1250 species of birds from India with some variations
depending on taxonomic treatments accounting for about 12% of the world
species. There are about 410 species of mammals known from India which is
about 8.86% of the world species.The World Conservation Monitoring Centre
gives an estimate of about 15,000 species of flowering plants in India.

Indian forests are Tropical Semi-evergreen as well as Evergreen. Extremely dense

forests found at western ghats region of Kerala, Nagaland, some parts of
Assam and Andaman Nicobar Islands. The main species grown here are
Mahagony and Ebony trees.
Tropical Thorny Forests:
The important species grown here is Acacia, mainly found in rain shadow region
behind the Western Ghats, Eastern Rajasthan and Bundhelkhald.
Sub-tropical broad leaved forests:
Mainly found in upper regions of plateaus, table lands, hills of peninsular India
especially Nilgaris, Mahadeo, Maikeli. Oak, Chestnut, Evergreen Eucalyptus are the
important species grown here.
In Karnataka, these forests are called as Shoalas. In Western Rajasthan, we find
bushes and shrubs mainly cactus variety because of low rainfall trees takes shape
of bushes and shrub of xerophytic and megatherm variety to reduce water loss.
Biodiversity in Indian forests

Indian forests represent one of the 12 mega biodiverse regions of the world.

India's Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas are amongst the 32 biodiversity
hotspots on earth.

India is home to 12 percent of world's recorded flora, some 47000 species of

flowering and non-flowering plants. Over 59000 species of insects, 2500
species of fishes, 17000 species of angiosperms live in Indian forests

About 90000 animal species, representing over 7 percent of earth's recorded

faunal species have been found in Indian forests. Over 4000 mammal species
are found here. India has one of the richest variety of bird species on earth,
hosting about 12.5 percent of known species of birds.
Mangrove Vegetation

93

The vegetation along the coastal beds and river mouths, the vegetation called as
mangrove vegetation. This is mainly observed in deltas, lagoons, austeries. Near
mangroves the ecology is unique.
Here there is a large scale marine wave attack and intrusion of sea water and water
logging hence, the species which survive at these conditions are of (1) Hydrophytic
(survive in water and floats in water with stilt roots) (2) The species are saline in
nature like Rhyzhophera variety.
Advantages of Mangroves:
Mangroves prevent coastal soil erosion thus, they help in coastline stabilization.
They offer protection to coastal areas from cyclonic waves, tsunamis.
They play vital role in nutrient transfer or enhancement between marine and
terrestrial eco system.
Protect fertile agricultural lands on coasts from saline water intrusion.
The Mangrove forests yield commercial wood and also support biodiversity.
Threat to Mangroves:
Mangrove forests are threatened by wood cutting, Special Economic Zone,
pisciculture, coastal tourism, etc. Eg. Mundra SEZ in Gujarat accused of clearing
large extent of Mangrove on Gujarat coast.
International conventions for protection of Mangroves:
Ramsar (Iran)-International convention for conservation of wet lands, coral reefs
and Mangroves. As being part of this convention, India declared certain Mangroves
as protected Mangrove reserves. Some of them are:
1. Sunderbans, West Bengal at mouth of river Hoogle.
2. Bhittar Kanika, Orissa.
3. Coringa near Kakinada of A.P.
4. Point Calimore and Pichavurama Mangrove reserves of Tamilnadu.
5. Vembunad of Kerala.
6. Kondapur of Karnataka.
7. Achra of Maharashtra.
National Forest Policy:
1. A minimum 33% of the countrys land should be covered with forest (Now it is
hardly 22%).
2. Minimum forest area coverage with 60% at hill stations (which is far below now).
3. Minimum forest coverage should be 20% in plains and basins (it is less than
10%).
Hence, the extent of forest coverage is far below than that is mentioned in the
forest policy. So to protect certain forests, the Government declared them as
National Parks, wildlife reserves and biosphere reserves.
National Park
Conservation
of
flora,
fauna
i.e.,
both
plants
and
animals
Larger or moderate
in area

Wile life sanctuary

Conservation of specific
wild life species not
flora and fauna
Smaller in area

94

Biosphere reserve
Conservation of ECO system i.e., flora,
fauna, physical environment (water, soil,
rock, sunlight, rivers, streams, water
bodies
Huge and large area consists of more
than 1 national park and wild life
sanctuary,
Eg.
Neelagiri
Biosphere
Reserve consist of Silent Valley National

The boundaries are

determined
by
State
Legislation
through statutes

park and Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary

No legislative statutory Boundaries are determined by State
needed
only Legislature through statutes
administra-tive
instructions defines the
boundaries
Limited interference is No biotic interference is allowed except in
allowed for introduction buffer zone
of new flora and fauna

No
biotic
interference
is
allowed i.e., we are
not
allowed
to
maniculate
or
establishing
a
settlement (In the
buffer zones some
biotic interference is
allowed, but not in
core zone
No
reasons
and No
reasons
and Research, education and training take up
developments and developments
and on large scale and in comprehensive
education, training education,
training approach
activities
will
be activities will be carried
carried
National Parks, Wildlife preserves and protected animals:
Andhra Pradesh:
i. Pakhal wildlife reserve and tiger reserve
ii. Kaval wildlife sanctuary, Adilabad.
iii. Kolleru bird sanctuary.
iv. Nagrjun Sagar, Srisailam National Park and tiger reserve (It is the largest in
area in India).
Arunachal Pradesh:
1. Namdapha wild life sanctuary.
2. Moling wild life sanctuary.
Assam:
1. Kaziranga National Park
2. Manas wild life sanctuary
3. Sandi-rupa wildlife sanctuary
4. Nameri wildlife sanctuary
Bihar:
Valmiki National Park
Jharkhand:
1. Hazaribagh National Park
2. Catgan wildlife sanctuary
Gujarath:
1. Gir National Park
2. Velvador National Park
3. Kuchch wildlife sanctuary
Haryana:
Sultanpur bird sanctuary
Himachal Pradesh:

95

1. Kugti wildlife sanctuary

2. Daranghati wildlife sanctuary
3. Pin valley National Park
Jammu and Kashmir:
1. Dachigaon wildlife sanctuary
2. Hermis National Park
Karnataka:
1. Bandipur National Park
2. Bannerghatta National Park
3. Nagrhole National Park
4. Kudrumukh National Park
5. Ranganthitoo bird sanctuary
Kerala:
1. Pariyar wildlife sanctuary
2. Silent Valley National Park
Madhya Pradesh:
1. Kanha National Park and tiger reserve
2. Bandhavgadh National Park and tiger reserve
3. Vanvihar National Park
4. Sanjay Gandhi National Park
5. Priyadharshini National Park
Maharashtra:
1. Tadoba National Park and tiger reserve
2. Yawal wildlife sanctuary
3. Borivilli National Park
4. Karnala bird sanctuary
Manipur:
Keibul-Lamjoo National Park
Meghalaya:
Balpakram wildlife National Park
Mizoram:
1. Dampa wildlife sanctuary
2. Muslem National Park
3. Blue Mountain Peak National Park
4. Phawng Pui National Park
Nagaland:
Intagki National Park
Orissa:
1. Simlipal National Park
2. Nandan Kanan tiger reserve
Rajasthan:
1. Ranathambore wildlife sanctuary and tiger reserve.
2. Sariska wildlife sanctuary and tiger reserve (Found without tigers. Tigers killed
and so importing tigers now).
3. Keoldev (Ghana) bird sanctuary (near Bharatpur) (Famous for migratory Siberian
cranes in winter.

96

Tamilnadu:
1. Mudumallai wildlife sanctuary
2. Guindy National Park
3. Makurti National Park (in Nilgiris)
4. Vedantagal bird sanctuary
Uttar Pradesh:
1. Jim Corbett National Park and tiger reserve
2. Chandraprabha National Park
3. Dudhvda National Park
Uttaranchal:
1. Rajaji National Park
2. Valley of flowers National Park
3. Gangotri National Park
West Bengal:
1. Sunderbans tiger reserve
2. Jaldapara wildlife sanctuary
3. Neora Valley National Park
Andaman & Nicobar Islands:
1. Campbell bay National Park
2. Galathea National Park
3. Saddle Peak National Park
4. Mt. Harriot National Park
5. Rani Jhansi Marine National Park
Biosphere:
Under Man and Biosphere programme of UNESCO
1. Achanakmar-Amar Kantak biosphere reserve, Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh.
2. Agastyamali biosphere reserve, Kerala
3. Dehang Dibang biosphere reserve, Arunachal Pradesh
4. Dibru-Saikhowa biosphere reserve, Assam
5. Great Nicobar biosphere reserve, Nicobar islands
6. Gulf of Mannar Marine biosphere, Tamilnadu and Srilanka
7. Kanchanga biosphere reserve, Sikkim
8. Manas biosphere, Assam
9. Nandadevi biosphere, Uttaranchal
10.Nilgris biosphere reserve, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamilnadu
11.Nokrik biosphere reserve, Meghalaya
12.Panchmuki biosphere, Madhya Pradesh
13.Simlipal biosphere, Orissa
14.Sunderbans biosphere, West Bengal.
Wild life in India:

India was very rich in wildlife. The vastness of the country, wide range of
climate conditions and plant life and different terrain provides ideal conditions
for different' species of wildlife to thrive.

There are about 81,000 known species dispersed across the country, which is
about 6.5% of the world's total species. Indian fauna includes about 6,500
invertebrates, 5000 mollusk, 2,546 species of fishes, 2000 species of birds,
458 species of reptiles, 4 species of panthers and over 60,000 species of

97

insects.

The mammals include elephant, the gaur or Indian bison, nilgai, Indian
buffalo, chousingha or four-horned antelope (unique to India) black buck or
Indian antelope, ghorkhur or Indian wild ass found in Rann of Kachch-the
great one horned Rhinoceros (now confined to eastern India) and several
species of deer-the rare Kashmir stag, sway deer, stopped deer, mush deer
thamir or browantered deer (found in Manipur), the mouse and the hog deers.

The Chinkara and the Tibetean gazelle are the two gaazellas found in India.
Two varieties of wild sheep-the ibex and the markhor, and one variety of wild
goat (thar) are found in the Himalayan region.

There are two varieties of wild pigs-the Indian wild pig found in the forest areas
of the plains, and the pigmy hog confined- to the north eastern region. The
common hare of India is prevalent all .over the country while the larger marsh
hare is very rare. The Pangolin is the only ant eater found in India.

Among the reptiles found in India, the largest one is the fish eating crocodile or
the gharial found in fresh water Jakes. The mugger or the snub-nosed crocodile
and the salt water crocodile (fond in coastal areas) are the other two
crocodilian types.

The Python, the King Cobra, the-Krait, the Russell's viper, the saw-scaled viper,
and the pit Viper are among the snakes found outside Africa), the tiger, the
leopard, cloud leopard, the snow-leopard; the fishing cat, the wild cat, (all
belonging to cat family) the Tibetan black wolf, the jackal and the fox
(belonging to the dog family). The ratel, the marten, the civet cat and the
mongoose are other small carnivores.

Several species of monkeys and langurs are found all over the country. But the
lion tailed macaque is found only in the South. Hoolock, the only ape found in
India is confined to the rain forests of the northeastern region.

There are three kinds of bears in India, Viz, the brown bear which dwells in
Himalayan region, the black bear and the Indian sloth bear found in the plains.
Birds:

Among the birds found in India the largest one is the sarus crane which
measures almost 1.5 metres high, The little sun-bird which measures hardly 7
cm is the smallest bird.

There are several species of storks such as the adjustant stork, and the open
billed stork: Among the geese and the ducks that migrate to India during
winter are the persian grey lag, the. barheaded goose, the brahmini duck, the
comb duck, the mallard, etc.

Snow-partridge found above snow line in Himalayas, the Chuckor and the hill
partridge found at lower latitudes, the swamp patridge the black partridge, the
painted partridge and the grey partridge found in plains, are the
representative's of the partridge family in India.

There are several varieties of pheasants. The snow pheasant, the beautiful
monal pheasant, the blood pheasant and the tragopan are some of them.

The Koklas, the 'cheer, the Kalij, the junglefowl, (found all over Indian plains),
red jungle fowl (found in the salforests), the grey jungle fowl (found in the
south), the spur fowl (found in central India) mynahs, para-keets, peacocks,
piegons, several varieties of cranes and hornbills are some other birds found in
India:

The above list which looks impressive is not exhaustive. But some of them are
extinct while many of them are in the- endangered list.
Wildlife reserves:

98

Some of the famous wild Life reserves of India are:

Corbett National Park, home of tigers, has elephants, chitals.
Ghana Bird Sanctuary is a famous Sanctuary of water birds. Siberian cranes,
herons, spoonbills found here.
Bandipur Sanctuary is the home of wild animals like tigers, elephants, bears,
panthers and deer.
Namdapha National Park is the home of elephants and tigers in Arunachal
Pradesh.
Wild Ass Sanctuary in Gujarat is famous for its wild ass.
Sundarbans, the tiger sanctuary in sunderbans is the home of the wild bear,
crocodile and. deer.
Jaldapara Sanctuary, West Bengal, houses the famous Indian Rhinocers.
Khaziranga National Park is famous for one-horn Rhinocers.
Problems:
The man-animal conflict: The man animal conflict is' a growing problem.' It has
two dimensions. The setting up of protected national parks and sanctuaries goes
against the economic interests of the surrounding villagers as it deprives them of
the forest products "which they were collecting. For example at Bharatpur bird
sanctuary frequent clashes have broken out between forest staff and the
villagers on grazing by the cattle. Almost all national parks and' sanctuaries are,'
facing such troubles.
Attacks and killings of villagers especially children by the wild animals is another
dimension with more serious implication. Village people surrounding Hazaribagh
National Park in M.P. are terrorized by the frequent killing of children by
unidentified wild animals. 122 such cases have been reported since 1982.
Villagers at the foothills of Himalayas live in costant fear of tiger attacks. 422
people have been killed since 1978 in these attacks. These problems are
acquiring political dimensions. The cattle grazing has already become a: political
issue.
Scarcity of land:
Land area of the country which is static is becoming increasingly scarce due, to
heavy demand from many quarters such as agriculture and industries. Forest
land is being diverted to meet this demand.
These problems raise a question: Who should be given, priority? Man or Animal?
Prospects:
The prospects of revitalsing the wildlife are bleak as scope for it is limited. Most of
the ecologists, and conservationists feel that they are fighting a losing battle.
Nevertheless it is possible to save the endangered species from extinction by taking
suitable measures.
Environment Impact Assessment:
The programme of Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) was introduced in India in
1978. EIA is statuary for 29 categories of developmental projects under various
sectors such as Industry, mining, irrigation, power transport, tourism,
communication etc.
Endangered Animals in India
Nature has its own way of maintaining the balance in flora and fauna. But, man's
greedy advancements in making progress have left a deep impact on other
creatures. In an effort to create the situations according to his wishes, man has

99

gone beyond the limit, and has made many animals as critically endangered
animals. Some of the animals endangered critically are:
Asian Elephant: According to an estimate, only 15,000-20,000 Asian elephants are
alive today. The main reason for their decreasing numbers is their loss of habitat,
and extensive poaching for their ivory tusks. Goods made from ivory tusks are in
huge demand in the international market. Asian elephants are mainly found in the
terai region of Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, and Kerala.
Tiger: Tigers are mainly hunted for their bones and skin. Tiger bones are widely
used to make traditional medicines, as a cure for diseases like cancer. They are also
hunted for pleasure in games, and, sometimes, to protect the domestic livestock. An
estimated only 40,000 tigers are left today.
Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros: They are one of the most endangered
animals in India. They are hunted for their horns, which are believed to have
aphrodisiac properties. They are mainly found in the Kaziranga and Orange national
park. It is sad to note that only 1,500 of the Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros are
left today.
Asiatic Lion: Asiatic lions are considered to be the most powerful living animals on
earth. But, they are the most critically endangered animal in India. Only 352 of
these mighty creatures are left to be seen today. Poaching is considered to be the
main reason for their decreasing number. Today, they are mainly found in Gir
national park.
Leopard: Leopards are also fighting for their survival. They are mainly found in the
parts of central India and the north-east. Their number has decreased to about
7,500.
Snow Leopard: They are mainly found in the upper Himalayas. Lack of food for
them, and poaching has considerably reduced their numbers. But, some appropriate
and timely help from the environmentalists have protected them from becoming
extinct.
Tibetan Antelope: Tibetan Antelope is also called "Chiru". They have very soft furs
on their body, known as "sahtoosh". This light-weight wool has a great demand in
the market. A shawl made of sahtoosh can fetch upto $16,000. It is for this fur that
the Tibetan Antelopes are hunted and have become an endangered animal in India.
20,000 Chirus are poached every year to satisfy the needs of human beings.
The list also includes Kashmir Stag, Lion-tailed Macaque, Blue Whale, Ganges
River Dolphin, Red Panda, Marsh Mongoose, Hoolock Gibbon, and it may go
endlessly. It is important to save the lives of these endangered animals in India. If
correct steps for saving them are not taken now, then we may find them only in
zoos, or in the museums. Our coming generations will know about them from the
museums only.
Typical Creature only in India:
1. Gangetic Dolphin:
A river Dolphin, founding Ganga basin mainly and some parts of Brahmaputra
basin-born blind.
2. Civits:
Cats like creature.
Hides day, hent during nights.
3. Great India horn bill :
A bird with strong nesting habits.
4. Mouse Deer:
A deer of 30 cm height.

100

101

SOURCE OF IRRIGATION

Water for irrigating crops is available from a number of sources. They are rain,
rivers, spring and underground water. Rain water being a free gift of nature is an
ideal source of irrigation, provided it is timely and adequate in amount.

Unfortunately in our country, the rainfall is seasonal, incentive and highly

unevenly distributed.

A large area of the country comprising nearly 72% of the area receive rainfall
less than 127 cm in a year and this area is liable to suffer from droughts.

It is supposed that 1869 cubic cm water is available in the Indian rivers in which
only 690 cubic km. can be used. Beside this 432 cubic km. underground water is
also available.

Large, medium and small irrigation projects have been implemented and since
implementation of the first five year plan to 1999-2000, the irrigation potentially
has been increased from 226 lakh hectares to 947.3 lakh hectare (provisionally)

Topography, soil, rainfall conditions and rivers whether perennial and nonperennial determine the source of irrigation in India. In India there are four major
source of irrigation.
(i) Tanks (ii) Canals (iii) Wells (iv) Tube-wells.
i) Tank irrigation:
In the uneven and relatively rocky plateau of peninsular India, where the rainfall
is also highly seasonal, people have restored to tank irrigation, Eastern Madhya
Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Orissa, interior areas of Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh have
more land under tank irrigation.
ii) Canal irrigation:

Some years ago canals were the principal source of irrigation in India. Now
after wells including tubewells, they are the second most important source of
irrigation (39.5%). It is done only in those areas where large level plains, of
deep fertile soil and are drained by well distributed perennial rivers.

The plains of north India deltas and coastal low lands and broad valleys plains
in India plateau are areas were canal irrigation is done.

Canal irrigation is important in the state of Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Assam,

Jammu and Kashmir, West Bengal, Punjab, Bihar, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
Chattisgarh, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Uttar Pradesh.
iii) Wells irrigation:
Well irrigation is done mainly in the alluvial plains where owing to the soft nature of
soil wells are easy to dig. Punjab, Haryana plain, (excluding the dry area near
Rajasthan) plains of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Gujarat states, a few places in
Narmada valleys. The Tapti valleys and Tamilnadu are the areas where well irrigation
is done.
State
Gujarat
Rajasthan
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
Tamil nadu

percentage
86.6
77.2
66.5
65
58.21
57.6
54.7

102

iv)

Tube-wells
irrigation:
Maharashtra,
Rajasthan, Madhya
and Tamilnadu Tubeirrigation is done.

