CHAPTER 2:

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Learning Objectives
1) Identify and describe the different stages of
mitosis and meiosis.
2) Compare and describe asexual and sexual
reproduction process.
3) Compare and describe external and internal
fertilization.
4) Describe reproduction in vertebrates.
5) Describe the human gametogenesis process.
6) Describe pregnancy and human developement.
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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1.Cell Division

Mitosis
Meiosis

4.Reproduction in
Vertebrates
Fishes/amphibians
Reptiles/birds
Mammals

2.Asexual
Reproduction

Fragmentation
Budding
Parthenogenesis
Hermaphroditism

3.Sexual Reproduction

Fertilization
- internal/external
Embryonic
development
- oviparity
- ovoviviparity
- viviparity

5.Human
Reproductive
System

Male
Female

6.Pregnancy and
Human
Development
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1. CELL DIVISION:MITOSIS
Process in which one cell duplicates its
chromosomes to generate two identical
cells with an equal distribution of
organelles and other cellular components.
Followed by cytokinesis which divides
the cytoplasm and cell membrane.
Mitosis
maintains
condition.(2n)

the

diploid

Parent cell
Diploid (2n)

Daughter cell
Diploid (2n)

Daughter cell
Diploid (2n)

In multicellular organisms, the somatic

cells undergo mitosis, while germ cells
divide in a process called meiosis.
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CELL DIVISION : MITOSIS & CELL CYCLE

Cell cycle has two parts:
1) Growth and preparation (Interphase)
2) Cell division:
i) Mitosis (nuclear division)
ii)Cytokinesis (cytoplasm division)

STAGES
1- Interphase (G1,S,G2)
2- Prophase
3- Prometaphase
4- Metaphase
5- Anaphase
6- Telophase
7- Cytokinesis

CELL DIVISION: INTERPHASE

Can be divided into three subphases:
i) G1 Cell acquires and synthesises
materials such as proteins for cell
division. New organelles are being
formed
ii)S Synthesis of DNA and
chromosomes undergo replication.
Each chromosome consist of two
identical sister chromatids
iii)G2 Cell continues to grow and
remains
metabolically
active.
Enzymes
and
proteins
are
synthesised for cell division. The cells
accumulates energy
Is the longest part of the cycle.
Cell grows and copies the
chromosomes in preparation of cell
division
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CELL DIVISION:
INTERPHASE (G1 Phase)

The cell just finished dividing

so in Gap 1 the cell is recovering
from mitosis.

CELL DIVISION:
INTERPHASE (S Phase)

This is the synthesis phase

where DNA replicates.
Amount of DNA double.

In this stage, cell grows and

produces protein for DNA
synthesis

CELL DIVISION: INTERPHASE (G2 Phase)

Called Gap 2 Phase.

Single centrosome (an organelle

that
organize
cells
microtubules) replicates and
remain near the nucleus.
Organelles also replicated.

CELL DIVISION: MITOSIS (Prophase)

Chromatin
condensed
chromosomes.

into

Duplicated chromosomes appear as

two identical sister chromatids.

Nucleolus disappears.
Mitotic spindle begins to form.

Centrosome move apart from each

other.
Nuclear envelope starts break up

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CELL DIVISION: MITOSIS

(Prometaphase)
Chromosomes
fibers.

attach

to

spindle

Nuclear membrane disappears.

Microtubules invade the nuclear
area.

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CELL DIVISION: MITOSIS

(Metaphase)
Longest stage in mitosis

The chromosomes are

aligned at metaphase
plate
kinetochores attached to
microtubules

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CELL DIVISION: MITOSIS

(Anaphase)
Centromere divides into two
Sister chromatids separate
and move towards opposite
poles
End of anaphase when
chromosomes reach the
poles.

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CELL DIVISION: MITOSIS

(Telophase)
Spindle fibers disappear.

Two daughter cells begin to form.

Chromosomes less condensed.
Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
reform.