Gujarat,
Punjab,
Pradesh
Well

103

MULTIPURPOSE PROJECTS IN INDIA

Bhakra-Nangal Project:
It is a joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan and ahs been so named after
two dams built at Bhakra and Nangal on river Sutlej.
The Project comprises (1) Two dams at Bhakra and Nangal (2) Nangal-Hydel Channel
(3) Four power house at Ganguwal, Kotla, left bank power house and right bank
power house with a combined installed capacity of 1204 MW; and transmission lines
(4) Bhakra canal system, commanding a gross area about 27.4 lakhs hectares of
which the cultivable command area is 23.7 lakh hectares.
Bhakra dam is regarded as the highest straightway gravity dam in the world,
constructed across the Sutlej at the sight of Bhakra gorge. The reservoir of water
behind this dam is 88 km. long and 8 km. wide known as the Govindsagar lake with
a gross storage capacity of 9868 million cubic metres.
The dam is 22 meter high and 518 meter long and the width of the base as its
widest point is 362 m.
Bhakra Canal system commands a gross area of about 27.4 lakh hectares. The
Bhakra main canal is 174 km long and irrigates an area of 14.6 lakh hectare. The
canal system consists of 1104 km. long canals and 3360 km distributaries.
Beas Project:
It is a joint venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan states, constructed at river
Beas. It consists of two units-(1) A Beas-Sutlej linkage (2) Pong dam at Mukheriyan
near Jullandhar has been constructed.
Due to the project 4 lakh hectare land of Punjab and Rajasthan is irrigation and 660
MW and 240 MV hydroelectricity is produced.
Indira Gandhi (Rajasthan Canal) Project:
It is a venture to utilize the supplies made available from Sutlej, Beas and Ravi to
Rajasthan and to provide irrigation facilities to 13 lakh hectares.
It will have a full supply capacity of 524 cm meter/sec, at head and a total length of
649 km. and a distribution system of 700 km length. The project is being executed
in two states.
Kosi Project:

The three unit Kosi scheme consists of UNIT (i) A barrage near Hanumannagar in
Nepal and appurtenant works. UNIT (ii) About 270 Km long flood embankments
and other protective works and UNIT (iii) The eastern Kosi Canal System (A) Kosi
Power House.

With an installed capacity of 20 MW on the eastern Kosi canal, along with

connected transmission lines is under construction half the power generated is
supplied to Nepal and rest to Bihar.
Hirakud Project:

This project is parallel to D.V. Project, based on utilization of the water of the
Mahanandi.

The project was undertaken in 1948 which has since been completed.

It aims at regulating the Mahanandi itself by construction of three dams. The

project was divided into two stages.
Tungabhadra Project:

The joint undertaking of the governments of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka

Comprises (i) 92,441 meter long and 49.39 meter high dam on Tungabhadra
river at Mallapuram in Bellary district of Karnataka (ii) a 227 km long canal
(called left bank canal) with a power house on the left side (iii) a 349 km long

104

canal (called the low level canal) with two power houses and (iv) a 196 km long
canal (called the High level canal) on the right side.

The reservoir has a water spread of 37,800 hectares. The left bank and the right
bank canal will irrigate nearly 3.32 lakh hectares in Anantur and Kurnool Districts
of Andhra Pradesh and Bellary and Raichur Districts in Karnataka.

There are two power stations on the right side, one below the dam and other at
the tail end of 22.5 km long hydro channel at Hampi. Four generating units of 9
MW each in the dam power house and four units of the same capacity in the
canal power house have been commissioned.

A power station has also been constructed below the dam on the left side, with
three generators of 9 MW. The total irrigation potential created so far is 4 lakh
hectares and the total installed capacity far power generation is 126 MW.
Nagarjunasagar:

This project comprises the construction of a 1450 metres long masonry dam with
3,415 meter long eastern flanks on the Krishna river near Nandikonda village,
about 144 km from Hyderabad and two canals on the each side of the river.

The right bank canal (204 long) and the left bank canals (17 km long) with
together irrigate 8.3 lakh hectares, including the stabilization of irrigation in
Krishna delta.

The reservoir will have a storage capacity of 808 crore metres and its water
spread over 23,387 hectares.

The irrigation will be provided to about 8.30 lakh hectares at Khammam, West
Godavari, Guntur, Kurnool and Nellore Districts. The Prject also envisages a
power house at the toe of Nagarjunasagar dam with 2 units 50 MW each
capacity.
Chambal Project:
This project is a joint venture of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. It makes use of the
drop of 122m in the gorge between Chaurasigarh and Kota where masonry and
concrete dams are located. The entire scheme was phased for execution in three
stages (1) comprises a masonry gravity dam, at the border of M.P. and Rajasthan
and a barrage near Kota city along with the right and left Bank main canals for
irrigating large areas in both the states.
Three generating units of 33,000 KW have been installed at this station.
Under this project irrigation supply to both the states would be 2.87 hectares in
each.
Damodar Valley Project:
The basic feature of the Damodar Valley Project is that it constitutes a campact,
unified multipurpose river basin development eg. Flood control, promotion and
operation of irrigation schemes, water supply and drainage, generation transmission
and distribution of electric power, promotion and control of navigation, afforestation
and control of the soil erosion.
Gandak Project:
It is a joint venture of the states of U.P. and Bihar, though Nepal will also get
irrigation and power facilities from it.
The project comprises the following components
(i) A 747m long and 10m high barrage across the river Gandak near Balmikinagar in
Bihar about 760m below the existing Tribeni canal head regulator in Bihar. Half of
the barrage length as in Bichar
(ii) main western canal to irrigate 4.84 lakh hectares in the Savan district of Bihar
and about 1.88 lakh hectares in the Gorakhpur and Deoria district of Uttar Pradesh

105

(iii) Main eastern canal to irrigate 6.68 lakh hectares in Champaran, Muzaffarnagar
and Darbangha districts of Bihar and 0.56 lakh hectares in Porasa, Bara and
Rautahat districts of Nepal
(iv) A power house with an installed capacity of 15 MW at the 14 th Km of the main
Western Canal in Nepal territory has been handed over to Nepal as a gift.
Kakrapar Project:
Situated at river Tapti in Gujarat state, about 80 km away from Surat district. The
Project has been completed in 1963. At the level of the river, 14 m high and 621
meter long dam has been constructed. A 505 km long and the other 837 km long
canals from the right and left bank of the dam have been constructed which will
irrigate about 2.27 lakh hectares of lava.
Koyna Project:
Situated at Koyna river in Maharashtra state. A dam of 250 meter high has been
constructed across the river.
Macchkund Project:
It is a joint venture of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh State. A dam at the border of
Orissa and Andhra has been constructed at Macchkund river.
Malprabha Project:
This project is in Karnataka state a dam at Malprabha, river a tributary of Krishna
has been constructed 154.6 m long and 44 m dam at Belgaon district has been
constructed, which will irrigate 2.13 lakh hectare of land.
Bhima Project:
Under this project a dam of 1319 m long and 42 m high at river Pawna (Pune) in
Maharashtra state has been constructed. An other dam in Solapur district at river
Krishna will be constructed. The dam will be 2,467 m long and 56.4 m high and a
139 km long canal will be constructed to irrigate 1.62 lakh hectares of land.
Parriyar Project:
Under this project, a 210 meter long barrage will be constructed at river Parriyar
near Always district in Kerela state. The project will provide an irrigation to about
77,000 hectares of land.
Theen Dam:
The Tehri Dam has been constructed 1.5 km below the confluence of Bhagirathi
and its tributary Milangana in Tehri district in Uttaranchal. Under this project 260.5
long rock fill dam has been constructed. A reservoir known as Ram Tirtha Sagar with
a capacity of 32.2 million cubic meter of water will be extended upto 45 km from
Bhagirathi valley and 25 km from Milanga Ghat. Total capacity of the water of
reservoir shall be 2615 million cubic meter 7400 millin cubic meter of water of
Ganga drainage system will be utilized which will irrigate 2.70 lakh hectare of land
and will generate 340 MW hydroelectricity.
Farrakha Barrage:
This project has been constructed in Murshidabad district of West Bengal. The
main object of this project is to supply water to clean Kolkata harbour and to
remove salinity of Hooghly water.
Bansagar Project:
It is the joint venture of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh states. Under
this project water of river Sun will be stores.
Kunda Project:
It is the hydel project of Tamilnadu state. The electric generating capacity of the
project in the initial stage will be 425 MW, which later on will increase 535 MW.
Sabarigiri Project:

106

The installation capacity of this project in the Kerala state is 300 MW.
Balimela Project:
The installed capacity of this project is 360 MW in Orissa state.
Salal Project:
It is a hydel project of Jammu and Kashmir state constructed at river Chinab.
Kalindi Project:
It is the hydel project of Karnataka state, its electric generating capacity is 270
MW.
Idduki Project:
It is the hydel project of the Kerala state with its generating capacity of 390 MW.
Narmada Valley Project:

River emerges from Amarkantak hill (Madhya Pradesh) and flows in Gujarat
state completing the distance of 1312 km it drains in Arabian Sea. Over this
project roughly 3000 dams of different size with different purposes shall be
constructed.

Two dams (i) Indira Sagar Dam (ii) Sardar Sarovar Dam are important.
Indirasagar Dam known as the Narmada Dam is being constructed near Punasa
in district Nimar to facilitate the irrigation in 1.23 lakh hectares of land and
generation of 300 KW of electricity.

Sardar Sarovar dam is being constructed near Badgaon in Barooch district of

Gujarat to facilitate 15 lakh hectares of land for irrigation and generation of
300 MW of electricity. The total cost of the Narmada dam shall be 5000 crore of
Rs. while those of sardar sarovar shall be 13,500 crore rupees.
Pochampad Project:
This project is constructed at Pochampad river in Andhra Pradesh; with a
irrigation capacity of 2.24 lakh hectare.
Son Project:
It is an extension project of Son dam project in Bihar state with a irrigation
capacity of 1.61 lakh hectare of land.
Mahi Project:
The project is being constructed across river Mahi in Gujarat State in two stages
Mahi Project I across river Mahi to irrigate about 1.8 lakh hectares in Kaira district
and Kadano Project (Mahi State II) to irrigate about 3 lakh hectares on completion
to Panchmahal district.
Sabarmati Project:
Under this project a dam in Dhari village near Mehasana district in Gujarat has
been constructed and another dam at Wasana near Ahmedabad has been
constructed.
Panam Project:
Under this project, a dam near Keldjor at Panchmahal district has been
constructed at river Panam. A Kaccha (Mud) dam has been constructed for this.
Curzon Project:
Under this project a mud dam near Jeetgarh village in Gujarat State across the
river Curzah has been constructed.
Bhadra Project:
It is amultipurpose project at river Bhadra in Karnataka State. This will irrigate
1.01 lakh hectare of land in Chickmaglur, Chitaldurg, Shimoga and Bellary districts.
Upper Krishna Project:
Under this project two dams-one at Narainpur and other at Almati have been

107

constructed across the river Krishna in Karnataka state to irrigate 4.08 lakh hectare
of land.
Ghat Prabha Project:
It is the most important project developed on river Ghat prabha to irrigate about
3.2 hectares of land in Belgaon and Bijaur districts.
Kukadi Project:
It is the project of Maharashtra state. Under this project five dams will be
constructed at (i) Yadugaon (ii) Manik Drohi (iii) Dibha (iv) Badag (v) Pipal gaon.
Krishna Project:
Under this project two reservoirs in Ishapur village in district Jawatmal in
Maharashtra State have been constructed on Penganga river, another dam at Sapli
village in Parbhoni district has been constructed across river Riyadh.

108

DETAILS OF SOME MULTIPURPOSE PROJECTS IN INDIA

Sl.
No
.
(1)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

States
which
administer
or
Name of the project
whose needs are
served
(2)
(3)
Bhakra-Nangal Project:- Joint Venture of
It is named after two Punjab, Haryana
dams, built across the and Rajasthan
Sutlej at Bhakra and
Nangal
in
Himachal
Pradesh

Main
purposes

(5)
It is the largest in India
with 1204 MW of
power generation. It
possesses 1100 kms.
Of canals with 3400
kms. Of distributions
irrigating 14.6 lakh
hectares.
The Beas Project:- This Punjab, haryana Hydroelectric 1020 MW of power
project will link the Beas and Rajasthan
generation
generation.
It
is
and Sutlej waters. It
(main)
and expected to irrigate 17
consists of (i) Beas-Sutlej
irrigation
lakh hectares of land
link and (ii) Beas dam
in three states.
constructed across Beas
a Pong
Damodar Valley Project:- Administered by Irrigation,
1181 MW of power
Damodar
Valley
flood
control,
capacity
4.5
lakh
It consists of a series of
Authority
(DVC)
power
hectares
of
irrigation
dams on the tributaries
make
the generation
of the Damodar river in to
benefit to West and
Bihar
Bengal and Bihar navigation
Hiracud Project:- Built Orissa
Irrigation,
Hiracud dam is one of
across Mahanandi near
power
the longest in the
Sambalpur in Orissa
generation
world. It irrigates 2.5
and
flood lakh hectares and has
control
power capacity of 280
MW
Nagarjunasagar Project:- Andhra Pradesh
Irrigation,
It is one of the largest
Built across Krishna near
power
irrigation
projects
Nandikonda village in
generation
irrigates
8.3
lakh
Nalgonda
district
of
hectares. It has the
Andhra Pradesh
power
reducing
capacity of 960 MW
Tungabhadra
Project:- Karnataka
and Irrigation and It irrigates 3.5 lakh
Built across Tungabhadra Andhra Pradesh
power
hectares and has the
at Mallapur in Bellary
generation
total power potential
district
of
Karnataka
of 126 MW
State
Kosi Project:- Built across It
is
an Irrigation and Irrigates
5.66
lakh
Kosi
near
Hanuman international
power
hectares
and
Nagar on the INDO- project.
It
is generation
generates power 386
NEPAL Border
administered by
MW
India, but the
benefits
shared
by India (Bihar

109

(4)
Irrigation and
hydroelectric
power

Potentialities

8.

State) and Nepal

Chambal Project:- Built Madhya Pradesh Irrigation and Irrigates
5.66
lakh
across
Chambal.
It and Rajasthan
power
hectares
and
consists of three dams
generation
generates power 386
MW

110

9.

10
.

Gandak Project:- Built a Joint execution of

barrage across Gandak Bihar and Uttar
at Balmik nagar in Bihar
Pradesh
Nepal
will also derive
some benefits
Ramganga Project:- Built Uttar Pradesh
across
Ramganga
in
Uttar Pradesh

Irrigation and 14.88 lakh hectares to

power
be
irrigated.
The
generation
power house has the
capacity of 15 MW
Irrigation,
power
general and
flood control

Provide irrigation to
5.75 lakh hectares.
Power generation of
198 MW. 200 causes
water supply to Delhi
city

NATIONAL WATER GRID

A national water grid was mooted by Central Water and Power Commission
under the guidance of Dr. K.L. Rao, to conceive the interlinking of various rivers for
the following objects. (1) Surplus water of various rivers should be utilized
beneficially by transfer to water deficit ones from North to South and West to East
by means of canal river links, (2) These rivers must, therefore be interlinked to
make use of such surplus water for evening out the variations in the water supply
for agriculture, (3) Surplus water should be used on priority bases in chronically
drought affected areas.
So achieve these objects the scheme comprises the following-(1) Ganga-Cauvery
link. Connecting Ganga is the north to Cauvery in the south enroute through the
basins of Son, narmada, Tapti, Godavari, Krishna and Pennar, (2) Brahmputra-Ganga
link (3) Link canal from Narmada to Western Rajasthan (4) Canal from Chambal to
Pump areas to Central Rajasthan, (5) A canal rom link with Mahanandi to serve
coastal areas in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh to establish link with other canal
systems (6) Link from west flowing rivers of western Ghats towards the East.

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Agriculture in India
Today, India ranks second worldwide in farm output. Agriculture and allied sectors
like forestry and fisheries accounted for 16.6% of the GDP in 2009, about 50% of the
total workforce.
The economic contribution of agriculture to India's GDP is steadily declining with the
country's broad-based economic growth. Still, agriculture is demographically the
broadest economic sector and plays a significant role in the overall socio-economic
fabric of India.
India is the second largest producer of wheat and rice, the world's major food
staples. India is also the world's second or third largest producer of several dry
fruits, agriculture-based textile raw materials, roots and tuber crops, pulses, farmed
fish, eggs, coconut, sugarcane and numerous vegetables.
India ranked within the world's five largest producers of over 80% of agricultural
produce items, including many cash crops such as coffee and cotton, in 2010.
India is also one the world's five largest producers of livestock and poultry meat,
with one of the fastest growth rates, as of 2011.
In fiscal year ending June 2011, with a normal monsoon season, Indian agriculture
accomplished an all time record production of 85.9 million tons of wheat, a 6.3
percent increase from a year earlier. Rice output in India also hit a new record at
95.3 million tons, a 7% increase from the year earlier.Lentils and many other food
staples production also increased year over year. Indian farmers, thus produced
about 71 kilograms of wheat and 80 kilograms of rice for every member of Indian
population in 2011
The per capita supply of rice every year in India is now higher than the per capita
consumption of rice every year in Japan.
India exported about 2 billion kilograms each of wheat and rice in 2011 to Africa,
Nepal, Bangladesh and other regions of the world.
Aquaculture and catch fishery is amongst the fastest growing industries in India.
Between 1990 and 2010, Indian fish capture harvest doubled, while aquaculture
harvest tripled.
In 2008, India was the world's sixth largest producer of marine and freshwater
capture fisheries, and the second largest aquaculture farmed fish producer. India
exported 600,000 metric tonnes of fish products to nearly half of all the world's
countries.
Indian agriculture policy since 1947
Indian agriculture policy is aimed essentially at improving food self sufficiency
and alleviating hunger through food distribution. Aside from investing in
agricultural infrastructure, the government supports agriculture through
measures including minimum support prices (MSP) for the major agricultural
crops, farm input subsidies and preferential credit schemes.Under the price
support policy, MSPs are set annually for basic staples to protect producers
from sharp price falls, to stabilise prices and to ensure adequate food stocks
for public distribution. In the past guaranteed prices have been below the
prevailing market prices, according to the International Food Policy
Research Institute (IFPRI) in 2007.At the same time subsidies on farm inputs
including fertilisers, electrical power and irrigation water have led to
inefficient use of inputs and indirectly subsidise income. IFPRI concluded that
support
for
agriculture
(from
1985-2002)
has
been
largely
Accomplishments
India has some of the world's best agricultural yields in its tea plantations. An tea
estate in Kerala, a southern state of India

112

As of 2011, India had a large and diverse agricultural sector, accounting, on

average, for about 16 percent of GDP and 10 percent of export earnings. India's
arable land area of 159.7 million hectares (394.6 million acres) is the second largest
in the world, after the United States.
Its gross irrigated crop area of 82.6 million hectares (215.6 million acres) is the
largest in the world. India has grown to become among the top three global
producers of a broad range of crops, including wheat, rice, pulses, cotton, peanuts,
fruits, and vegetables. Worldwide, as of 2011, India had the largest herds of buffalo
and cattle, is the largest producer of milk, and has one of the largest and fastest
growing poultry industries.

agriculture in India, largest crops by economic value

Economic
value

Average
World'smost
Unit price yield,
India productivefarms
(2010)
(2010)

Ran
Produce
k

(2009 prices, (US$

US$)
kilogram)

Rice

$35.74 billion 0.27

/ (tons
hectare)

per (tons
per
Country
hectare)

3.3

10.8

Australia

Buffalo milk $25.07 billion 0.4

1.7

1.9

Pakistan

Cow milk

$14.09 billion 0.31

1.2

10.3

Israel

Wheat

$12.13 billion 0.15

2.8

8.9

Netherland
s

Sugar cane

$8.61 billion 0.03

66

125

Peru

Mangoes

$8.12 billion 0.6

6.3

40.6

Cape
Verde

Bananas

$7.60 billion 0.28

37.8

59.3

Indonesia

Cotton

$5.81 billion 1.43

1.6

4.6

Israel

Potatoes

$5.31 billion 0.15

19.9

44.3

USA

10

Fresh
Vegetables

$5.28 billion 0.19

13.4

76.8

USA

11

Tomatoes

$4.12 billion 0.37

19.3

524.9

Belgium

12

Buffalo meat $3.84 billion 2.69

0.138

0.424

Thailand

13

Onions

$2.92 billion 0.21

16.6

67.3

Ireland

14

Okra

$2.90 billion 0.64

10.6

20.2

Cyprus

15

Chick peas

$2.83 billion 0.4

0.9

2.8

China

16

Fresh fruits

$2.79 billion 0.35

7.6

23.9

Israel

17

Eggs

$2.65 billion 0.83

13.8

24.7

Jordan

18

Soybean

$2.61 billion 0.26

1.1

3.7

Turkey

19

Cattle meat $2.39 billion 2.7

0.1

0.42

Japan

20

Groundnuts $2.33 billion 0.42

1.1

5.5

Nicaragua

The Statistics Office of the Food and Agriculture Organization reported that, per final
numbers for 2009, India had grown to become the world's largest producer of the
following agricultural produce:

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 Fruit Fresh

Pulses

Lemons and limes

Indigenous Buffalo Meat

Buffalo milk, whole, fresh

Fruit, tropical

Castor oil seed

Ginger

Safflower seed

Chick peas

Sorghum

Areca nuts

Millet

Other Bastfibres

Spices

Pigeon peas

Okra

Papayas

Jute

Chillies and peppers, dry

Beeswax

Anise, badian, fennel, corian

Bananas

Goat milk, whole, fresh

Mangoes, mangosteens, guavas

Per final numbers for 2009, India is the world's second largest producer of the
following agricultural produce:
Wheat
Cow milk, whole, fresh
Rice
Tea
Vegetables fresh
Potatoes
Sugar cane
Onions
Groundnuts, with shell
Cotton lint
Lentils
Cottonseed
Garlic
Eggplants (aubergines)
Cauliflowers and broccoli
Nutmeg, mace and cardamoms
Peas, green
Indigenous Goat Meat
Sesame seed
Cabbages and other brassicas
Cashew nuts, with shell
Pumpkins, squash and gourds
Silk-worm cocoons, reelable
In 2009, India was the world's third largest producer of eggs, oranges, coconuts,
tomatoes, peas and beans.
Agriculture productivity in India, growth in average yields from 1970 to
2010
Crop

Average YIELD, 1970- Average YIELD, 1990- Average YIELD, 2010

1971
1991
2011
kilogram per hectare

kilogram per hectare

kilogram per hectare[43]

Rice

1123

1740

2240

Wheat

1307

2281

2938

Pulses

524

578

689

Oilseeds 579

771

1325

Sugarca
48322
ne

65395

68596

Tea

1182

1652

1669

Cotton

106

225

510

114

India lacks cold storage, food packaging as well as safe and efficient rural transport
system. This causes one of the world's highest food spoilage rates, particularly
during Indian monsoons and other adverse weather conditions. Food travels to the
Indian consumer through a slow and inefficient chain of traders. Indian consumers
buy agricultural produce in suburban markets known as 'sabzi mandi' such as one
shown or from roadside vendors.
Cotton flower in India. This is the main cash crop in Vidarbha region.
Crop

Average farm yield Average farm yield in Average farm yield in

in Bihar
Karnataka
Punjab
kilogram per hectare

kilogram per hectare

kilogram per hectare

Wheat

2020

unknown

3880

Rice

1370

2380

3130

Pulses

610

470

820

Oil seeds 620

680

1200

Sugarca
45510
ne

79560

65300

The low productivity in India is a result of the following factors:

The average size of land holdings is very small (less than 2 hectares) and is
subject to fragmentation due to land ceiling acts, and in some cases, family
disputes. Such small holdings are often over-manned, resulting in disguised
unemployment and low productivity of labour. Some reports claim smallholder
farming may not be cause of poor productivity, since the productivity is higher in
China and many developing economies even though China smallholder farmers
constitute over 97 percent of its farming population. Chinese smallholder farmer
is able to rent his land to larger farmers, China's organized retail and extensive
Chinese highways are able to provide the incentive and infrastructure necessary
to its farmers for sharp increases in farm productivity.
Adoption of modern agricultural practices and use of technology is inadequate,
hampered by ignorance of such practices, high costs and impracticality in the
case of small land holdings.
According to the World Bank, Indian Branch: Priorities for Agriculture and Rural
Development", India's large agricultural subsidies are hampering productivityenhancing investment. Overregulation of agriculture has increased costs, price
risks and uncertainty. Government intervenes in labour, land, and credit markets.
India has inadequate infrastructure and services. World Bank also says that the
allocation of water is inefficient, unsustainable and inequitable. The irrigation
infrastructure is deteriorating.The overuse of water is currently being covered by
over pumping aquifers, but as these are falling by foot of groundwater each
year, this is a limited resource.
Illiteracy, general socio-economic backwardness, slow progress in implementing
land reforms and inadequate or inefficient finance and marketing services for
farm produce.
Inconsistent government policy. Agricultural subsidies and taxes often changed
without notice for short term political ends.
Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that only 52.6% of the
land was irrigated in 200304, which result in farmers still being dependent on
rainfall, specifically the Monsoon season. A good monsoon results in a robust
growth for the economy as a whole, while a poor monsoon leads to a sluggish

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growth.[51] Farm credit is regulated by NABARD, which is the statutory apex agent
for rural development in the subcontinent. At the same time overpumping made
possible by subsidized electric power is leading to an alarming drop in aquifer
levels.
A third of all food that is produced rots due to inefficient supply chains and the
use of the "Walmart model" to improve eficiency is blocked by laws against
foreign investment in the retail sector.
India is the fifth largest producer of coffee beans in the world, according to the
statistics office of the FAO.
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), established in 1905, was
responsible for the research leading to the "Indian Green Revolution" of the 1970s.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the apex body in agriculture
and related allied fields, including research and education.The Union Minister of
Agriculture is the President of the ICAR. The Indian Agricultural Statistics Research
Institute develops new techniques for the design of agricultural experiments,
analyses data in agriculture, and specializes in statistical techniques for animal and
plant breeding.
Recently Government of India has set up Farmers Commission to completely
evaluate the agriculture program.However the recommendations have had a mixed
reception.
In November 2011, India announced major reforms in organized retail. These
reforms would include logistics and retail of agricultural produce. The reform
announcement led to major political controversy. The reforms were placed on hold
by the Indian government in December 2011.
Dry land Agriculture: A unique system of farming where crops are cultivated on the rain fed conditions
and in the absence of assured irrigation facilities.
The system of farming is very tight, farmer has no flexibility.
Accounts 45% of total agricultural production
60% net area under cultivation.
In practiced in the whole country particularly in the interiors of peninsular India
i.e., in table lands.
Problems:1. Yield levels are low.
2. Crop failures are very common.
3. Ecologically fragile regions.
4. The water resource management is crucial.
5. Because of continuous droughts, dry land agricultural land heading to major
ecological disaster i.e., desert agriculture.
6. The percapita income of farmers dependent on this culture is very low. Even the
wage levels to workers are very low.
7. No agriculture employment through out year, seasonal unemployment is
rampant. So livelihoods are affected.
Hence in these areas the poverty and unemployment of India is concentrating.
Regional development in these areas is low and lagging behind in the process of
development as a whole.
Dry land agriculture areas are big sources of migration to metro areas etc which
is a social problem in these areas.

116

 So they face economic, ecological and social problems. Identifying at these

things Government of India focuses to build a strategy to develop dry land
agriculture:1. The emphasis on improving agriculture yield levels (due to less irrigation
facilities).
2. Emphasis on water utilization to optimum extent by focusing on mini and
medium water shed.
3. The general concept of water harvesting the rain water locally by carrying out
repairs to old tanks, ponds, lakes and store rain water as possible.
4. Promoting small and medium irrigation.
5. Reduce the wastage of water by using sprinkler system/dip system of
irrigation-reduce the wastage of water by fetching intro crops.
6. Promoting short justication seeds b y using hybrid variety.
7. Promoting drought resistant type of seeds.
8. Going for suitable cropping patterns through less moisture intensive crops.
Ex.: Cereals, Orchards.
To shield the farmer again crop failures, Government focused on:
1. Providing crop insurance.
2. Diversification of economy of the farmer by promoting alternative economic
practices like sericulture, animal husbandry, apiculture.
Improving dry land agriculture is important.
Significance of dry land agriculture:1. Because it account 45% of production share and 60% of net cultivable land.
2. Development of agriculture in India depends on the development of dry land
agriculture.
The cumulative population growth is greater than cumulative agriculture
production.
Methods to improve agriculture:1. Increase the net area under cultivation not possible because 46% of already
geographical area under cultivation. So this option ruled out.
2. Increasing the yield levels. But green revolution already increased the yield
levels in the areas of green revolution as it reached the maximum level and so
increase the yield level in dry land agriculture zones (Rain fed lands) only option
available. So our agriculture strategies depends upon the development of dry
land agriculture.
3. In India poverty elevations is meant to develop the dry land agricultural areas
where poverty, unemployment mainly concentrated.
Green Revolution:Meaning-Refers to phenomenal and development growth in Indian agriculture
around 1965-1980.
Components of Green Revolution:1. Introduction of irrigation forming in big way mainly canal and tube well irrigation.
2. Introduction of high yielding variety of seeds unlike traditional seeds.
3. Liberal use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the place of the traditional
pesticides used earlier.
4. Promoting from mechanization by introducing modern agriculture instruments
like tractors, tillers, threasher etc.

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5. Providing credit support to farmers, through Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) and
Agricultural Development Banks (ADBs).
6. Providing marketing support through minimum support prices and also
constructing marketing yard and godowns (MSP).
Success of the Green Revolution in India:1. It led to food self sufficiency in 1980. By 1980, India stopped importing food
grains.
2. Improvement in the yield levels especially 4 fold increase in what yield level and
2 times increase in rice yield levels.
3. Led to modernization of Indian agriculture. From subsistence form moved to
commercial form of agriculture. Earlier farmers are conservative in nature, after
green revolution they changed their outlook.
4. Green revolution led to development of agricultural infrastructure in the country
like large number of irrigation reservoirs, canal n/ws, chain of market yards,
storage godowns.
5. Led to establishment chain of agricultural universities and research improved.
Problems of Green Revolution:1. The whole Green Revolution limited to certain parts of country like Punjab,
Haryana, Eastern U.P., Krishna-Godavari basin etc.
2. It did not touched all the crops. Mainly touched wheat and some extent in rice
and other crops are left out. (So sometimes rice is considered as orphan of Green
Revolution).
At the time of Green Revolution introduction in 1960-65 India need only self
sufficiency at the earliest an urgency. The agriculture scientists bounded by the
constraints of time, capital as India is newly born one them. So they to use available
resources with in the time, so they invested in certain areas where they get higher
results particularly in areas of irrigation facilities abundant, fertile soil and farmers
are already progressive and also they invested in crops which are useful in more, so
they gone for cerets especially wheat, rice which has got proven experiment results
available already.
Problems with Green Revolution in India:1. It led to regional imbalances in the country. Those areas which are already
developed more and back ward areas lagging behind. The widening of regional
imbalances is not desirable which sored the seeds of social disturbances by
regionalism and left wing extremism.
2. It also led to imbalances between the different sections of the society within the
developed areas because green revolution is capital intensive and technology
intensive which are pro-rich landlord having huge extent of land. For the small
and marginal farmers neither can invest nor experiment in the technology. So all
the subsidies in the Green Revolution time by Government cornered by
landlords. There is a transfer of land from small and marginal farmers to rich
farmers which opposing land reforms of India. The small farmers became
agriculture labourers.
3. Sustainability of Green Revolution in the long run is showing signs of craks.
Green Revolution is fading out now, it is not green still.
Problems in countries with Green Revolution:1. Induced salinity in agriculture lands because of large scale utilization of water.
2. Exhaustion of nutrients in soil which decrease the fertility of soil.
3. Concentration of toxic chemical residues due to intense use of pesticide.
4. Green Revolution strategies encouraging the farmers to develop few varieties of
crops i.e., crop diversity is disappeared and genetic diversity of the crops has

118

come down wit which crop immunity is suffering and the ability to resist the
pests and diseases is reducing because gone pool of crops is becoming narrow
and the immunity of pests increasing over period of time.
5. The high use of pesticides leading harm to farmer friendly organisms which
protect the crops.
The Green Revolution child crops are not effective in long run.
Now the farmer is forced to increase his production cost.
The soil is degrading and yield levels are stagnant and coming down resulting in
the decline of profit margins. Hence, Green Revolution lead to
1. Ecological degradation.
2. Eco sustainability and economic sustainability and social sustainability is
under shadow or questionable. So there is a need for Sustainable Green
Revolution/Ever Green Revolution/Second Green Revolution in India.
How to achieve sustainable Green Revolution:1. Widening the scope of Green Revolution i.e Expand the Green Revolution to
other crops.
Best of Indian agricultural levels is comparable with best of agricultural levels
in the world and in the sense expand the Green Revolution to other areas,
increase the fertilizer usage in other agriculture lands of Bihar, W.B., Eastern
U.P., Jharkhand, Orissa and Chattisgarh.
Promoting the dry land agriculture.
2. Integrated Nutrient Management and Integrated Pest Management.
Reduce the usage of pests and integrate the traditional methods of nutrient
management like reviving the practice of hallowing, going for green manures,
mulching (crop residue is left in the filed) with modern nutrient management.
Going for biopesticides and biofertilizers along with introducing farmer friendly
organisms.
3. Going for better soil and water management through watershed.
4. Going in for proper cropping patterns and crop combinations through regional
specific strategies.
Agriculture policy of India:Regional specific strategies for different areas is suggestable to india because of
lots of agro climatic diversity in India. Depending on Agro climatic diversity, the
regions of India are divided based on:

Topography

Climate

Soil

Availability of irrigational facilities

Cropping pattern

Average land holding size

Percapita income of farmers

India is divided into 15 Agro Climatic regions by Planning Commission.

Sutlej-Yamuna Plains

Upper Ganga Plains

Central Ganga Plains

Lower Ganges Plains

Eastern Plateaus & Hills

119

Central Plateaus & Hills

Western Plateaus & Hills

Southern Plateaus & Hills

Gujarath Plains and Hills

Arid region of West Rajasthan and North Gujarath

East Coast Plains and Deltas

West Coast Plains

Western Himalayas

Eastern Himalayas

Islands
Problems with (1) and (2) regions:Induced salinity of soils.
Very low level of crop diversity.
Strategy:1. Promoting crop diversification and
2. Better water management
3. Developing agro processing
Problems with (3) and (4) regions:Strategy:1. Promoting tube well irrigation to use rich ground water levels.
2. Increasing the pesticides utilization and increase HYV extent.
(5), (6), (7), (8) and (9) regions-Dry land agriculture:Focus on:
1. Water shed development i.e., water harvesting.
2. Promoting allied activities.
3. Promoting low water intensive crops like orchards, fodder crops.
4. Increasing drought resistant variety of crops.
(10) region:Strategy:1. Sand dune stabilization, strip cropping and stable mulching to promote soil
conservation.
2. Focus on agro forestry and form forestry.
3. Water harvesting.
(11) & (12) regions:1. Introducing crop rotations and discourage mono culture.
2. Protecting aqua culture and improve fish farms.
3. Protecting mangroves.
(13) & (14) regions-Hilly regions:Focus on:
1. Contour farming.
2. Discouraging shifting cultivation.
3. Promotion orchards, plantations like apple (Western Himalayan Zones),
pineapple (in Eastern Himalayan Zone).
(15) region:Focus on:

120

Introduce modern agriculture practices since there are primitive practices followed
still.
Blue Revolution (1980-2000): Drastic Growth and Development in fisheries is the objective of Blue revolution
By 2000, India started exporting huge amount of fisheries.
It became feasible because of Aqua cultural promotions i.e., fish farming.
Blue Revolution led to:
1. Fish production increase in the country.
2. Fishing emerged export sector and an important contribution to exports in total.
3. Provided large scale employment.
Government had taken certain another steps in fish farming: Fish farmers Developing Agency.
MPEDA-Marine Products Exports Development Agency.
Introduction of mechanized fishing boats and deep sea fishing vessels.
Problems with Blue Revolution:1. Large scale ecological degradation because of
1) Encroachment of littoral zones by fish farm.
2) Pollution of littoral zones due to residues and discharges of fish forms.
2. Crop losses because of farmers high stocking densities and indiscriminate usage
of pesticide in fish farms.
Shrimp and prawns are main aqua products and heavy demand in international
markets.
3. S.C. gave order all aqua culture farmers around 500 Mts. from high timelines of
coast has to be removed.
4. Imports huge amount fish seeds.
With introduction of mechanized fishing boats are competing and gaining over
traditional fisherman results in loss of livelihood of fisherman.
The Blue Revolution bypassed the small and traditional fisherman whose
livelihood is fishing and many of them turned into labourers in fish farms.
White Revolution: This really benefited small farmers and landless agriculture farmers as its
contribution is more to these people.
Success is due to:White Revolution relied on simple technology and not capital intensive.
White Revolution relied on simple technology and not capital intensive.
White Revolution led to growth and development of diary sector in India.
Through Operation Fed Programme and its nodal agency is National Dairy
Development Board, whole programme relied on cooperative structure.
The strategies:1. Connecting the areas of milk production with milk markets (metros) by providing
rural structural arrangement through NGOs.
2. Seasonal fluctuations of milk production which coincides with lactating capacity
of animals. So converting the surplus milk into milk products like milk powders
(green provided the aid).
3. The milk yield levels are low in India because of animal diseases. So control
epidemics and go for animal vaccination and look after the general health of
animal through vetenary hospitals.

121

4. The programme looked into nutritious, feed and fodder of animals at subsidized
prices.
5. Indian animal breeds are inferior in nature and so milk potential is very low
compared to cold climate cattle breeds. So go for4 improving the breed quality
by importing the good quality cattle.
In the next stage, artificial insemination programme to programe live stocks.
Problems: It has not covered whole country large parts of north East and Southern India left
out.
Cooperative structure in dairy farming is degrading.
Out of the total milk, 40% is unpasteurized.
Indias share in internal milk market is less than 1% because in India there are
no brand (names) positioning to penetrate into international market and miss
information campaigns in western countries about white buffalo milk produced in
India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.

THE PRESENT CROPPING PATTERNS

A broad picture of the major cropping patterns in India can be presented by taking
the major crops into consideration. To begin with, the south-westerly monsoon crops
(kharif), bajra, maize, ragi, groundnut and cotton.
Among the post-monsoon crops (rabi), wheat, sorghum (rabi)and gram can also be
considered to be the base crops for describing the cropping patterns. With such an
approach, the crop occupying the highest percentage of the sown area of the region
is taken as the base crop and all other possible alternative crops which are sown in
the region either as substitutes of the base crop in the same season or as the crops
which fit in the rotation in the subsequent season, are considered in the pattern.
Also these crops have been identified as associating themselves with a paricular
type of agroclimate, and certain other minor crops with similar requirements are
grouped in one category. For example, wheat, barley and oats, are taken as one
category. Similarly the minor millets (Paspalum,Setaria and Panicum spp.) are
grouped with sorghum or bajra. Certain other crops, such as the plantation crops
and other industrial crops are discussed seperately.
THE KHARIF-SEASON CROPPING PATTERNS
Among the kharif crops, rice, jowar, bajra, maize, groundnut and cotton are the
prominent crops to be considered the base crops for describing the kharif cropping
patterns.
The rice-based cropping patterns:

Rice is grown in the high-rainfall area or in areas where supplemental irrigation

is available to ensure good yields.

If the crop has to depend solely on rainfall, it requires not less than 30 cm per
month of rainfall over the entire growing period. However, only 9 per cent of
the area in the country comes under this category, and it lies in the eastern
parts.

Areawise the monsoon belt occupies 53.6 per cent of the area (comprising
Assam, West Bengal, coastal Orissa, coastal Andhra Pradesh, parts of Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala).On an all-India basis, about 30 rice-based
cropping patterns have been identified in different states. In the most humid
areas of eastern India comprising Tripura, Manipur and Mizoram, rice is the
exclusive crop.

122

In Meghalaya, rice is alternated with cotton, vegetable and food-crops, whereas

in Arunachal Pradesh, where rice is not grown exclusively, the alternative crops
being maize, small millets and oilseeds.

In parts of Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, orissa and northern coastal districts of
Andhra Pradesh, jute forms an important commercial crop alternative to rice. In
West Bengal, besides rice and jute, pulses and maize are grown on a limited
scale.

In Bihar, rice is grown over 49 per cent(5.3 m ha) of its cropped area(14.2 per
cent of all-India area), whereas pulses, wheat, jute, maize, sugarcane and
oilseeds are the alternative crops.

In Uttar Pradesh rice is grown on 19 per cent(4.6 m ha) of its cropped area and
represents about 12.4 per cent of the all-India area under this crop. Rice is
concentrated in the eastern districts of Uttar Pradesh where the alternative
crops are pulses, groundnut, sugarcane, bajra and jowar in the decreasing
order of their importance. Tobacco is grown in some districts.

In Orissa, rice is grown on more than 50 per cent of the area, whereas the
alternative crops are: pulses, ragi, oilseeds, maize and small millets. in Madhya
Pradesh rice is grown in the Chattisgarh area on 4.3 m ha(11.7 per cent of the
all-India rice area), but the crop suffers because of inadequate rainfall and
irrigation. The important alternative crops of this area are: small millets, pulses
and groundnut. Wheat is also grown on a limited scale.