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CELL DIVISION: CYTOKINESIS

(Animal Cell)

CELL DIVISION: CYTOKINESIS

(Plant Cell)

Cleavage furrow shallow groove near

the old plate

Vesicles which contain cell wall material

are formed from Golgi apparatus

Deepens until the cell pinches into two

daughter cell.

Move to the middle of the cell

Grow and enlarged until the membrane
fuses with the plasma membrane.

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CELL DIVISION:
The Importance of Mitosis
Mitosis is important for;

i) Cell Growth
ii) Tissue Repair
iii) Reproduction

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1.CELL DIVISION: MEIOSIS

Meiosis is the process by which one
diploid (2n)eukaryotic cell divides to
generate four haploid (n) cells
called gametes.
Division of the nucleus occur twice
(meiosis I and meiosis II) and
followed by cytokinesis.

Occur in germ cell such as

ovaries and testes.

in

Essential for sexual reproduction

therefore occurs in all eukaryotes

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CELL DIVISION: MEIOSIS

(Terminology)
Diploid - two sets of chromosomes (2n), in humans 23 pairs or 46 total
Haploid - one set of chromosomes (n) - gametes or sex cells, in humans
23 chromosomes
Homologous pair-each chromosome in pair are identical to the
other ( carry genes for same trait) only one pair differs - sex
chromosomes X or Y
Synapsis - pairing of homologous chromosomes forming a tetrad.
Crossing over - chromatids of tetrad exchange parts.

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CELL DIVISION:
MEIOSIS
(INTERPHASE)
Chromosome replicate in S phase (remain
uncondensed)
Each
chromosome
contain
two
genetically identical sister chromatid
Centrosome replicates forming two
centrosomes

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CELL DIVISION:
MEIOSIS(Prophase I)
Nucleolus and nuclear envelopes
disappear.
Spindle microtubules form and
centrosomes move apart.
Homologues chromosomes condense and
pair each other (Synapsis-contains 4 sister
chromatids)
Crossing over at chiasmata.

CELL DIVISION:
MEIOSIS(Prophase II)

Chromosome condensed.
Spindle apparatus forms.
No crossing over.

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CELL DIVISION:
MEIOSIS
(Metaphase I)
Homologous chromosome line
up on the metaphase plate at
the center of cell.

CELL DIVISION:
MEIOSIS
(Metaphase II)
Duplicated chromosome line
up on the metaphase plate.
Sister chromatids are no longer
genetically identical

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CELL DIVISION:
MEIOSIS
(Anaphase I)
The
homologous
chromosomes
separate and move towards the
opposite poles.
Sister chromatids attached at the
centromere and move as single unit.

CELL DIVISION:
MEIOSIS
(Anaphase II)

Sister chromatids separate and

move towards the opposite poles.
Centromere divides into two.

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CELL DIVISION:
MEIOSIS
(Telophase I)
Cytokinesis
Each homologous chromosome has
reached the opposite poles.
Each
homologous
chromosome
consists of two non-identical sister
chromatids.
The 2 daughter cells now is haploid

CELL DIVISION:
MEIOSIS
(Telophase II)

Nuclei and nuclear envelopes reform.

Chromosomes decondensed.
Cytokinesis.
Four haploid (n) daughter cells form.
Genetically distinct from the each
other and from the parent cells.

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The Genetic Variation

Genetic variation cause by the unique combination of traits in each
member of a species.
It occur during meiosis and fertilization.

Independent
Assortment
Crossing Over
Cause of Genetic
Variation

Random
Fertilization

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Crossing Over
Occurs in Prophase I when 2 pairs of non-sister chromatids cross each
other.
Involved a combination of DNA from two parents into a single
chromosome.
Produce recombinant chromosomes.

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Independent Assortment
The pairs of homologous chromosome
separate, or assort randomly.
At metaphase I, each homologous pair
of chromosomes aligns on the
metaphase plate. Each pair consists of
one maternal and one paternal
chromosome.
All of the maternal chromosomes will
not be separated into one cell, while
the all paternal chromosomes are
separated into another.
Instead, after meiosis occurs, each
haploid cell contains a mixture of genes
from the organism's mother and father.