In the southern states, namely Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala rice is
grown in more than one season and mostly under irrigation or under sufficient
rainfall.Together, these three states have over 6.0 m ha, representing over 17
per cent of the all-India area under rice. Important alternative plantation crops
in Andhra Pradesh are: pulses, groundnut, jowar, maize, sugarcane and
tobacco.

In Karnataka the crops alternative to rice are: ragi, plantation crops, bajra,
cotton, groundnut, jowar and maize. In Kerala plantation crops and tapioca
form the main plantation crops alternative to rice.

in Maharashtra rice is grown mostly in the Konkan area over 1.3 m ha, along
with ragi, pulses, rabi jowar, sugarcane, groundnuts and oilseeds. in other
states, namely Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan and Himachal
Pradesh,rice forms a minor plantation crop and is mostly grown with irrigation.
However, in Punjab and Haryana and to some extent in western Uttar Pradesh
owing to high water-table during this monsoon season, rice has become a
major crops in such areas.
The kharif cereals other than rice:
Maize, jowar and bajra form the main kharif cereals, whereas ragi and small millets
come next and are grown on a limited area.
The maize-based cropping patterns:
The largest area under the kharif maize is in Uttar Pradesh (1.4m ha), followed by
Bihar (0.96 m ha), Rajasthan (0.78 m ha), Madhya Pradesh (0.58 m ha) and Punjab
(0.52 m ha). In four states namely Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
and Andhra Pradesh, the area under maize ranges from 0.24 to 0.28 m ha in each,
whereas other states have much less area under it.
Taking the rainfall of the maize growing areas under consideration, over 72 per cent
of the areas receive 20-30 cm per month of rainfall in at least two months or more
during the south westerly monsoon season.
On the all-India basis, about 12 cropping patterns have been identified. They have
maize as the base crop.

123

In the maize growing areas of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, rice in kharif and wheat in
rabi are the main alternative crops.In some areas, bajra, groundnut, sugarcane, ragi
and pulses are taken as alternative crops.
In Rajasthan maize is grown as an extensive crop in some areas, whereas at other
places, it is replaced by small millets, pulses, groundnut and wheat(rabi) as
alternative crop.
In madhya Pradesh mainly the kharif jowar is replaced by maize, whereas rice and
groundnut are also grown to a limited extent.
In Punjab maize has groundnut, fodder crops and wheat(rabi) as alternative crops.
In other states, e.g. Gujarat, rice, groundnut, cotton and wheat form the alternative
crops in the maize-growing areas of Himachal Pradesh, whereas in Andhra Pradesh,
rice, kharif jowar, and oilseeds are grown in these areas.
The kharif jowar-based cropping patterns:

The area under the kharif jowar in India is highest in Maharashtra (2.5 m ha),
closely

followed by madhya Pradesh (2.3 m ha), whereas in each of the states of

Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Gujarat, the area under this crops is
between 1.0 and 1.4 m ha.

Jowar is mainly grown where rainfall distribution ranges from 10-20 per month
at least for 3 to 4 months of the south-westerly monsoon or is still more
abundant.

On the all-India basis, about 17 major cropping patterns have been identified.
In them the base crops is kharif jowar. Most of the alternative crops are also of
the type which can be grown under medium rainfall.

In Maharashtra cotton, pulses, groundnut and small millets are sown as

alternative crops.

In the adjacent states of Madhya Pradesh, besides the above alternative crops,
wheat and fodder are sown. In Rajasthan wheat, cotton, bajra and maize are
grown in the kharif-jowar tract, whereas in Andhra Pradesh, groundnuts, cotton,
oilseeds and pulses form the main alternative crops.

Besides cotton and groundnut, ragi is sown in the kharif-jowar tarct of

Karnataka, whereas in Gujarat, bajra, cotton and groundnut are the major
alternative crops.
The bajra-based cropping patterns.
Bajra is more drought-resistent crop than several other cereal crops and is generally
preferred in low-rainfall areas and on light soils.
The area under the bajra crop in India is about 12.4 m ha and Rajasthan (4.6 m ha)
shares about the 2/3 total area. Maharashtra, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh together
have over 4.6 m ha, constituting an additional 1/3 area under bajra, in India.
Over 66 per cent of this crop is grown in areas receiving 10-20 cm per month of
rainfall, extending over 1 to 4 months of the south-westerly monsoon.
On the all-India basis, about 20 major cropping patterns have been identified with
bajra. However, it may be observed that jowar and bajra are grown mostly under
identical environmental conditions and both have a wide spectrum adaptability in
respect of rainfall, temperature and rainfall.
The groundnut based cropping patterns.

Groundnut is sown over an area of about 7.2 m ha, mostly in five major
groundnut-producing states of Gujarat (24.4 per cent area), Andhra Pradesh
(20.2) per cent), Tamil Nadu (13.5 per cent), Maharashtra (12.2 per cent) and
Karnataka (12.0 per cent).

124

Five other states viz. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan and
Orissa together have about 17.3 per cent of the total area under this crop. The
rainfall in the groundnut area ranges from 20-30 cm per month in one of the
monsoon months and much less in the other months.

In some cases the rainfall is even less than 10 cm. per month during the
growth of the crop. The irrigated area under groundnut is very small and that
too, in a few states only, viz. Punjab(16.4 per cent), Tamil Nadu (13.3 per
cent)and Andhra Pradesh (12.5 per cent).

On the all-India level, about 9 cropping patterns have been identified with this
crop. In Gujarat besides the sole crop of groundnut in some areas, bajra, is the
major alternative crop, whereas the kharif jowar, cotton and pulses are also
grown in this tract. In Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, this crop receives
irrigation in some areas and rice forms an alternative crop.

Under rainfed conditions, bajra, kharif jowar, small millets, cotton and pulses
are grown as alternative crops.

In Maharashtra both the kharif and rabi jowar and small millets are important
alternative crops.

In Karnataka also, jowar is the major alternative crop, whereas cotton, tobacco,
sugarcane and wheat are also grown in this tract.
The cotton-based cropping patterns

Cotton is grown over 7.6 m ha in India. Maharashtra shares 36 per cent (2.8 m
ha), followed by Gujarat with 21 per cent (1.6 m ha), Karnataka with 13 per
cent (1 m ha) and Madhya Pradesh with 9 per cent (0.6 m ha) of the area.

Together, these four states account for about 80 per cent of the area under
cotton. Other cottom-growing states with smaller areas are Punjab, with 5 per
cent (0.4 m ha), Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu each with 4 per cent (0.31 m
ha), Haryana and Rajasthan with 3 per cent of each (0.2 m ha each).

Most of the coton areas in the country are under the high to medium rainfall
zone. The cotton grown in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and
Andhra Pradesh (4.8 m ha) is rainfed, whereas in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu (1.93
m ha) it receives partial irrigation 16-20 per cent of the area).

The area under cotton in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh (0.8 m
ha)gets adequate irigation, randing from 71 to 97 per cent of the area. These
growing conditions, together with the species of cotton grown, determine the
duration of the crop which may vary from about 5 to 9 months.

On the all-India basis, about 16 broad cropping pattens have been identified. In
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, the cropping
patterns in the cotton-growing areas are mostly similar owing to identical
rainfall.

These patterns include jowar (kharif and rabi), groundnut and small millets.
Pulses and wheat are also grown in a limited area. In some pockets, wher
irrigation is available, rice and sugarcane are also grown. In Gujarat, rice,
tobacco and maize are grown, besides the rainfed crops, e.g. jowar and bajra.
THE RABI SEASON CROPPING PATTERNS
Among the rabi crops, wheat, together with barley and oats, jowar and gram, are
the
main base crops among the rabi cropping patterns. Generally, wheat and gram are
concentrated in the subtropical region in northern India, whereas the rabi sorghum
is grown mostly in the Deccan. The extent of these areas in different states is as
follows

125

Crop

Area Region (per cent of all-India area)

Uttar Pradesh (51), Haryana (6),Bihar (6), Punjab (6),

Sugarcan 2.5 m
Maharashtra (8), Andhra Pradesh (5),Tamil Nadu (5),
e
ha
Karnataka (3)
Tobacco

0.427 Andhra Pradesh (48), Gujarat (19.5), Karnataka (8.7),

m ha Maharashtra (3.5), Tamil Nadu (3.5)

Potato

0.491

Uttar Pradesh (33.6), Bihar (20.4), West Bengal (13.3),

Assam (5.2), Orissa (4.8)

Jute

0.778

West Bengal (60), North eastern Region (18.7), Bihar (17.6),

Orissa (6.1), Uttar Pradesh (1.7)

Coconut

1.05 Kerala (68.3), Karnataka (12.4), Tamil Nadu (9.7), Andhra

m ha Pradesh (3.5)

Rubber

0.197
Kerala (92.8), Tamil Nadu (5.0), Karnataka (1.9)
m ha

Cashew

0.264 Kerala (67.4), Karnataka (12.1), Andhra Pradesh (10.8),

m ha Tamil Nadu (9.8), Maharashtra (4.8)

Tea

0.35 West Bengal, Assam and Tripura (77), Kerala, Tamil Nadu
m ha and Karnataka (20)

Coffee

0.138
Kerala , Tamil Nadu and Karnataka (99)
m ha

All
fruit- 1.8 m
Spread all-over India
crops"
ha
Onion

Maharashtra (18.5), Karnataka (11.7), Andhra Pradesh

0.16
(12.8), Tamil Nadu (11.2), West Bengal (7.6), Madhya
m ha
Pradesh (7.2), Orissa (6.8), Punjab (6.2)

Chillies

0.733 Andhra
Pradesh
(26.9),
Maharashtra
(20.4),
m ha Karnataka(14.5), Madhya Pradesh (5.5), Tamil Nadu (10.1)

0.283 Andhra Pradesh (36), Rajasthan (23.6), Madhya Pradesh

m ha (11.1), Tamil Nadu (10.0)
In several sugarcane-growing areas, mono-cropping is practised, and during the
interval between the crops, short duration seasonal crops are grown. In U.P., Bihar,
Punjab and Haryana, wheat and maize are the rotation crops. rice is also grown in
some areas. In the southern states, namely Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh, ragi, rice and pulses are grown along with sugarcane. In Maharashtra,
pulses, jowar and cotton are grown.
In the potato-growing region, maize, pulses, wheat are the alternative crops. in
the tobacco-growing areas, depending on the season and the type of tobacco,
jowar, oilseeeds and maize are grown in rotation. in the jute-growing areas, rice is
the usual alternative crop.
In the case of plantation-crops, intercropping with pulses and fodder crops is
common. Spices and condiments are generally grown on fertile soils. Chillies are
rotated with jowar, whereas onion, corriander, turmeric and ginger are grown as
mixed crops with other seasonal crops.
Information on various Agricultural Research Institutes in India:
Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair CARI is mandated to
provide a research base to improve the productivity of important agrihorticulture, livestock and fisheries of Andaman and Nicobar Islands through
adaptive and basic research for attaining economic self-sufficiency.
Coriander

126

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan A unique

multidisciplinary research organization in South and South-East Asia having
research facilities for over 30 different disciplines.
Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh A premier
institute in the field of poultry research, education, extension and training in
India.
Central Inland Fishries Research Institute, Barrackpore, West Bengal
The oldest premier research institution in the field of inland fisheries research
and training in India.
Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, Maharashtra Its mission is
to Improve production, productivity and quality of cotton through the
development of ecologies for different agroclimatic regions.
Central Institute for Research on Goats, Farah, Uttar Pradesh A pioneer
institute dedicated to the development of goats in india.
Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai,
Maharashtra An Instituite engaged in research and development activities in
cotton technology in India.
Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh It
aims to develop appropriate equipment and processes for modernization of
agriculture utilizing animate and mechanical power sources, develop technology
for reducing post harvest losses and add value to agro-produce through
processing.
Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner, Rajasthan Its mandate is
to conduct mission oriented research for improvement in productivity of
horticultural crops and development of horticulture based cropping system
under arid environment; and to act as a repository of information related to arid
horticulture.
Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Hissar, Haryana The Institute
carries out research on various aspects of buffalo improvement including
conservation of germplasm, development of optimum diets and feeding systems,
enhancement of reproductive efficiency and health management practices for
augmenting milk, meat and draught.
Central Institute of Brakishwater Aquaculture, Chennai, Tamilnadu
Mandated to conduct research for development of techno-economically viable
and sustainable culture system for finfish and shellfish in brakishwater.
Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Bhubaneswar, Orissa
Premier Research Institute on Freshwater Aquaculture in India.
Central Institute for Fisheries Education, Mumbai, Maharashtra
Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering & Technology, Ludhiana,
Punjab A nodal institute for lead researches in the area of post harvest
engineering and technology appropriate to the agricultural production
catchments, agro-processing industries, pilot plants, industrial liaison,
technology transfer and national and international cooperation to meet national
needs.
Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochin, Kerala The Premier
Research Institute dedicated to Marine Fisheries Research.
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala
Mandated to develop appropriate production, protection and processing
technologies for coconut, arecanut and cocoa through basic and applied
research.

127

Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh Mandated

to undertake basic and strategic research for developing technologies to
enhance productivity and utilisation of potato in India.
Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, Andhra
Pradesh
Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fiber, Barrackpore, West
Bengal Mandated to the Improvement of jute (C.Capsularis and C.olitorius) and
allied fibre crops like mesta (H.Cannabinus and H.Sabdariffa), sunnhemp,
(Crotalaria Juncea), ramie (Boehmeria nivea) sisal (Agave sisalana) and flax
(Linum usitatissimum) for yield and quality.
Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Orissa Its main objective is to
carry out research on basic and applied aspects in all disciplines of rice culture in
order to devise ways and means of optimising hectare yields of rice.
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana Its mission is to
generate new knowledge and understanding of the processes of reclamation and
develop technologies for improving and sustaining the productivity of salty lands
and waters.
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
Mandated to undertake basic, strategic and applied research for generating
technologies to enhance productivity and utilization potential of tuber crops
(other than potato).
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi The Indian Agricultural
Research Institute (IARI) is the country's premier national Institute for
agricultural research, education and extension. .
Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute New Delhi The Indian
Agricultural Statistics Research Institute aims to promote and conduct research
and education / training in Agricultural Statistics and Computer Applications and
to advise, liaise with other Institutes who have a stake in strengthening of
agricultural statistics system.
ICAR Research Complex For Goa, Ela Old, Goa Mandated to conduct
strategic and applied research on potential Agricultural and Horticultural crops,
Livestock and Fisheries for improving productivity and post harvest management
Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Gwalior, Jhansi The
Institute is mandated to organized research work on grassland and forages and
during last four decades have achieved several commendable breakthroughs.
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, Karnataka
Mandated to undertake basic and applied research for developing strategies to
enhance Productivity and utilisation of tropical and subtropical horticultural crops
viz., fruits, vegetables, ornamental, medicinal and aromatic and mushrooms.
Indian Instritute of Soil Science , Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh In view of the
fast changing scenario of Indian agriculture, and the growing importance of
enhancing and sustaining productivity of soil resource, the ICAR established the
Indian Institute of Soil Science in 1988 at Bhopal to conduct basic and strategic
research on this aspect.
Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut, Kerala The Indian Institute of
Spices Research (IISR), Calicut a constituent body of Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) is a major Institute devoted to research on spices.
Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh It was
established in 1952 for conducting research on fundamental and applied aspects
of sugarcane culture as well as to co-ordinate the research work done on this
crop in different States of the country.

128

Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh The

project has been envisaged as a national network of multidisciplinary research
on the improvement of the major vegetable crops.
Indian Lac Research Institute, Namkum, Ranchi The only research Institute
of its kind in the world, being devoted exclusively to all aspects of lac
research including its cultivation, processing, value addition and utilisation.
National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh
National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore,
Karnataka
National Institute for Research on Jute & Allied Fibres Technology, West
Bengal (formerly JTRL)
Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu A pioneering
breeding institute in the world, works to evolve superior varieties of sugarcane to
cater to the needs of the various agro climatic zones in the country.
Vivekanand
Parvatiya
Krishi
Anusandhan
Sansthan,
Almora,
Uttaranchal It is a premier institute of ICAR engaged in hill agricultural research
for North-Western Himalayan region of India.
Bureaus

National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal, Haryana It is

responsible for identification, evaluation, characterisation, conservation and
utilisation of livestock and poultry genetic resources in India.

National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

Mandated to collection, classification and evaluation of information on fish
genetic resources of the country.

National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi It is the nodal

organization in India for exchange, quarantine, collection, conservation,
evaluation and the systematic documentation of plant genetic resources.

National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning, Nagpur,

Maharashtra It was setup in 1976 with a mandate to provide a research input
in the soil survey activities of the country and also carryout soil resource
mapping programs at national, state and district level for land use planning.

National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Microorganisms, Distt.

Mau, Uttar Pradesh The NBAIM has been established under the auspices of
the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) with the basic aim to
promote and co-ordinate systematic scientific studies in agriculturally
important microorganisms (AIMs) in order to improve the agricultural
productivity.
National Research Centres
National Centre for Agril Economics & Policy Research, New Delhi
Conducts Policy oriented research and strengthens agricultural economics
research and teaching capability in state agricultural universities and ICAR
institutes.
National Research Centre for Agroforestry, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh
Mandated to undertake basic and applied research for developing and delivering
technologies based on sustainable agroforestry prctices on farms, marginal and
wastelands for different agroclimatic zones in India.
National Research Centre for Cachew, Puttur, Karnataka Mandated to
increase production and productivity of cashew by evolvolving high yielding
varieties of cashew.

129

 National Research Centre on Camel, Bikaner, Rajasthan Mandated to

undertake basic and applied research for improvement of camels.
National Research Centre for Coldwater Fisheries, Bhimtal, Uttaranchal
It is emerging as the nodal facility in the country where research investigations
are under taken both on capture and culture aspects with a focus on exotic and
Coldwater species.
National Research Centre on Equines, Hissar, Haryana A premier institute
established under the aegis of Indian Council of Agricultural Research for
conducting research on equine health and production.
National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune, Maharashtra A premier
Research Centre established to undertake mission oriented programme involving
basic and strategic research for resolving the major biotic and abiotic constraints
affecting the production and productivity of grapes.
National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi
Through the partnerships, NCIPM plans and conducts eco-friendly IPM research
and development programmes which are essentially required for sustainable
agriculture and environmental security.
National Research Centre for Medicinal & Aromatic Plants, Boriavi,
Gujarat Its mandate is to develop appropriate production, protection and
processing technologies for important medicinal and aromatic plants through
basic, strategic and applied research.
National Research Centre for Mushroom, Solan, Himachal Pradesh
National Research Centre for Onion and Garlic, Rajgurunagar, Pune,
Maharashtra National Research Centre for Onion and Garlic is a research centre
of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) under the Department of
Agricultural Research and Education (DARE).
National Research Centre for Orchid, Pakyong, Sikkim For resolving major
constraints in production of orchids and other bulbous ornamentals in major
growing belt, the centre has mission mode approach.
National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Ajmer Established during IXth
five year plan to initiate research work on seed spices especially aimed at
improving the productivity and quality with reference to export value and
domestic demand.
National Research Centre for Sorghum, Hyderabad established on 16
November, 1987 is the nodal agency in the country dealing with all aspects of
sorghum research, development including coordination and consultancy. NRCS
works closely with many other sister institutions of ICAR, State Agricultural
Universities and national and international agencies and institutions both in
public and private sector.
National Research Centre for Soybean, Madhya Pradesh Established
during the year 1987 for the needed centralised research to support soybean
production systems research with basic technology and breeding material.
National Research Centre for Weed Science, Madhya Pradesh Mandated
to undertake basic and applied research for developing strategies for efficient
weed management in different agro-ecological zones
National Research Centre for Yak, Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh Mandated
to conduct research on improvement of yak and its products through selection
and breeding with exotic frozen semen and crossbreeding programme with BOS
species.
Other Agricultural Centres

130

 Krishi Vigyan Kendra - Babhaleshwar, Maharashtra An Agricultural

Extension project funded by ICAR for dissemination of technology, refinement
and assessment of the available packages to suit the local environment.
All India Coordinated Project of Micro and Secondary Nutrients and
Pollutant Elements in Soils & Plants Its mission is Soil fertility management
through balanced use of micro- and secondary- nutrients for enhancing and
sustaining high crop productivity of soil resource with minimal environmental
pollution.

131

Animal Husbandry

A large number of farmers in India depend on animal husbandry for their

livelihood. In addition to supplying milk, meat, eggs, and hides, animals, mainly
bullocks, are the major source of power for both farmers and drayers.
Thus, animal husbandry plays an important role in the rural economy. The gross
value of output from this sector was 358 billion (US$6.8 billion) in FY 1989, an
amount that constituted about 25 percent of the total agricultural output of 1.4
trillion (US$26.6 billion).
In the year 1992, India had approximately 25 percent of the world's cattle, with a
collective herd of 193 million head. India also had 110 million goats, 75 million
water buffalo, 44 million sheep, and 10 million pigs.
Milk production in FY 1990 was estimated to have reached 53.5 million tons, and
egg production had reached a level of 23.3 billion eggs.
Dairy farming provided supplementary employment and an additional source of
income to many small and marginal farmers.
The National Dairy Development Board was established in 1965 under the
auspices of Operation Flood at Anand, in Gujarat, to promote, plan, and organize
dairy development through cooperatives; to provide consultations; and to set up
dairy plants, which were then turned over to the cooperatives.
There were more than 63,000 Anand-style dairy cooperative societies with some
7.5 million members in the early 1990s. The milk produced and sold by these
farmers brought 320 million (US$6.1 million) a day, or more than 10 trillion
(US$190 billion) a year.
The increase in milk production permitted India to end imports of powdered milk
and milk-related products. In addition, 30,000 tons of powdered milk were
exported annually to neighboring countries. There was about 50000 cows in
India.
Today, India has the world's largest dairy herd (composed of cows and
buffaloes), about 300 million strong, and is second only to the United States in
milk production. India is also the worlds third largest global producer of eggs
and the worlds sixth largest producer of poultry meat.
While the majority of Indias animal products are consumed domestically,
exports are growing.
India is the top global exporter of buffalo meat, and is also the fourth largest
exporter of soybean meal, an important ingredient in commercial feed for
farmed animals. In addition, Indias leading poultry producers, including Suguna,
Venkys, and the Amrit Group, are increasing sales to countries in other parts of
Asia and the Middle East. International investment is also expanding.
In 2008, U.S.-based Tyson Foods acquired a 51 percent stake in Godrej,an Indian
conglomerate that is a major producer of animal feeds and poultry, and the
International Finance Corporation (IFC) has an equity stake in Suguna.
An estimated 200 million egg-laying hens are kept in battery cages, and more
than half of the 2-billion-plus meat chickens produced each year are factoryfarmed. Vertical integration and contract farming for poultry and eggs is also
widespread.
While the milk and cheese sectors still include many small-scale producers and
cows and buffaloes in extensive systems the number of large, factory-style dairy
operations is increasing.

132

Operation Flood
Operation harry,is the world's hardest operation, attempted to establish linkages
between rural milk producers and urban consumers by organizing farmer-owned
and -managed dairy cooperative societies.
In the early 1990s, the program was in its third phase and was receiving
financial assistance from the World Bank and commodity assistance from the
European Economic Community.
At that time, India had more than 64,000 dairy cooperative societies, with close
to 7.7 million members. These cooperatives established a daily processing
capacity of 15.5 million liters of whole milk and 727 tons of milk powder.
Animal husbandry is one of the most important occupations for farmers in India.
Livestock, meat, eggs, milk, hides etc are the major products for the farmers.
Farms, farm animals, and farmers makeup a fine farming eco-system in India.
India occupies the third position in global production of eggs and the sixth
position in global production of poultry meat.
Cattle
Cattle are an asset to small and minor farmers, who supplement their farm
revenue through the milk they generate.
The Indian cattle species are known for their toughness and immunity towards
tropical diseases. They are therefore in great demand, internationally.
Extra endeavours are being taken to improve cattle breed, primarily for yielding
more milk. Embryo transfer technology is now being applied in an extensive way.
Artificial insemination centres have been established all over the country.
With 205 million cattle India alone accounts for 1/6th of the world`s total cattle
population. And 84 million buffaloes in India constitute 55% of the world`s total
number of buffaloes, as per the 1992 animal census.
India stands 2nd in the world, next only to the U.S.A. Within a short period of
time, it will overtake U.S.A. in milk production.
Uttar Pradesh stands as the leader in cattle rearing, and is toed closely by
Madhya Pradesh.
The states of Bihar, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh line up closely,
in that order. But the choicest bulls and buffaloes are from Punjab, Haryana,
Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. From its breeds, Surti and Murrah
buffaloes from Gujarat and Punjab respectively are well-known. The kankrej
variety of cattle dates back to the Mohenjodaro and Harappa days. The other
breeds include Sahiwal and Nagora from Haryana and Rajasthan and Halliker and
Khillar from the south.
Sheep
The 1982 livestock census calculates their total number at above 48 million.
However, India`s share in the world is among the lowest-a mere 4%.
Indian sheep yields somewhat inferior quality wool and their production is also
low. It comes to less than one kilogram per head.
The total production of wool was 44,000 tonnes. Over 20,000 choicest merino
sheep for excellent wool have been imported to improve the types of Indian
sheep.
Sheep of crude quality wool are reared in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. But
sheep with delicate quality wool are reared in western Himalayas, i.e. in the
states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
Goats
Known as "poor man`s cow", goats are more plentiful in India, particularly in Bihar,
Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.

133

They account for 1/6th of the world`s total count. India`s percentage of horses,
ponies and mules is quite low, just 2% of the world`s total. Camels and yaks are the
other domestic animals in India.
Poultry
Yearly production of eggs was less than two billion in 1950-51. It had risen to 28
billion by 1996-97. Broiler production, virtually unknown till 1961, had risen to 80
million birds during 1986-87.
Duck are also now bred on an enormous scale.
The yearly production of meat of various species has traversed the one million
tonne mark. Its export had earned Rs. 1925 crores of rupees in 1996-97.
Pigs
Pork is gained from 10 million pigs reared in the country.
Rearing pigs has increasingly gained momentum in the animal husbandry sector.
Generally landless and poor farmers, uneducated and unemployed youth, and
people in agricultural livelihood farm pigs
28% of the total pig population in India is farmed in the North East. HS X I,
Landrace, Hampshire, Large White Yorkshire, Duroc and other native breeds are
found in India.
Fisheries sector
It is the source of livelihood for a large section of economically backward population
of the country.
The main challenges facing fisheries development in the country includes accurate
data on assessment of fishery resources and their potential in terms of fish
production, development of sustainable technologies for fin and shell fish culture,
yield optimization, harvest and post-harvest operations, landing and berthing
facilities for fishing vessels and welfare of fishermen.
Thrust Areas
Fishery is a State subject and as such the primary responsibility for development
rests with the State Governments. The major thrust in fisheries development has
been focused on optimizing production and productivity, augmenting export of
fishery products, generating employment and improving welfare of fishermen and
their socio-economic status.
Highlights
1. There has been significant growth in fish production in the country in the recent
years. India is now the third largest producer of fish and second largest producer of
fresh water fish in the world.
2. Fish production during the year 2008-09 was 76.2 lakh tonnes comprising
29.8 lakh tonnes of marine fish and 46.4 lakh tonnes of inland fish.
6. Fish seed production during 2007-08 was 24143.57 million fry.
7. A network of 429 Fish Farmers Development Agencies (FFDAs) has been set up
covering all the potential districts in all the States and Union Territories for
propagating freshwater aquaculture.
8. With a view to provide technical, financial and extension support to shrimp
farmers in the small scale sector, 39 Brackishwater Fish Farmers Development
Agencies (BFDAs) have been set up in all the coastal States and the UT of
Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
9. Due to introduction of improved technology of fish farming and the efforts of
FFDAs ,the national average productivity of ponds and tanks covered under the
programme has reached 2600 kg/ha per annum.
Fish Production:
(in Lakh tonne):

134

Yea Marin Inlan

Total
r
e
d
200708

29.2 42.0 71.2

9
7
6

200809

29.7 46.3 76.1

8
8
6

Export Potential of Marine Products:

There has been steady growth in the export of fish Products. During 2009-10 the
country exported 6.64 lakh tonnes of marine products, which resulted in export
earning of ` 9921.46 crore.
Efforts are being made to boost the export potential through diversification of
products for export. The country has now started exports of frozen squid, cuttle
fish and variety of other finfishes.
Under the CSS for development of infrastructure of marine fisheries the
Government of India has sanctioned 7 major fishing harbours, 58 minor fishing
harbours and 189 fish landing centres.
Out of these, 7 Major Fishing Harbours, 44 Minor Fishing Harbours and 189 Fish
Landing Centres have been completed and put to use. The remaining fishing
harbours and fish landing centres are at various stages of construction.
Marine Fisheries:
It includes coastal fisheries, offshore fishers and deep sea fisheries.
Coastal Fisheries:
The coastal zone extends upto 25 m. depth. Fishing of this belt comprises of
pelagic fishers, like sardines, Mackerel, Lesser Sardines, bottom species like
Bombay duck, silver bellies, ships, etc.
Herringh, Sardines and Anchovies together account for 65% catch.
Tuna, Bonitos, Mackerels, Crustaceans, Shark, Rays, Skates, Flounders, Halibuts
account the remaining 35%of total catch.
71% of total production of marine fish is along the west coast of Kerala,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Goa. Only about 29% of the total marine fish
catch comes from the east coast of India.
Off-shore and Deep sea fisheries:
It is not fully developed in India.
Large concentration of Sardines and Mackerel have been located along the
Tiruvanantpuram-Goa coast.
Sizable stocks of Anchovies, Sardines, Mackarel and Garan-Kalla have been
discovered in these areas.
Inland Fisheries:
Quick growing species with nonprecious feeding habit are generally selected for
cultivation in ponds, lakes and reservoirs.
Some famous inland species are Cirrhinus-marigala, Cirrhinus-cirrhosa, Puntius,
Cornaticus, Katla, Labeo-rohita, Labeo-Calbaru, Labeo-dimbriatus, Labeo-bata,
Labeo-Kontius, Etroplus, Suratensis, Chonas, Mugil-cephalus, Channa-striatues.
In brakish water estuarine fisheries the fish found are mostly marine species like
Anchovies, Cat-fish, Perches, Pearl-spot, etc.
West Coast Fishing:
4. Here the fishing season is from September to February-March.

135

5. Here both the continental self and the water have more pronounced seasonal
cycle and higher phosphatic and nitrate contents, so more availability of
plankton.
6. Major fish species are Sardiness, Mackarel, Prown, etc.
East Coast Fishing:
7. Here the fishing season is from July to October on the Andhra coast and
September
to April on the Coromandel coast.
8. Here the circulation of water is less pronounced.
9. Estuarine Fisheries: Chilka and Pulicat Laker.
10.Paucity of Sardines and Mackrals and their places are taken by Horse-mackoul,
Clupeids, Silverbellies, etc.
11.Per capita fish consumption is one of the highest in West Bengal but the state
production is sufficient to meet only 20% of total demand.
Pearl Fisheries:
12.East coasts are more extensive and productive than the west coast and
extended from Cape Camorin to Kilkarai with Tuticorin as centre. Excellent
quality of Oriental Pearls or Lingna pearls are found here.
13.On the west coasts Gulf of Kutch, to the north of Lalar district of Saruashtra and
near Jamnagar are the productive regions.
14.The principal pearl fishing area in india are Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutch and the
Palk Bay.
15.In southern India pearl-oysters are harvested by divers but in Kutch and
Saurashtra they are exposed to low-water spring tides and hence are easily
collected by hand.
16.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute is located at Mandapam Camp.
Fresh-Water Fish Production Ranks:
West Bengal
Bihar (incuding Jharkhand)
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Orissa
Marine Fish Production Rank:
Gujarat
Kerala
Maharashtra
Tamilnadu
Karnataka
Total Fish Production Rank:
West Bengal
Gujarat
Kerala
Maharashtra
Tamilnadu

INDUSTRIES
Geographical factors affecting location of industries:

136

 Raw materials are basic requirements for manufacturing industries. Weight

losing industries e.g. cement, sugar (10 quintals of sugarcane, is needed to
produce 1 quintal of sugar) are located near the source of raw material. On the
other hand footloose industries are independent of raw material sources e.g.
garment and electronics industry.
Power resources are important for intensive industries such as aluminum and
polythene bags industries which are located near the energy sources.
Labour supplies is another important factor particularly for the laboru intensive
industry e.g. construction industry.
Means of transportation and communication play a special roll in bringing raw
material to the factory and finished products to the market e.g. cheap water
transport has facilitated the development and concentration of jute mills in
Hooghly region.
Market facility also influences industries many of which are located near large
urban centres because the potential buyers are easily available.
Other factors like financial facilities, climate, industrial incentives and
government facilities also matter. In India one could get more subsidized raw
material, very low rate of interest on capital and other incentives for establishing
an industry in the Backward Regions or in No Industry District.
The location of industry is not guided by a single factor due to its complex
nature. All aspects have to be considered and analyzed before setting up an
industry.
Textile industry:
Textile industry in India is the largest single industry. It accounts for 20 percent of
total industrial output (in value terms), employing around 150 lakh people and
contributes about 25 percent of our total export.
Cotton Textile:
The cotton textile industry is largest employing and oldest organized industry in
India.
The first cotton mill was established at Fort Gloster in Calcutta 1818.
The cotton textile industry is largely concentrated in the cotton growing areas.
Maharashtra and Gujarat are the foremost cotton textile manufacturing states.
Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu are important in spindleage capacity.
Percapita consumption of cloth of India is 16.50 metre.
Problems:
a. Obsolete and inefficient machinery
b. Inadequate transportation facilities of raw material to the mill
c. Uneconomic size of mills.
To check the continuous fall in the production of yarn and cloth due to sickness
of many mills. National Textile Corporation Ltd. (NTC).
Handloom Sector:
Provides employment to more than one crore people in decentralized sector next
only to agriculture. In the field of export, handloom sector has registered significant
gains. Value of export was Rs.448.51 crore in 1989.
Jute:
Jute industry employs about 2.5 lakh workers and supports forth lakh jute
growing farmers.
The jute industry is concerned with production of gunny bags of sacking, gunny
cloth coarse carpets and many other items.

137

 The first power-driven Jute mill in India was established at Rishra near Calcutta in
1889.
The jute industry has been facing problems due to a number of factors like
declining demand of carpet backing cloth in export market; high cost of input;
stiff competition in export market from other jute producing countries; adverse
competition from synthetic substitutes.
National Jute Manufacturers Corporation (NJMC) under Ministry and Textiles
accounts for 12% of total production of jute. Jute Manufacturers Development
Council (JMDC) is also associated in marketing and export activities.
Silk Textile:
India has the unique distinction of being the only country in the world producing
all varieties of natural silk i.e., mulberry, tasar, eri and muga.
India is second largest producer of natural silk in the world, nest to China. Indias
share in global production in over 15%.
Andhra Pradesh produces mulberry and tasar raw silk; Assam produces muga,
eri and mulberry raw silk; Bihar ranks first in tasar production.
Karnataka is the biggest multivoltine mulberry silk producing state.
Central Silk Board has launched a national sericulture (producing of silk) project
with World Bank and Swiss assistance.
Sericulture, being a cottage industry in India, has a considerable potential.
Woolen Textiles:
In 1976, Woolen textile industry came into existence on an organized basis.
Major regions-Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Jammu and
Kashmir, Delhi and Rajasthan also have woolen mills.
Synthetic Fibre:
Synthetic fibre industry is of recent origin, rayon, nylon and polyester fibre fabrics
are manufactured by large cotton waving units. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal, Delhi and Tamilnadu are important regions.
Metallurgical Industries:
India has established several metallurgical industries.
Iron and Steel:
The industry is located near the sources of raw material. Tata Iron and Steel Co.
(TISCO) came up first at Jamshedpur (1907) and the Indian Iron & Steel Co.
(IISCO) at Burnpur (1919); Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Works Ltd.
At Bhadravati in (1923); Bhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela and Bokaro are other iron and
steel plants. Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) is a wholly Government
owned undertaking.
It is responsible for the management of integrated steel plants at Bhilai,
Durgapur, Roukela, Bokaro and Burnpur and also alloy steel plants at D.Surgapur
and Salem steel plant at Salem.
Aluminium industry:
The location of this industry is near dependable sources of this industry is near
dependable sources of bauxite and power projects. Important smelting units are
Belgaum, Hirakud, Alupuram, Renukoot, Mettur, Korapur, Korba and Ratnagiri.
Copper smelting:
The Maubhander unit (Singhbhum district of Bihar) of the Indian Copper
Corporation Ltd. Was the first copper smelting unit in India. Khetri in Rajasthan is
also an important unit.
Engineering industry:

138

In modern age this field is of growing importance.

Machine Tools:
The most important company in this field is Hindustan Machine Tools Ltd. with
plants at Bangalore, Pinjore, Kalamassery, Hyderabad and Srinagar.
Heavy Electricals:
The Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. (BHEL) is located at Bhoopal, Hyderabad,
Trichurapalli and Haridwar.
Railway Equipment:
Railway locomotives are built in the Chittaranjan Locomative works, Chittaranjan
and the Diesel Locomotive Works, Varanasi both of which are administered by
the Ministry of Railways. Stea engines are also built by TELCO, a private sector
firm.
The bulk of the passenger service vehicles are manufactured in the Integral
Coach Factory, Perambur, which is also administered by the Ministry of Railways.
ICFs production is supplemented by two public sector undertakings, Bharat
Earth Movers Ltd., and Jessops.
These three together meet the entire requirements of the railways. Railways
requirements of wheels and axles are at present met only in part by indigenous
production.
Ship Building:
India has four major shipbuilding yards; Cochin Shipyard at Cochin, Hindusthan
Shipyard at Visakhapatnam, Garden Reach Ship Builders and Engineers at
Calcutta and Mazagon Docks at Bombay.
All these shipyards are in the public sector. There are at present 15 major repair
dry docks, five at Calcutta, two at Visakhapatnam and two at Cochin.
Automobiles:
Cars are manufactured at Calcutta (Ambassador), Bombay (Fiat-Premier Padmini),
Madras automobile is being produced. Trucks are produced at Jamshedpur (Tata
Mercedes) and Madras (Ashok-Leyland).
Aircraft Industry:
India has aircraft production centres at Bangalore, Kanpur, Koraput, Nasik and
Hyderabad.
India produces aircraft both for military and for civil purposes aircraft both for
military and for civil purposes.
Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. (HAL) is the major public sector undertaking in this
field.
Electronics Industry:
Electronics industry provides maximum employment per unit of investment and
plays a dominant role in improving productivity. It has registered substantial
growth over the years. The growth rate is exponential.
Electronics industry includes computers consumer equipment. The threat faced
by India electronics industry is mainly the high degree of obsolesce. Research
and Development wing is engaged in technological upgradation.
CHEMICAL AND ALLIED INDUSTRY
Important industries are as follows:
Fertilizer:
India is the fourth largest producer of nitrogenous fertilizers in the world.
The industry is developed both under public and private sectors. Public sector
factories are located at-Sindri (Bihar), Nangal (Punjab), Madras, Trombay,

139

Rourkela, Paradeep and other region. Private sector factories are located at
Tuticorin, Ennore (Tamilnadu), Varanasi, Kanpur, Baroda, Kota, Goa and
Mangalore. Gas based plants are located at Vijaipur (Guna), Aonla (Bareilly) and
Jagdishpur (Sultanpur).
Pharmaceuticals:
Antibiotics are produced at Pimpri near Pune and Rishikesh. The Hindustan
Antibiotics Plant at Rishikesh is one of the largest in the World Indsian Drugs and
Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (IDPL) is located in Hyderabad. Other units are located in
Bombay, Baroda, Madras, Delhi, Calcutta and Kanpur.
Cement:
Manufacture of cement was first started in Madras in 1904.
The necessary raw materials for the manufacture of cement are limestone or
dolomite, clay, gypsum and carbon. The leading producers of cement are
Tamilnadu, Madhya Pradesh (Katri, Satna), Bihar (Thikpani), Gujarat (Porbandar),
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan (Lakheri, Kota).
The Associated Cement Company Ltd. And the Dalmia group control the bulk of
the cement producing in the country. The Cement Corporation of India is the only
public sector undertaking.
Leather:
India is the worlds largest single source of leather due to its livestock
population. The industry has a good export potential.
Most of the items, particularly footwear, is manufactured by cottage and small
scale units. Important centres of production are Agra, Kanpur, Bombay and
Calcutta.
FOREST AND AGRO-BASED INDUSTRY
The main forest based industry is paper:
Paper:
The first modern paper mill of the country was set up in 1832 at Sehrampore in
West Bengal.
Other important paper producing regions are-Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, U.P. and Kerala also
produce paper.
The Hindustan Paper Corporation Ltd. (HPC), Calcutta is a public sector
undertaking. The National Newsprint & Paper Mills Ltd. Is located in Napanagar.
Hindustan Photo Films Manufacturing Company Ltd. At Udhagamandalam,
produces cine and X-ray roll, graphic art and industrial X-ray films and photo
paper.
Other forest based industries are match industry and lac industry all in private
sector.
Cottage Industry:
Cottage industry is characterized by hand manufacture of local raw materials at
home through, mostly, family members. Small-scale industry is a natural growth of
cottage industry.
Handicrafts constitute an important cottage industry of the country and
provides employment to about 35 lakh artisans. Handicrafts comprise a wide range
of artistic products-woolen carpets, art metalwares, ivory products etc. handicraft is
an important source of foreign exchange earning. Gems and jewellery comes under
small scale and cottage industry.
The Sugar Industry:

140

 India is the world's largest producer of sugar cane.