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Random Fertilization
Fusion of gametes
(sperm
and ovum) produce a zygote with
diploid condition.

In humans, when individual ovum

representative of one of eight
million possible
chromosome
combinations is fertilized by a
sperm cell, which also represents
one of eight million possibilities,
the resulting in varieties of
zygote.

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MITOSIS
MITOSIS

MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS

Occurs in somatic cells

Occurs in germ cells.

Produce 2 daughter cells from one

parents.

Produce 4 daughter cells from one parents.

Number of chromosome is similar to their Number of chromosomes are half or the

parents.
parents.
Daughter cells are genetically identical to
the parents.

Daughter cells have different genetic

composition from the parents.

Synapsis did no occur.

Synapsis occur between two homologous

chromosome during prophase meiosis I.

No bivalent or tetrads are formed.

Bivalent or tetrads is formed.

Involve one nuclear division.

Nuclear division occur twice.

Important in growth and worn out tissue

repair.

Important in genetic variation among gametes.

Sister chromatids separate during

Homologous chromosome separate during

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2. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
OVERVIEW
Involve only one parent.
No fertilization occur means no fusion of sperm and
egg.
Using mitotic division.
Offspring have hereditary traits identical to the
parents except in the case of mutation.
Asexual reproduction is the fastest and the most
efficient way of reproducing.

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2. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

FRAGMENTATION
PARTHENOGENESIS

BUDDING

FISSION
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Asexual reproduction
Genetically identical cells are produced from a
single parent cell through mitosis

Fission bacteria, amoeba

Parent divides into two identical daughter
cells.
Each part will become a separate
but identical organism.

Budding cnidarians, sponges

New individuals arise from outgrowths of

existing ones.

Buds remain attached to parent

or detached from parent,
depending on species.

Asexual reproduction
Fragmentation flatworms, annelids,
nematods
Breaking of the body into pieces, some or all of which
develop into adults.
Fragmentation must be accompanied by regeneration,
regrowth of lost body parts.

Asexual reproduction
Parthenogenesis honey bees, whiptail lizards
A female produce a new individual
from an unfertilized egg.
Without sperm, the eggs develop
into haploid male drones.
A queen bee mates only once and
stores the sperm.
She is in control of the release
of sperm.

Fertilized eggs can develop into

other queens or sterile worker
bees that are female.

3. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
OVERVIEW
Involves two parents/
individuals through fusion
of sperm and egg from
each individual.
Egg: large and nonmotile,with nutrients that
will
support
the
development of an embryo.
Sperm: small and motile,
moving by propelling its
flagellum.
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 Sexual reproduction results in genetic

recombination, which provides potential advantages
An increase in variation in offspring, providing an
increase in the reproductive success of parents in
changing environments
An increase in the rate of adaptation
A shuffling of genes and the elimination of harmful
genes from a population

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Variation in Patterns of Sexual

Reproduction
For many animals, finding a partner for sexual
reproduction may be challenging
One solution is hermaphroditism, in which each
individual has male and female reproductive systems
Two hermaphrodites can mate, and some
hermaphrodites can self-fertilize
Individuals of some species undergo sex reversals
Some species exhibit male to female reversal (for
example, certain oysters), while others exhibit female
to male reversal (for example, a coral reef fish)

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
EXTERNAL VS INTERNAL FERTILIZATION

FERTILIZATION MODE

INTERNAL
EXTERNAL

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION

Amplexus: the male rests atop the female, awaiting

her release of eggs

Gametes meet outside the body.

Involve aquatic invertebrates

Eggs and sperm are simultaneously shed into the

water and water help gametes to disperse rapidly.

Sperms swim through the water to fertilize the egg.

Depends on tidal length and temperature to

coordinate gamete release.

Pheromones trigger gamete release.