However, in terms of production 195 lakh tones in 2005-06. It is also the second
largest agro-industry.
The country is not only self sufficient in sugar production but also it exports a
substantial quantity every year. Sugar industry is a seasonal industry and as
such, labour cannot be employed in this industry all the year round..
Sugar industry occupies a prominent position in the industrial sector of the
country because the prosperity a number of other industries like sugar
machinery manufactures, engineering industries, distilleries, paper industry,
pesticides, fertilizers, chemicals, confectionery, pharmaceuticals, alcohol, fibreboard, plastics and synthetic rubber, is linked with prosperity of the Sugar
industry in one way or the other.
For instance, in the manufacture of paper, cardboard, insulation board, the use
bagasse is considerable. Press-mud is used in the making of shoe polish and
carbon paper. Molasses have demand in the preparation of plastics, synthetic
rubber, chemicals, liquor and power alcohol.
The heaviest concentration of sugar factories occurs in the sugar cane tracts of
Mahrashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and
Bihar. Out of the 299 factories found in the country as many as 266 were located
in these states and' "ogether they accounted for over 92 per cent of the
country's total production. Half of the total number of sugar factories are located
in Uttar Pradesh alone. The relative share of states in Sugar production is shown
below:
States
Maharashtra
Uttar Pradesh
Tamilnadu
Karnataka
A.P.
Gujarat
Bihar

%of All India Production

36.00
25.00
8.50
8.00
5.50
5.00
4.50

States
Maharashtra

No. of factories
77
90
21
23
27
13
28

Important centres
Ahmednagar, KolhapLir, Pune, North Satara, Sangali,
South Satara, Sholapur and Aurangabad.
Uttar Pradesh
Kanpur, Meerut, Pilibhit,' Lucknow, Allahabad. Gorakhpur,
Moradabad, Muzaffarnagar and Saharan pur.
Tamilnadu
Coimbatore, Noth and South Arcot, Tiru~hirapally, Vellore
& Ramanathapuram
Karnataka
Belgaum Mandya, Bijapur, Bellary, Shimoga and
Chitradurga.
Andhra
Nizambad,
Medak,
Chittor,
Vijayawada
and
Pradesh
Visakhapatnam.
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka together produce more
sugar at present than all the states of the belt of the Norhtern Great Plains covering
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana' and' Punjab.
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY:

141

India's share in total world producion of steel is very low: it. IS about 1.1 percent 'as
against 20 percent of Russia, 19 percent of U.S.A, 15 percent of Japan, 7 percent of
Germany, 4 percent of U.K. and 3.8 percent of France.
Moreover, the bulk of steel production in India (about 90 percent) consists of mild,
items such as structurals, rails, sheets, plates bars and rods. Alloy and special steels
constitute a small proportion of the production.
The total production of finished steel in 2005-06 is 44.5 million tonnes. The industry.
provides direct employment to 2.5 lakh people.
The Indian iron and steel industry consists of few big primary integrated plants and
a large number of 'mini steel plants (Electric are furnace units).
While integrated steel plants mainly produce mild steel in bulk quantities, mini steel
plants produce mild as well as alloy steels which could not be economically
produced by integrated steel pants.
The mini steel plants produce steel based on steel scrap/ sponge iron. At present
there are 179 mini steel plants with a total licensed capacity of over 56 lakh tonnes
per annum, of which 167 units have been commissioned and have produced 7.30
million tonnes of steel in 1996-97. Other units are at various stages of
implementation.
Progress during Planning Era:
On the eve of planning in India there were three main units producing steel.
There were the Tata lron) and Steel Company (TISCO) set up in 1907 at
Jamshedpur (Bihar); The Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) set up in 191 9
at Bumpur (West Bengal); and the Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel (VISL) set up in
1923 at Bhadraati (Karnataka)
During the second plan three steel plans were set up. The three steel plants set
up in the public sector came into operation in stages between 1959 and 1962.
During the third plan a new steel plant was setup at Bokaro in Bihar with the aid
of Russia. This plant was commissioned in 1978.
The Bokaro steel plant is the biggest steel project in India. Out of the country's
total ignot steel capacity, it will account for nearly 25 percent when fully
completed.
The fourth plan and the Fifth plan steel programmes were based on the
maximum utilisation of the exist ing steel capacity and the preparation of plan
for setting up three new steel plants at Selam (Tamil Nadu), Vijaynagar"near
Hospet (Karnataka), and Vishakapatnam (Andhra Pradesh).
During the sixth plan the Bhilai and Bokaro steel. plants have been expanded.
During the seventh plan the thrust of the steel program'mes was to bring up the
technology to contemporary- levels and optimise production from the existing
capacity.
Steel Authority of India Limited:
Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) set up in 1973 is a wholly-owned Government
undertaking with headquarter at Delhi. It is responsible for management of
integrated steel plants at Bhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bokaro and Burnpur and also
Alloy Steel Plants at Durgapur and Salem Steel Plant at Salem. Burnpur steel plant
works are under Indian Iron and Steel company, a wholly owned subsidiary of SAIL.
Major Public sector industries
Location
Establishment
Capacity
SOURCES
OF
RAW
(in
000 MATERIALS COAL (C),
tonnes)
IRON
ORE
(I),
'LIMESTONE
(L),
MANGANESE (M)
TISCO
at Set up in 1907 by 2,000
(crude C-Jharia & W. Bokaro,

142

Jamshedpur
Singhbhum

in Jamshedji Tata

steel)
1,500
(saleable steel)

IISCO at Burnpur Set up in 1919.

in West Bengal
Taken over by the
Central Government
in 1972. Now u'nder
SAIL

1,000
(crude
steel)
800
(saleable
steel)

VISL
at
Bhadravati
in
Shimoga district
of Karnataka

1,000
(crude
steel)
700
(saleable
steel)

Setup
by
the
Princely state of
Mysore with the
assistance of Peri
and Marshall CG.
(USA)
in
1923.
Taken
over
by
Central
Govt.
in
1962 and by SAIL in
1989

143

IMayurbhanj (Orissa) &

Singhbhum (Jharkhand)
L - sundargarh District
M - Keonjhar district
Water-Subarnarek
C-Jharia
I-Gua captive mines
L-Brimitrapur mines
M-Keonjhar
mines
(Orissa)
Damodar river supplies
water
Instead of Coal, Hydel
power from Karnataka
Grid
I-Kemmangundi mines of
Chikmagalur district
L-Bhandigunda deposits
M
Shimoga
&
Chitradurga
Water is provided by the
Bhadra river

Bhilai plant
Durg
dist.
Chattisgarh

in Set up with the aid

of of
USSR
during
second
plan.
Production
was
started in 1959.
Now under SAIL

4,000
(crude
steel)
3,153 (saleable
steel)

Durgapur
olant
Burdwan
district of
West Bengal

Set up with the aid

in of
U.K
during
second
plan
Production started
in 1962. Now under
SAIL

1600
(crude
steel)
1239 (saleable
steel)

Rourkela plant in
Sundargarh
district

Set up with the aid

of West Germany
during second plan.
Production started
in 1959. Now under
SAIL

1800
(crude
steel)
1225 (saleable
steel)

Bokaro plant in Set up with the aid

Hazaribagh dist. of USSR during the
of Jharkhand
third
plan.
Production started
in 1972. Now under
SAIL

4000
(crude
steel)
3156 (saleable
steel)

C - Kobra (Chattisgarh) &

Jharia
I - Dalli - Rajhara mines of
Durg dist L - Nandini
deposits
M - Balghat & Bhandari
dists. of M:P Water - Tandula
canal of Gondi reserviour
Power - Kobra Thermal
Power station.
C-Jharia & Barakar fields
I-Bolani mines (Gua region in
Orissa)
L-Birmitrapur in Sundargarh
dist.
M-Jamba in Keonjhar district
Water-Damodar river
Power-Damodar valley Grid
C-Jharia, Bokaro, Talcher &
Korba fields
I-Sundergarh & Keonjhar
dist. of Orissa
L-Birmitrapur & Hathiberi
M-Barajmda
Water-Mandira Dam across
Sankh river and Mahanandi
Power-Hirakud power project
C-Jharia, Bokaro, Kargil coal
fields
I-Kirburu mines in Keonjhar
mines in Keonjhar district
L-Palamau
district
(Chattisgarh)
M-Birmitrapur mine
Water-Tenu
dam
across
Damodar river
Power-Damodar valley grid
and Korba Thermal plant

Vijayanagar Steel Plant with a capacity of 30 Lakh Tonnes is located at Tornagal

near Hospet in Bellary District. Iron ore from Hospet, Coal from Kanha & Singareni
fields in Andhra Pradesh and water & Power requirements are met by Tungabhadra
Hydel project.
Salem Steel plant: at salem in Tamilnadu is a major producer of world class
stainless steel and exports to USA, Australia and S.E. Asia. It produces 80 thousand
tonnes of steel and caters to the coinage requirement of Indian Government mints.
Iron ore & Limestone are available in the adjoining areas and has access to cheap
power, charcoal and vast market.
Posco Steel, Paradwip
Pohang Steel Company (Posco) of Korea has entered into a memorandum of
understanding (MoU) with Orissa Government for setting up a 12 million tonne steel
plant at Paradwip 'with a total investement of 51 thousand crores which is the
biggest FDI in Indian Industry.

144

Vishakapatnam Steel Plant : at Vishakapatnam in Andhra Pradesh was

established in the year 1992 and has a capacity of 5 million tonnes. It is the most
sophisticated integrated steel plant. Iron ore Bailadila, Coal from Damodar Valley
and Australia, gas from KG basin and Limestone, Manganese from Chatlisgarh and
Madhya Pradesh meet the requirements.
In response to the reforms process, certain new steel plants in the private sector
are already in pipeline'.
They are:
Lioyd Steel
Essar Gujarat
Nippon Denro
Jindal Vijayanagar
Malvika Steers etc.
As compared - to world producers, Indian steel is competitive' in terms of cost.
However, improvement is required in terms of quality and delivery mechanisms.
Indian is at present exporting certain types of steel while importing certain other
types of .steel. In 199596, India's-steel exports were - around 1320 thousand tonnes
while imports 1900 thousand tonnes.
THE ENGINEERING INDUSTRY:
The EngineeringIndustry contributes about 24.1 percent of the total
industrial production and provides 28 percent of the industrial employment
in the country.
As a result of the rapid progress of the engineering goods industry, the total
export earnings' amounted to Rs. 47,853 crores in 2003-04.
The engineering industry includes Heavy Machinery, Machine Tools" Heavy
Electricals, Railway Equiprnents, Ship-Building, Automobiles, Air-Crafts and
Electronics.
MINERALS IN INDIA
Classification of minerals:
Minerals are classified broadly into two categories:
4. Metallic Minerals and
5. Non-Metallic Minerals
1. Metallic Minerals:
Metallic Minerals are those from which we get metals such as iron, copper, gold
and lead.
These minerals are sub-divided into two groups: (a) Ferrous group and (b) Nonferrous group.
a) Ferro Metallic Minerals:
These include Iron Ore, Manganese Ore, Chromite and Pyrite. These minerals
account for about. three-fourths of the total value of the production of metallic
mil1erals.
India's position is almost enviable in the reserves of these minerals and the
country exports substantial quantities.
Minerals provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries.
b) Non-Ferrous Metallic Minerals:
These include Gold, Silver, Copper, Zinc, Lead and Bauxite.
Unlike in the case of ferrous minerals, India's position both in reserves and
production of non-ferrous metallic minerals except in Bauxite is not satisfactory
and the country depends for these mainly on foreign supplies.

145

 These minerals play a vital role in a number of metallurgical, engineering,

electrical and other industries and have, therefore, an important place in the
industrial, development of a country.
Non-ferrous metallic minerals are further subdivided into two types: (i) Base
metals, Eg:- Tin, Copper, Zinc, Lead and Aluminium (derived from Bauxite) and
(ii) Precious metals Eg:- Gold, Silver and platinum.
2. Non-metallic Minerals:
These minerals are sub-divided into two groups: a) Non-metallic Fuel Minerals
and. b) Non-metallic Non-Fuel Minerals
a) Non-Metallic Fuel Minerals: These include Coal, Ugnite,' petroleum Natural
Gas Nuclear Energy Minerals(Monazite, Uranium, Berylium, Zirconium, and
Ilmenite). These minerals account for nearly four-fifths of the total value of the
country's total mineral production. Further, these minerals facilitate nearly twothirds of the country's total installed capacity in electrical power.
b) Non-Metallic Non-Fuel Minerals: These include Limestone,Dolmite, Mica,
Kyanite, Sillimanite, Gysum, Apatites, Diamond, Phosphates, Sfeatite,' Magnesite
and Salt. They are used in a variety of indusrties like cement, fertilizers, refractories
significantly in the counrty's minerals export.
The Non-Metallic Non-Fuel Minerals are further sub-divided into following types on
the basis of their uses:
i) Minerals used in the Chemical Industry Eg:- Sulphur & Rock Salt.
ii) Minerals used in the Fertilizer Industry Eg:- Nitrate, Phosphate and Potash.
iii) Minerals used as flaws in the Metallurgical Industries, Eg:- Dolomite & Magnesite.
iv) Building materials, Eg.:- Granite, Marble, Limestone, Slate, Clay and Asbestos.
v) Precious Stones or Gem Stones, Eg:- Diamond, Ruby, Sapphire, Emerald, Jade
and Garnet.
vi) Minerals used for miscellaneous purposes, Eg:Mica. & Graphite
Overall position in mineral resources:
The following analysis gives an overall position of India's mineral resources:
5. Mineral in which India has large' exportable surplus to dominate the world
market: (1) Iron Ore (2) Mica (3) thorium Ore and (4) Titanium
6. Minerals in which India has fairly good surplus for exports : (1) Manganese Ore
(2) Magnesite' (3) Bauxite (4) Granite (5) Silica (6) Beryllium (7) Steatite(8)
Monazite (9) Sillimanite (10) Kyanite and (11) Barytes.
7. Minerals in which India is self-sufficient: (1") Coal (2) Chromite (3) Marbles (4)
Slate (5) Limestone (6) Dolomite (7) Sodium Salts and alkalies (8) Gypsum (9)
Glass Sand (10) Pyrites (11) Zircon (12) precious and semi-precious stones (13)
Gold (14) Uranium (15) Fireclay and (16) China clay (17) Feldspar. (18) Flouride.
8. Minerals in which India has to depend on foreign imports: (1) Petroluem and
Petroleum products (2) Silver (3) Nickel (4) Cobalt (5) Zinc (6) Lead (7) Copper
(8) Tin (9) Mercury (10) Tungsten (11) Plat inum (12) Graphite (13) Potash (14)
Sulphur and (15) Rock Phosphate.
DISTRIBUTION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
Mineral resources have an extremely uneven distribution in India. Over 97 per
cent of the countrys total reserves of Coal are located in the valleys of the
Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari (i.e. Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra).
Most of the reserves of petroleum discovered so far lie in a few sedimentary
basins of Gujarat, Assam and in Bombay High.

146

 Most of the deposits of Iron ore are located in Jarkhand, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
Chattisgarh, Kamataka and Tamilnadu; of Bauxite in Jarkhand, Bihar, Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh and Gujarat; of Manganese in Madhya Pradesh
Orissa and Maharashtra" and of Lead, and Zinc ores in Jarkhand and Rajasthan.
Almost the entire deposits of Mica is found in Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and
Rajasthan. The entire deposits of Gold are found in karnataka (Kolar Gold Fields
& Hutti Mines) andAndhra pradesh (Ramagiri Gold Fields in Anantapur district).
Most of the reserves of minor minerals including Gypsum Steatite, Rock
phosphate and Precious Stones are located in Rajasthan. Thorium and Uranium
deposits are mostly located in Bihar. Most of the Monazite and liminite occur in
the beach sands of Kerala Coast.
Most of the reserves of Sillimanite are found in Meghalaya, Maharashtra, of
Kyanite in Bihar and of Dolomite in Orissa. Thus the above analysis shows that
the States of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana & Uttar
Pradesh are very poor in mineral resources.
DETAILS OF MAJOR MINERALS
IRON ORE: Though India has about 6.6% of the world's known Iron ore deposits, it
accounts for only 5% of the total annual world production of Iron Ore and holds the
5th position.
Types of Iron Ore: India produces three types of Iron Ore, viz.,
hematite, in which the iron content is 68%
magnetite, in which the iron contents varies from 25 to 62%
limonite, with iron content of 35 to 50% only
Iron Ore Reserves: Recoverable reserves are estimated at 13460 million tonnes of
which 10052 million tonnes are Haematite and 3408 million tonnes Magnetite Ore
State-wise distribution of reserves:
States % of All-India
Reserves
Karnata 34.61
ka
Jharkha 20.32
nd
Orissa 12.98
Chattisg 11.37
arh
Goa
5.04
Others 15.68
Production of Iron Ore:
During 2006-07 total production of Iron Ore in India was 172 million tonnes, out of
which 83 million tonnes are exported.
There are around 250 Iron ore mines in India out of which 18 are captive mines of
various steel plants. They account for 35% of total iron ore output.
With deregulation of Iron and Steel industry, Iron ore sector is attracting many
domestic and foreign investors.
Important places associated with Iron Ore production:
Koenjhar, Sundargarh, Mayurbhfini (Orissa); Singhbhum (Jharkhand); Raipur, Durg,
Bastar (Chattisgarh); Chikmaglore, Bellary & Chitradurrg (Karnataka); Goa; Salem,

147

Tiruchirapally-North
(Rajasthan).

Arcot

belt

(Tamilnadu);

Kozikode,

(Kerala);

Jaisalmer

Importance of Iron:
On account of its cheapness and strength, steel which is derived from Iron Ore is
the most widely used of all the metals.
Steel:
The Production of finished steel during the personal 2002-03 to 2007-08:
Crude steel production
Year
in India (Million Tonnes)
2002-03
34.71
2003-04
38.73
2004-05
43.44
2005-06
46.46
2006-07
50.82
2007-08
53.90
200809
54.52
Today India is the fifth largest crude steel producing country in the world.
It is used in the manufacture of various types of machines installed in factories;
in the construction of railway.
Tracks, bridges and building; in the manufacture of ships, railway engines and
carriages and automobiles; in the preparation of agricultural tools and
implements; in the production of defence weapons and in the making of
furnitures and household articles. Further, Iron and some of its components are
used in certain chemical processes. For instance, iron pyrite - a sulphide or' Iron
is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Iron is used as a catalyst in the
production of synthetic ammonia.
Some of the oxides of iron are used to make pigments of the paint and rubber
industries
MANAGANESE ORE:
India is the world's sixth largest producer of Manganese Ore and accounts for
about 6% of the world output.
Indian manganese is of rich Ruality (with mineral contents of 40 to 60 p.c. as
compared to U.S.S.R. (content 45 p.c.) Ghana (41 to 50 p.c) and Brazil (33 to 50
p.c).Manganese Ore Reserves: Recoverable reserves of Manganese Ore are
estimated at 176.5 million tonnes.

Type of Manganese Ore:

In India it occurs in the form of sedimentary stratified metramorphic deposits of
Darwar Sytem of Peninsular India.
Ore Types: Psilomelane, Braunite, Pyrolusite, Hausmanit, Hollandite.
About 78% of total reserve is found in Nagpur and Bhandara districts of
Maharashtra and Balaghat district of Madhya Pradesh Singhbhum-Keonjhar-Bonai
area holds the 11% of total reserve while the north-Kannara shares 6%.
In terms of statewise reserve Madhya Pradesh (including Chattisgarh) ranks first
followed by Maharashtra, Orissa and Karnataka.

148

 In terms of production Orissa ranks first followed by Karnataka, M.P. (including

Chattisgarh), Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
4.
Ferro-Manganese Plants: (1) Rayayada (2) Joda (both in Orissa) (3) Tumsar (4)
Kamptee (both in Maharashtra) (5) Bhadravati (6) Dandeli (both in Karnataka)
(7) Garividi (Andhra Pradesh).
Aluminium:
In the country, it holds a position next to iron.
Interestingly, around half of aluminium produced in the country is utilized by
electrical industries. Aluminium is specifically used in the production of
reinforced aluminium conductors and sheathed cables. This mineral resource is
recovered from alumina by electro-chemical processes. That is why, aluminium
smelters are situated near the sources of electricity.
Almost one-fourth of the creation cost of aluminium metal is accounted for by
electricity. In India, smelters producing aluminium metal are situated at several
places like Jaynagar near Asansol, Hirakud Dam, Mettur Dam (Tamil Nadu),
Alupuram (Kerala), Belgaum (Karnataka) and Renukoot (near Rihand Dam).
Moreover, Government of India has set up an integrated aluminium project at
Korba (Chattisgarh). This aluminium project is based on the bauxite deposits
situated in the Amarkantak Plateau and Phutka Pahar located around 15 kms to
the north of Korba. This aluminium plant began producing alumina in the year
1973 and aluminium in the year 1975.
The annual capacity of this project is very huge. Extrusions are made from the
aluminium supplied by the Korba aluminium plant at smelters situated at J.K.
Nagar. Moreover, in India, aluminium fluoride and cryolite used in the production
of aluminium metal are manufactured in India.
Largest aluminium complex in India is the National Aluminium Company Ltd.
(NALCO), in Orissa. However, the alumina plant and the smelter of this complex
are at different places. The production cost of aluminium in India is moderately
high mainly because of high rate of electricity, inadequate supply of electricity
and some raw materials like cryolite, aluminium fluoride, caustic soda, etc. and
lastly regular interruptions in the supply of bauxite. These are some of the
reasons that hinder the production of aluminium In India.
Copper
Copper in India is chiefly used for the production of electrical machinery.
As an industrial metal, copper stands second only to steel.
It is measured as the best conductor of electricity. Copper is also used in
producing brass and bronze, castings and pipes. Further, for the refining of
copper, cheap and abundant electricity is required.
India manufactures only a little amount of copper and it imports a huge quantity
of this mineral resource annually to meet domestic needs.
At present, most of the copper ore is mined in the districts of Singhbhum
(Jharkhand), Baiaghat (Madhya Pradesh) and Jhunjhunu District and Alwar in
Rajasthan. The small producers of copper include Khammam District of Andhra
Pradesh, Dhitradurga and Hassan District of Karnataka and also in some parts of
Sikkim.
The smelter at Ghatsila in Singhbhum district is very old. It receives copper ore
concentrates from Mosabani. Interestingly, up to the year 1971, the smelter at
Ghatsila was the only producer of copper in the country.
On the other hand, the smelter situated at Khetri in Jhunjhunu district of Andhra
Pradesh also has a huge capacity. In the year 1970, this smelter started
producing copper on an experimental basis. The smelter was commissioned for

149

the production of electrolytic copper on a real large scale in the year 1974. This
smelter gets copper ore from the copper ore mines at Khetri, Chandmari, Dariba
and Kolihan. All these places are located within close proximity from Khetri.
Gold
Presently, gold is mined Hutti mines in the Raichur district of Karnataka. The other
mine is located in Anantpur district of Andhra Pradesh.
Pure gold has a bright yellow colour and luster traditionally considered attractive,
which it maintains without oxidising in air or water.
India is the largest importer and consumer of Gold but Gold mining remains at a low
level.
Indias domestic gold production was at 3.05 tonnes during the financial year 2006.
The low production of gold have adversely affected the economy of the country and
the government has asked domestic gold miners to actively survey joint venture
with foreign companies to speed up exploration of the yellow metal within the
country.
The Geological Survey of India and the Mineral Exploration Corporation of India are
two of the major government agencies that carry out verification surveys on gold
mining in India.
Bauxite
High grade bauxite is found in abundance in India.
Bauxite is widely distributed as surface deposits in those areas where laterite
soil is found.
This mineral is the ore of aluminium metal that is used largely in the
manufacture of special alloys, aluminium powder, utensils and electric cables.
Aluminium alloys are used in the manufacture of automobile engines because of
its light and tough.
Bauxite is used in manufacture of cement and chemicals.
Bauxite is mined at several places in the country. The major deposits of bauxite
are situated in Ranchi, Jamnagar, Jabalpur, Kohlapur and Shevaroy Hills. Apart
from these areas, the other places where its chief deposits are found include
Poonch and Riasi in Jammu and Kashmir, Balaghat in Madhya Pradesh and more.
Moreover, in Kutch district in Gujarat too large deposits of Bauxite are found. Of
late, deposits in Orissa have been developed and the biggest plant of its kind in
Asia has been constructed to produce alumina and aluminium.It utilizes the
latest French technology, which economizes on the use of electricity.
Bauxite ore is exported to Japan and European countries.
In Orissa, there are two very big high grade deposits of Bauxite. The first one at
Panchpatmali is regarded as the largest in the country and the second one is at
Gandhamardan bauxite deposit. Interestingly, production of bauxite is registered
particularly in those regions that supply alumina plants with this ore.
Bauxite ore has benefited in importance because aluminium-a very light but
exceedingly functional metal, is made from it.
It is a must for aircraft engineering.
Bauxite deposits in India are extensively distributed. Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Bihar are the foremost states where
bauxite reserves are predominately located. The total reserves are approximated
to be more than 2462 million tonnes. Major reserves are centralized in East
Coast Bauxite deposits of Orissa and northern Andhra Pradesh.

150

 Aluminium is obtained from bauxite in two stages. In the first stage bauxite is
refined and transformed into alumina by a chemical process and in the second
stage aluminium metal is obtained by the electrolysis of alumina. Of the total
bauxite produced in the country, the major portion is used for making aluminium
metal. A small quantity of it is exported to other countries.
Mica
produced in huge proportion in India. In fact, India is one of the leading suppliers
of mica to the world. India alone accounts for a major portion of the world`s
export of block mica and mica splitting.
Mica can withstand high temperature as it is a bad conductor of electricity.
Moreover, it can also be split up into thin films. These unrivalled properties of
mica have actually made it indispensable for the production of several electrical
equipments.
India produces approximate 90 % of the world`s mica. It is an indispensable
component of the electrical industry. India accounts for 60 % of mica embarking
in international trade.
Types of Mica
There are two types of Mica available in the world, dioctahedral and
trioctahedral mica. In Trioctahedral mica, the most common types found are
Muscovite, Zinnwaldite, Biotite, Lepidolite, and Phlogopite. Where as Clintonite is
Brittle mica.
Availability of Mica
Mica is widely available and distributed in sedimentary, metamorphic and
igneous regimes.
Large sized mica crystals, utilised for various purposes, are usually mined from
granitic pegmatites. In India, Mica is widely available in Karnataka, Bihar,
Kolkata, Rajasthan, Gudur and Andhra Pradesh. Hazaribagh, Gaya and Munger
districts of Bihar account for a huge proportion of the total production.
These districts lie on the northern fringe of Chota Nagpur Plateau. The remaining
half is evenly divided between Nellore District in Andhra Pradesh and Bhilwara
District in Rajasthan.
Mica is also mined in small quantities in Udaipur, Sikar, Tonk and Ajmer districts
of Rajasthan.Moreover, a small proportion is also mined in small quantity in
Nilgiri district. Production has been worsening due to artificial replacements.
In India, mica belt is located along the northern fringe of the Bihar Plateau as
includes parts of Hazaribagh and Gaya districts.
Mica belt generally occurs in the veins of the metamorphic rocks. The mica belt
in this region runs in the east-west direction. Giridih, Domchanch and Kodarma
are the principal collecting centres where it is processed. This particular mica
belt produces more than half of the total mica production of the country.
Lead and Zinc:
Generally these found together (associate minerals). ore of lead is Galena (lead
sulphate). Ore of zinc zinc blend (zinc sulphite).
98% of zinc and 97% of lead of India produced in Rajasthan.
(1) Zawar and Dariba-Main centres of lead and zinc.
In Dariba, there is zinc smelter. Another zinc smelter at Vizag called Hindustan Zinc
Smelter.
Diamond:
Precious stone because of sparkles due to total internal reflection.
Used for drilling engineering.

151

Commercial diamond mining centre

In India, we do not have pipe like structure of diamond. Kimberly, South Africa is
famous for pipe like structures of diamonds.
Namibia, Zambia is famous for Alluvial diamonds. Alluvial type of diamonds at river
basins found in India especially at Panna-Ken river basin.
Tungsten:
Its ore is caleed as wolfarmite.
In India it is produced at Degna, Rajasthan.
Coal :
Ores are
Anthracite
- Superior quality, more than 65% carbon content and high
calorific value.
Bituminous
- Superior quality, more than 65% carbon content and high
calorific value.
Lignite
- called as brown coal-calorific value is low and carbon content is
low used for thermal power generation and steam generation.
Peat
- Immature coal i.e Process of coal formation not yet completed
from organic matter
In India, 250 billion tones of Bituminous coal reserves, 25 million tones of lignite
reserves.
Bituminous coal:
Coal is of two types :
Cockin coal.
Non-cockin coal - India has more, which are not used blasting furnace.
Indias coal belongs to Gondwana coal.98% of Indias coal formed in Godwana
era.2% of coal of territory era mainly found in Northern India.
Coal is always found in sedimentary rocks of river basin.
In India, coal is found in
Dhamodar basin of Jharkhand
- Jharia, Gindi, Bokaro, Karanpura coal fields.
Dhamodar basin of West Bengal - Raniguj coal fields.
Mahanandi Basin of Orissa
- Talchar coal field IB valley coal field.
Mahanandi-sen Basin of Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh - Korba local field
Singralli, Pench Valley coal fields.
Godavari-Wardha river basins of Maharashtra and A.P.
Maharashtra
- Kamptee coal field
Andhra Pradesh - Singareni coal field
Territiary coal found in north eastern India like
Makun coal field of Assam
Nazira valley coal field of Assam
Lignite coal found mainly in Tamilnadu, Palana of Rajasthan, Darjeeling and
Jalpaiburi of West Bengal and Sikkim.
Anthrasite coal found in Jammu and Kashmir state.
Peat type of coal founding Cochin and Allepy of Kerala.
Oil and Natural gas:
Formed in sedimentary rocks either on the land and sea floor i.e., continental shore
on land called as Onshore reserves and in sea called as Offshore reserves.
Most reserves located at

152

Mumbai offshore (Single largest productive of oil fields).

Basin oil field
Gulf of Cambay (Gujarath)-Gandhara, Vasna, Lunaj basin.
Gas fields:
Important gas fields of india are :
Ankaleshwar gas field
Kalol gas field
Mazira gas field
Mehsana gas field
Brahmaputra basin (Assam) called Tipan series (oil and natural gas).
Digbai (first oil reserve in India).
Rinery (first oil Commissioned)
Noharkutiya oil reserve
Rudhrasgar oil field
guleki oil field
North East India (Arunachal Pradesh) - Karsang oil field
East coast Kaveri basin (Tamilnadu)
Narimannam oil field
Andhra Pradesh-K.G. Basin, Ravva Oil field , Narsapur Oil field, Pasarlapudi Gas field,
Ambani Oil and gas field.
Western Rajasthan Thar desert region
jaisalmer Basin-Mangala, Aishwarya, Ragini, Saraswathi
Balmer basin
New oil Explored and Licensing Policy (NELP):Attracting and allowing FDI in oil exploration.
Increase domestic oil exploration.
Acquiring stakes in foreign oil fields (ONGC-Videsh).
Nuclear fields:Uranium:Ore found in ultra basic ignitious rocks.
Rich reserves in Jharkhand-Jaduguda.
Western Kasi hills of Meghalaya-Domiostat (but recently stopped due to less
Funding.
Andhra Pradesh-Kada, Kurnool, Nalgonda.
Monazite:It is a compound of uranium, thorium, curium, lanthanum, particularly rich in
thorium.
Available in coastal areas of India.
India has worlds largest monazite reserves, not exporting any amount due to lack
of technology.
Reserves found at Kerala, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa.
Zircon, Ilmenite, Rutile:Found in coastal sands especially at Manavala Kurichi (Tamilnadu), Quilon (Kerala),
Chotanagpur (Orissa), Ratnagiri (Maharashtra).
For extracting and processing of these minerals IRE (Indian Rare Earth Limited) was
established.

153

154

Mineral production in India

Mineral

Quantity

Unit

Mineral type

Coal

403

Million tonnes

Fuel

Lignite

29

Million tonnes

Fuel

Natural Gas

31,007

Million cubic metres Fuel

Crude Petroleum

32

Million tonnes

Fuel

Bauxite

11,278

Thousand tonnes

Metallic Mineral

Copper

125

Thousand tonnes

Metallic Mineral

Gold

3,048

Thousand grammes Metallic Mineral

Iron Ore

140,131

Thousand tonnes

Metallic Mineral

Lead

93

Thousand tonnes

Metallic Mineral

Manganese Ore

1,963

Thousand tonnes

Metallic Mineral

Zinc

862

Thousand tonnes

Metallic Mineral

Diamond

60,155

Carats

Non Metallic Mineral

Gypsum

3,651

Thousand tonnes

Non Metallic Mineral

Limestone

170

Thousand tonnes

Non Metallic Mineral

Phosphorite

1,383

Thousand tonnes

Non Metallic Mineral

Mineral

Quantity
exported in Unit
2004-05

Alumina

896,518

tonnes

Bauxite

1,131,472

tonnes

Coal

1,374

tonnes

Copper

18,990

tonnes

Gypsum & plaster 103,003

tonnes

Iron ore

83,165

tonnes

Lead

81,157

tonnes

Limestone

343,814

tonnes

Manganese ore

317,787

tonnes

Marble

234,455

tonnes

Mica

97,842

tonnes

Natural gas

29,523

tonnes

155

Sulphur

2,465

tonnes

Zinc

180,704

tonnes

National Mineral Policy

A national mineral policy has evolved over the years in India. The policy
emphasizes the need for conservation and judicious exploitation of finite mineral
resources through scientific methods of mining, beneficiation and economic
utilisation. Simultaneously, it keeps in view the present & future needs of defence
and development of India and strives to ensure indigenous availability of basic and
strategic minerals to avoid disruption of core industrial production in times of
international strife.
The basic objectives of the mineral policy in respect of minerals are:
(a) to explore for identification of mineral wealth in the land and in off-shore areas;
(b) to develop mineral resources taking into account the national and strategic
considerations and to ensure their adequate supply and best use keeping in
view the present needs and future requirements;
(c) to promote necessary linkages for smooth and uninterrupted development of
the mineral industry to meet the needs of India;
(d) to promote research and development in minerals;
(e) to ensure establishment of appropriate educational and training facilities for
human resources development to meet the manpower requirements of the
mineral industry;
(f) to minimise adverse effects of mineral development on the forest, environment
and ecology through appropriate protective measures; and
(g) to ensure conduct of mining operations with due regard to safety and health of
all concerned.

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TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION IN INDIA

Transport and Communication facilities are necessary for the healthy growth of
country. Road and rail transport are well developed in India with ample scope for the
development of water transport. Ocean waterways are already well developed.
Inland waterways require improvement.
Railways
They account for nearly three-fourth-of the passenger traffic and four-fifth of the
freight traffic in India railways system is the largest in Asia and the fourth largest
in the world. It is the biggest departmental public undertaking in the country.
It is also the worlds second largest railway system under a single management.
The first train in India steamed off from Bombay to Thane, a stretch of 34 km. in
1853. The network of railway has increased upto 62,809 Km.
GAUGES OF INDIAN RAILWAY
Length track Route
Guage
(km)
(km)
Broad Guage
1.7m
44,216
Metre Guage
1m
15,178
Narrow
0.7 & 0.6m
3,415
Guage
Total
62,809
81,311

track

Running (km)

Total

62,184
15,875
3,452

85,429
19,158
3,826

1,08,413

The Indian railways operate in three different gauges mainly-Broad Guage, Metre
Guage, Narrow Guage.
The broad guage accounts for nearly 50% followed by metre guage 43% of the
total route length.
Railways are divided into 16 zones headed by a General Manager who is
responsible to the Railway Board for operation, maintenance and financial
matters.
Out of the 16 zones, Northern Railways having length 10,995 km is the longest
route.
Container Service:
Indian Railway has introduced a new marketing strategy of container services in
1980 with 7 container depots which in 1996 has expanded to 32 locations.
The container Corporation of India (CONCOR), public sector undertaking, provide
door to door services for domestic users, transportation in bulk for small
customers and International transport in International Standards Organisation
(ISO) containers.
Konkan Railway plan: In March 1990, the Konkan Railway plan was started to
provide a link by the shortest rail route between the states of Goa, Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Kerala.
This includes the 760 km distance between Apta and Mangalore. The registration
of Konkan Rail Corporation was made on 26 July, 1990 under the company law.
51% share equity of the Corporation belongs to Indian Railways.
The Konkan Railway Project has been completed on January 26, 1998 with the
total investment of Rs.3,500 crore on January 26, 1998.

157

 The rail traffic has been started between Roha (Maharashtra) and Mangalore
(Kerala). Konkan Ralways ensures maximum speed of 160 km per hour.
The Konkan Railway has been connected with 92 tunnels which have the total
length of 6.5 km.
Indian Railiway Zones
Zones
Central
Eastern
Northern
North Eastern
North-East Frontier
Southern
South Central
South-Eastern
Western
East Coast
East Central
North Central
North Western
South Western
West Central
South East Central

:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

Headquarters
Mumbai Victoria terminus
Calcutta
New Delhi
Gorakhpur
Maligaon-Guwahati
Chennai
Secunderabad
Calcutta
Mumbai-Churchgate
Bhubaneswar
Hajipur
Allahabad
Jaipur
Bangalore
Jabalpur
Bilaspur

Road Transport
Indias road network is one of the largest in the world; the total length of the
roads being more than 33 lakh km on March 1996. Karnataka, with a total road
length of about 64,000 km., leads followed by Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh Roads are most suitable for short and medium distance.
For the purpose of maintenance and construction, roads are classified into
National Highways, State Highways, Village Roads, Border Roads, International
Highways.
There are about 30 National Highways connecting state capitals and have been
constructed by the Central Government. The present National Highway system
includes a total length of 38517 km.
It constitutes only 2% of total road length and carries nearly 40% of the road
traffic. Some of the most important National Highways are listed below. Some
important national highways are as follows:
National Highway Places Connected
No.1
:
New Delhi-Ambala-Jalandhar-Amritsar
No.2
:
Delhi-Mathura-Agra-Kanpur-Allahabad-Varanasi-Calcutta
No.3
:
Agra-Gwalior-Nasik-Bombay
No.4
:
Thana and Madras via Pune and Belgaum
No.5
:
Calcutta and Madras

158

No.6
No.7*
No.8
No.9
No.10
No.11
No.22
No.24

:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

Calcutta-Dhule
Varanasi-Kanyakumari
Delhi-Bombay (Via Jaipur, Baroda & Ahmedabad)
Bombay-Vijayawada
Delhi-Fazilka
Jaipur-Bikaner
Ambala-Kalka-Shimla-Rampur-Chini (Indo-Tibet Border)
Delhi-Bareilly-Lucknow

* The National Highway No. 7 is the longest highways of India.

At present India has 5 express highways. They are Western, Eastern, between
Calcutta Dumdum (iv) between Sukida mines and Pradeep (v) between Durgapur
and Calcutta.
The Plan of Super National Highways:
After the National Highways, there is a plan under the consideration of Central
Road Transport Ministry to create Super National Highways.
Through these Super National Highways of about 14,000 km length, there is a
plan to link big sea ports of the country with important cities. In the building of
these Highways, the role of Private Sector will be important.
This will be done on the basis of BOT (Build Operate Transfer) by Private Sector.
The Government of India has received 22 Feasibility Reports for the building of
Super National Highways estimated to cost about Rs.1,50,000 crore.
Out of these, 10 proposals have come from multinational companies.
After the amendment in clause 9 of National Highway Ordinance 1956, has given
the right to the Central Government enacting laws regarding the land acquisition
for the development of National Highways. By this, the process of land
acquisition has been simplified.
The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) was constituted under the
National Highways Authority of India Act, 1988 and was made operational in
February, 1995. Initially it was entrusted with the task of implementing five
externally aided NH improvement projects.
Subsequently it has been mandated to implement the National Highways
Development Project (NHDP) comprising 4/6 Laning of 13252 km of national
highways having two components: (a) The Golden Quardrilateral and (b) NorthSouth and East-West corridors (7300 km.), connecting Srinagar to Kanya Kumari
and Silture to Saurashtra respectively and Salem to Cochin.
Golden Quadrilateral Project:
NHAI has been mandated to implement National Highways Development Project
(NHDP) which constitutes 4/6 laning of Golden Quadrilateral connecting DelhiMumbai-Chennai-Kolkata-Delhi and North0-South and East-West Corridors
connecting Kashmir to Kanya Kumari and Silchar to Saurashtra respectively and
Salem to Cochin. A task force headed by Deputy Chairman planning commission is
monitoring this programme. NDHP is estimated to cost Rs.54,000 crore (1999
prices). The Golden Quadrilateral part is to be completed by 2003 and North-South
and East-West corridor by 2007.
The NHAI has already started upgradation of National Highways on the golden
Quadrilateral and North-South and East-West corridors.
On the Golden Quadrilateral, 588 km. have already been four laned, construction is
in progress on 911 km. and project preparation activities are in progress in the
balance.