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION

Once adapting to terrestrial, the animal

face problem of desiccation especially
for small and vulnerable gametes.
Therefore, the organism start to practice
internal fertilization.
Male gametes are deposited straight
into the female reproductive tract.
Three strategies for embryonic and
foetal development.
i. Oviparity
ii. Ovoviviparity
iii. Viviparity
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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION

EMBRYONIC
DEVELOPMENT

OVIPARITY
OVOVIVIPARITY
VIVIPARITY

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION(OVIPARITY)

Eggs that are fertilized internally

but complete their development
outside the mothers body.
Depend on egg yolk for
nourishment.
The eggs might be abandoned by
the parents (fishes) or cared by
the parents (birds).

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION(OVOVIVIPARITY)

The fertilized eggs are retained

within their mother to complete
their development.
The embryos obtain their
nourishment from the egg yolk.
Eggs hatch inside the body.
Found in some many reptiles and
guppies.

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION(VIVIPARITY)

The young develop within their

mothers uterus.
Obtain nourishment from the mother
via placenta.
The offspring are fully developed at
birth.
Found in almost all mammals.

Cat giving bith

Lemon shark giving birth, pup emerges tail first

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4. VARIETIES OF REPRODUCTION IN VETEBRATE

REPTILES/
BIRDS
FISHES/
AMPHIBIANS

MAMMALS

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REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS

All are Internal fertilization

Some mammals are seasonal breeder where they

only reproduce once a year.

Others have more frequent reproductive cycles. The

cycle in female include a period of release of mature
ovum called ovulation.

At ovulation time, they are sexually receptive to

males.

Mammalian placental female has recurring

physiologic changes that are induced by
reproductive hormones called the estrous cycle and
menstrual cycle.
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ESTROUS CYCLE

Reabsorb the endometrium if

conception does not occur during
that cycle.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Shed the inner lining of their

uterus followed by heavy bleeding.

Females are generally only sexually Sexually active at any time in their
active during the estrous phase of cycle, even when they are not
their cycle.
about to ovulate.

Examples: dogs, cows, horses, rats,

Examples: human and apes

goats, elephants
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REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS

Mammals can be divided into three categories:

MONOTREMES
Egg lying mammals

MARSUPIALS
Pouched mammals

EUTHERIANS
Placental mammals

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REPRODUCTION IN MONOTREMES

Monotremes are oviparous since that they

lay eggs. The young hatch pink and
unfinished as an embryonic stage too
helpless to fend for themselves.
The females have mammary glands but no
nipples, so the young must lap up the milk
as it oozes from their skin.
Examples of monotremes are platypus and
spiny anteater.

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REPRODUCTION IN MARSUPIALS

Marsupials are viviparous.

The marsupials young are born tiny, blind, and

hairless but find their way to the mothers
pouch which is at her ventral surface.

There they were suckled and finish their

development in the pouch.

Examples are kangaroos and Tasmanian Devils.

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REPRODUCTION IN EUTHERIANS

Eutherians are viviparous.

Eutherians retain their young for a much longer

period of development in the mothers uterus.

The young are nourished within the mothers

uterus by the placenta which is a composite of
maternal and fetal tissue.

It is the organ of exchange of nutrients and

wastes between the maternal blood and the fetal
blood.

embryos grow faster than marsupials do in their

pouch and the offspring are fully formed at birth.

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REPRODUCTION IN VERTEBRATE:
CONCLUSION

Major types of protection to ensure offspring survival are:

i) Tough eggshell (Oviparous animals)
ii) Development of embryo within the mother (Ovoviviparous / Viviparous)
iii) Parental care ( Amphibian, Aves, Reptiles and Mammals)

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ASEXUAL

ADVANTAGE

SEXUAL

ASEXUAL

SEXUAL

DISADVANTAGE

Genetic diversity
increase chances of
survival in an unstable
environment

Costly because there is a need

to produce gametes and make
the gametes meet (time +
energy )

Beneficial parental
genotype can be
preserved in a stable
environment.

Genetic uniformity leads to

susceptibility to diseases.
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