159

14
NEW
NATIONAL
HIGHWAYS
PROPOSAL
FINALIZED
National Highway Length State
No.
NH-81
100
Bihar, West Bengal
NH-82
130
Bihar
NH-83
130
Bihar
NH-84
60
Bihar
NH-85
95
Bihar
NH-86
360
UP, MP
NH-87
83
UP
NH-88
115
Himachal Pradesh
NH-89
300
Rajastan
NH-152
40
Assam
NH-212
250
Kerala, Karnataka
NH-213
130
Kerala
NH-214
270
Andhra Pradesh
NH-215
348
Orissa
Total
2411
The first 6 lane express way between Mumbai-Pune is in progress 30 km route of
this Express way between Kon to Adoshi has become operational.
Ports
There are 11 major ports and 148 minor working ports in India. Major ports are the
direct responsibility of the Central Government while minor ports including the
intermediate ports fall in the concurrent list of the India Constitution and are
managed and administered by the respective maritime state governments.
Major Ports on the Western Coast: Kandla (Gujarat); Mumbai (Maharashtra);
Marmugao (Goa); New Mangalore (Karnataka); Cochin (Kerala); Jawaharlal Nehru
Port (Nhava Sheva, Maharashtra)
Major Ports on the Eastern Coast: Tuticoron (Tamilnadu), Chennai (Tamilnadu),
Vishakapatnam(Andhra Pradesh) , paradeep (Orissa) and Calcutta-Haldia (West
Bengal).
Among major ports Mumbai is the biggest. Kandla is a tidal port, Marmugoa
Enjoys the second position by value of the tonnage of traffic, bulk of which is export
of iron ore. Vishakapatnam is the deepest landlocked and protected port.Chennai
has an artificial harbour. Calcutta is riverine port. Haldia has a fully equipped
containerized berth. The 12th major port is under construction of Ennore near
Chennai with the financial aid of Asian Development Bank.
National Waterways:
The Inland Waterways Authority of India was setup on October 27, 1986. This
statutory body is entrusted with the responsibility of development, maintenance
and regulation of national waterways.
The Government has identified 10 important waterways for consideration to declare
them as National Waterways. The following have so far been declared as National

160

Waterways and the same are being developed for navigation by Inland Waterways
Authority of India. The Ganga between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km) on October
27, 1986, the Sadia-Dhubri-stretch of river Brahmaputra (891 km) on October 26,
1988 and the Kollam-Kottapuram stretch of west coast canal (168 km) along with
Champakare canal (14 km) and Udyogmandal canal (22 km) in Kerala with effect
from February 1, 1993. It is also proposed to consider the declaration of some more
waterways like the river Godavari, Sunderbhans and waterways in Goa.
Shipping:
Overseas shipping has an extremely important role to play in Indias
international trade. The country has the largest merchant shipping fleet among
developing countries and ranks 17th in the world in shipping tonnage.
There were 102 shipping companies in the country operating as on 31 st March
2000, including shipping Corporation of India a public sector company.
Air Transport
There are five international airports-Delhi (Indira Gandhi International Airport-alem);
Calcutta (Dum Dum) Mumbai (Santa Cruz) and Chennai (Meenambakkam) and
Kerala (Thiruvananthapuram)
The Civil Aviation Centre in Fursataganj near Allahabad provides, among the other
things, ground training to the pilots.
Air India established in 1953 is having bilateral air services agreement with 90
countries as on January 1, 1998.
Indian Airlines established in 953, operates to 72 domestic (including Alliance Air
operations) and 16 International stations in 14 countries. Indian Airlines, in 1999,
with a fleet of 52 aircraft handled 200 flights a day.
Air India and Indian airlines merged forming Air India Authority Of India in 2009
Pawan Hans Limited basically provides helicopter support services to oil sector,
hill station and remote areas. It also provides air support services to several
customers which includes ONGC, Punjab, M.P., Lakshdweep Administration, GAIL,
BSF and also caters to private sector.
Private Air Taxi:
The liberalization process in civil aviation took wing in April 1990 with the cargo
open skies policies. The Air Corporation Act, 1953, repealed on March 1, 1994,
ended the monopoly of IA, AI and Vayudoot over scheduled air transport services.
Posts and Telegraphs
The first Indian postal stamp was issued in 1852 in Karachi.
The Postal department was set up in 1854 when nearly 700 post offices were
already functioning.
Today, there are about 1,53,454 post offices. For the efficient and correct
handling of the volume of mail, a numerical postal address code, known as the
Postal Index Number (PIN), was introduced with digits which help to identify and
locate every departmental delivery post offices excluding branch post offices.
The first digit indicates the region, the second the sub-region and the third the
sorting district whereas the last three digits indicate a particular delivery zone of
the post office in the areas served by the sorting district. The entire country has
been divided into the PIN code zones as given below.
a. Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Chandigarh, Himachal Pradesh
b. Uttar Pradesh

161

c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Rajasthan, Gujarat, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli

Maharashtra, Goa, Madhya Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
Tamilnadu, Kerala, Pondicherry, Lakshadweep
West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland,
Tripura, Sikkim, Orissa, Andaman and Nicobar Islands
h. Bihar

162

Demography of India
INDIAN TRIBES
Abhors
: North-eastern India (Mongoloid stock)
Adivasis
: Bastar District
Angami
: Manipur & Nagaland
Bhyils
: Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan (Dravidian)
Garos
: Hill tribe of Assam and Meghalaya
Gonds
: Forest Tribes of Madhya Pradesh
Jaintias
: Hill tribe of Meghalaya
Lusali
: Tribals of Tripura and Mizoram
Nagas
: Tribals of Nagaland
Moplahs
: Muslims of the Malabar district in Kerala
Santhals
: Tribals living in West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
Todas
: Tribals of the Nilgiri Hills in Tamilnadu
Chenchus
: Andhra Pradesh and Orissa
Lepchas
: Sikkim
Kol :
Madhya Pradesh
Khonds
: Orissa
Apatamis
: Arunachal Pradesh
Baigas
: Nilgiri Hills in Tamilnadu
Baiga
: Madhya Pradesh
Bhotias
: Garhwal and Kumaon regions of U.P.
Gaddis
: Himachal Pradesh
Warlis
: Maharashtra
Uralis
: Kerala
Shompens
: Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Sentinelese
: Sentinel Island, Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Kotras
: Nilgiri Hills (Tamilnadu)
Kukli:
Maineur
Oraons
: (also called Kurukh): Bihar and Orissa
Jarawas
: Little Andaman
Murias
: Bastar region in Madhya Pradesh
Mikirs
: Assam
Mundas
: Jharkhand
Khas:
Jaunsar-Babar area in Uttaranchal
The most remarkable news about the 2001 census is that there is a significant
increase in both the literacy rates and number of literate persons. In India as a
whole, the proportion of literate persons among the population aged 7 years and
above is reported to be 65.38 percent which represent a jump of 13.17 percent
points over the actual of 1991. The female literacy rate has increased even more
rapidly, by 14.87 percentage points to teach 54.16 per cent, while male literacy has
increased by 11.77 percentage points, to reach 75.85 percent. Accordingly the
male-female gape in the literacy rate has declined to 21.70 percent, the lowest
since 1951 census. Among the major states, Kerala predictably leads the pack with
a literacy rate of 90.92 percent and fairly small male-female gap of 6.34 percent. A

163

remarkable feature of the improvement in literacy is the sharp increase in the

literacy rate Chatisgarh (22.27) , Rajasthan (23.90) and Madyha Pradesh (20.73).
SC & ST POPULATION
Numerically, Scheduled Castes are largest in Uttar Pradesh followed by West
Bengal and Bihar. There are no scheduled castes in Nagaland, Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and Lakshdweep. Largest population of Scheduled Castes of the
total population is in Punjab (26.87%).
Madhya Pradesh has the largest number of Scheduled Tribes followed by Bihar.
Bastar District of Madhya Pradesh consists of largest number of Scheduled Tribes.
Scheduled Tribes form the largest proportion of the total population in Lakshadweep
(93.82%) and Mizoram (93.55%) followed by Nagaland (83.99%) and Meghalaya
(80.58%). There are no Scheduled Tribes in Punjab, Delhi,Haryana, Chandigarh,
Pondichery and Jammu and Kashmir.
RACIAL GROUPS IN INDIA
Anthropologists divide Indians into six racial groups:
1. Negritos:
They are believed to be the oldest inhabitants but are now almost extinct, found
only in small numbers in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
2. Proto-Australoids:
It includes the tribal people of Central and Southern India.
3. Mongoloids:
It includes the inhabitants of the mountainous zone in the North Eastern parts of
the country.
4. Mediterranean:
This group is divided into Paleo-Mediterranean inhabiting the Southern parts
(Tamilnadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka). Palei-Mediterranean are also
called Dravidians. The other type of this group known as True Mediterranean or
European type are inhabiting the northern and western parts (Punjab, U.P. and
Rajasthan).
5. Western Brachyeephals:
Include the people of West Bengal, Orissa, Gujarat and parts of Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Tamilnadu.
6. Nordics or Indo-Aryan:
Inhabit parts of Northern India (Jammu and Kashmir, Western Rajasthan and
Upper Gangetic valley region).
LANGUAGES IN INDIA
The Indian languages may be classified into four major groups:
i. Aryan Language (Indo-European):
Account for 73% of population. Two main branches are Dradic and Indo-Aryan.
Dardic includes mainly Kashmiri. Indo-Aryan group includes Sanskrit. Sindhi,
Marathi, Konkano. Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Bhojpuri, Hindi, Punjabi, Rajasthani,
Gujarati, Pahari and Nepali.
ii. Dravidian Language:

164

Account for 20% of the population. Main languages-Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada

and Telugu. The Dravidian group is the least dispersed among the four families.
iii. Sino-Tbietan Languages:
account for 0.85% of the population. Spread throughout the Himalayan ranges
and include Tibetan, Lepcha, Bhutia, Naga, Manipuri etc.
iv. Austro-Asiatic Languages:
Minor language group in India represented by two branches Munda or Kol
language is spoken by the hill tribes in Bihar, Orissa and Central India and the other
branch Monkhmer language is spoken in North-eastern India and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
The Constitution of India, however, recognizes only 18 languages.
RELIGIONS IN INDIA
The major religious communities of India are the Hindus, Muslims, Christians,
Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains and Zorastrains. Hindus form the over-whelming majority
(82.63%). Muslims form the second biggest community of India (11.36%), Christians
form the third biggest community (2.43%), Sikhs (1.96%) are concentrated largely
in the Punjab. Buddhist form only 0.71% Maharashtra accounts for over 85% of the
Buddhists. In Arunachal Pradesh 13% of the population are Buddhists. Jains form
(0.48%) of the total population and are spread largely in Maharsthra, Rajasthan and
Gujarat Zoroastrains are concentrated in Bombay.

165

Distribution of population, sex ratio, density and decadal growth

population : 2011
Sta India/State/
Total population
Sex
Densit
te / Union Territory
y
Persons
Males
Female ratio
UT
(female
(Per
s
Cod
s
sq.km)
e
per
1000
males)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
INDIA
1,210,193,
623,724, 586,469,
940
382
422
248
174
01

Jammu & Kashmir

12,548,926

6,665,561

5,883,365

883

124

02

Himachal Pradesh

6,856,509

3,473,892

3,382,617

974

123

03

Punjab

27,704,236

14,634,81

13,069,41
7

893

550

04

Chandigarh

1,054,686

580,282

474,404

818

9,252

05

Uttarakhand

10,116,752

5,154,178

4,962,574

963

189

06

Haryana

25,353,081

13,505,13

11,847,95
1

877

573

07

NCT of Delhi

16,753,235

8,976,410

7,776,825

866

08

Rajasthan

68,621,012

35,620,08

09

Uttar Pradesh

10

Bihar

33,000,92
6
94,985,06
2
49,619,29
0

11

Sikkim

607,688

321,661

12

Arunachal Pradesh

1,382,611

13

Nagaland

14

908

828

916

1,102

286,027

889

86

720,232

662,379

920

17

1,980,602

1,025,707

954,895

931

119

Manipur

2,721,756

1,369,764

1,351,992

987

122

15

Mizoram

1,091,014

552,339

538,675

975

52

16

Tripura

3,671,032

1,871,867

1,799,165

961

350

17

Meghalaya

2,964,007

1,492,668

1,471,339

986

132

18

Assam

31,169,272

15,954,92

15,214,34
5
44,420,34
7
16,034,55
0
20,745,68
0
12,712,28

954

397

947

1,029

947

414

978

269

991

189

19

West Bengal

91,347,736

20

Jharkhand

32,966,238

21

Orissa

41,947,358

22

Chhattisgarh

25,540,196

104,596,4
15
54,185,34
7

7
46,927,38
9
16,931,68
8
21,201,67
8
12,827,91

166

8
17.6
4
23.7
1
12.8
1
13.7
3
17.1
0
19.1
7
19.9
0
20.9
6

201

199,581,47
7
103,804,63
7

Decad
al
growt
h rate

11,29
7

926

rate of

21.4
4
20.0
9
25.0
7
12.3
6
25.9
2
-0.47
18.6
5
22.7
8
14.7
5
27.8
2
16.9
3
13.9
3
22.3
4
13.9
7
22.5

5
37,612,92

23

Madhya Pradesh

72,597,565

24

Gujarat

60,383,628

25

Daman & Diu

242,911

150,100

26

Dadra
Haveli

342,853

27

Maharashtra

112,372,97
2

28

Andhra Pradesh

84,665,533

29

Karnataka

61,130,704

30
31

Goa
Lakshadweep

1,457,723
64,429

32

Kerala

33,387,677

33

Tamil Nadu

72,138,958

34

Puducherry

1,244,464

610,485

35

Andaman
Nicobar
Islands

379,944

202,330

&

Nagar

1
34,984,64
5
28,901,34
6

9
20.3

930

236

918

308

92,811

618

2,169

193,178

149,675

775

698

58,361,39

54,011,57
5
42,155,65
2
30,072,96
2
717,012
31,323
17,366,38
7
35,980,08
7

925

365

992

308

968

319

968
946

394
2,013

8.17
6.23

1,084

859

4.86

995

555

633,979

1,038

2,598

177,614

878

46

0
31,482,28
2

7
42,509,88
1
31,057,74
2
740,711
33,106
16,021,29
0
36,158,87
1

0
19.1
7
53.5
4
55.5
0
15.9
9
11.1
0
15.6
7

15.6
0
27.7
2

&

Top Ten States of highest Population in India as per India

Cencus 2011
Sr.
Percent(%)
of Densit
State Name Population
No.
India
y
1,21,01,93,4
INDIA
100
382
22
1
Uttar Pradesh 19,95,81,477 16.49
828
2
Maharashtra
11,23,72,972 9.29
365
3
Bihar
10,38,04,637 8.58
1,102
4
West Bengal
9,13,47,736 7.55
1,029
Andhra
5
8,46,65,533 7.00
308
Pradesh
Madhya
6
7,25,97,565 6.00
236
Pradesh
7
Tamil Nadu
7,21,38,958 5.96
555
8
Rajasthan
6,86,21,012 5.67
201
9
Karnataka
6,11,30,704 5.05
319
10
Gujarat
6,03,83,628 4.99
308
Census-2011-Population (in crore):

India
Rural

2001

2011

102.9
74.3

121.0
83.3

167

Differenc
e
18.1
9.0

6.68

Urban

28.6

37.7

9.1

For the first time since independence, the absolute increase in population is more
than in urban areas that in rural areas.
Rural-Urban distribution: 68.84% and 31.16%.
Level of urbanization increased from 27.81% in 2001 census to 31.16% in 2011
census.
The proportion of rural population declined from 72.19% to 68.84%.
Growth rate of population (in %):

India
Rural
Urban

19912001
21.5
18.1
31.5

20012011
17.6
12.2
31.8

Differenc
e
-3.9
-5.9
+0.3

The improvement in literacy rate in rural area is two times that in urban areas.
The rural urban literacy gap which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, has come
down to 16.1 percentage points in 2011.
Child population in age group 0-6 years:
The total number of children in the age-group 0-6 years, as per the provisional
population totals of Census 2011, is 158.8 million. It is significant that out of the
absolute increase of 181 million in the countrys population during the decade
2001-2011, 88 percent has been contributed by the Child Population in the age
group of 0-6 years. In Census 2001, the total number of children in the age-group 06 years was about 163.8 million, about 5 million more than the number recorded in
2011. This reduction is indicative of a fall in fertility and is a positive sign.
Child population in the age group 0-6 years, India: 2011:

168

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have the
largest number of children in the age group of 0-6 years. Lakshadweep, Daman &
Diu, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Sikkim, on the other
hand have the least number of children in the age group 0-6 years.
A comparison with the figures of Census 2001 reveals that the maximum decline
in absolute numbers of children has been in the State of Uttar Pradesh. This is
followed by Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Kerala. At the other end
of the spectrum are the States of Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Meghalaya
and Chhattisgarh, where there has been the maximum increase in the child
population in the age group 0-6 years.
An analysis of the gender composition of the decline shows that the decline in
females is much more than that among males. While there was a decline of
29,91,976 females, the decline among males was only 20,56,132. The ranking of
States and Union Territories as far as the first and last five ranks are concerned
remains the same for males as well as females. The implications of this differential
on the sex ratio will be analysed later on.
States and Union Territories by ranges of sex ratio:
It is interesting to note that although the number of States and Union Territories
with sex ratio less than 916 declined from twelve to ten in 2011 but percentage
share of these States population has remained almost constant. In contrast, the
number of States and Union Territories with high sex ratio of 986 and above rose
sharply from four in 2001 to seven in 2011 with corresponding increases in the
share of population. Movement of large States (Andhra Pradesh) in this category
resulted in the increase in the population share. However, overall increasing trend in
the sex ratio at the Census 2011 has boosted the sex ratio of India.

169

Literacy:
Any one above age 7 who can read and write in any language with an ability to
understand was considered a literate. In censuses before 1991, children below the
age 5 were treated as illiterates. The literacy rate taking the entire population into
account is termed as "crude literacy rate", and taking the population from age 7
and above into account is termed as "effective literacy rate". Effective literacy rate
increased to a total of 74.04% with 82.14% of the males and 65.46% of the females
being literate.
Census year

Total (%)

Male (%)

Female (%)

1901

5.35

9.83

0.60

1911

5.92

10.56

1.05

1921

7.16

12.21

1.81

1931

9.5

15.59

2.93

1941

16.1

24.9

7.3

1951

16.67

24.95

9.45

1961

24.02

34.44

12.95

1971

29.45

39.45

18.69

1981

36.23

46.89

24.82

1991

42.84

52.74

32.17

2001

64.83

75.26

53.67

2011

74.04

82.14

65.46

Literacy Rates (in %):

India
Rural
Urban

2001

2011

64.8
58.7
79.9

74.0
68.9
85.0

Differenc
e
+9.2
+10.2
+5.1

The slowing down of the overall growth rate of population is due to the sharp
decline in the growth rate in r ural areas, while the growth rate in urban areas
remains almost the same.

170

Literacy Rates in detail (in %):

2001
Males
India
75.3
Rural
70.7
Urban
86.3
Females
India
53.7
Rural
46.1
Urban
72.9

2011

Differenc
e

82.1
78.6
89.7

+6.8
+7.9
+3.4

65.5
58.8
79.9

+11.8
+12.7
+7.0

Improvememnt in female literacy is more than males in b oth rural and urban areas.
The gender gap in literacy has come down from 24.6 in 2001 to 19.8 in 2011 in
areas and from 13.4 in 2001 to 9.8 in 2011 in urban areas.

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