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Aplicatii liniare
In acest capitol vom studia aplicatii liniare, aplicatii compatibile cu structura de spatiu
vectorial.
Definitia 22. Fie V si W s.v. pesteF. O aplicatie liniara de la V la W este o aplicatie
f : V W cu prop.f pv ` uq f pv q ` f puq @ v, u P V and , P F.
Multimea aplicatiilor liniare de la V la W o vom nota cu LFpV, W q or HomFpV, W q
Obsf p0V q 0W si

fp

i1

i v i q

if pviq, @ i P F, @vi P V, i 1, . . . , n

i1

ker f f p0W q tv P V |f pv q 0w u, and

imf f pV q tw P W |D v P V, f pv q wu
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Definitia 23.

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Multimile ker f si f pV q se numeasc nucleul, resp. imaginea lui f .

Propositia 24. Nucleul si imaginea unei aplicatii liniare f : V W sunt subspatii ale
lui V , resp. W .
dem. gata dem.
In cazul finit dimensional avem:
Teorema 25.

Fie f : V W linara, V si W s.v. peste F, V finit dimensional.

dim V dim ker f ` dim f pV q.

Dem Fie n si m dimensiunile lui V resp. ker f , m n. Fie te1, . . . emu

baza n ker f . Sistemul de vectori l.i. e1, . . . , em poate fi completat la o baza
te1, . . . em, em`1, . . . enu a lui V .
Aratam ca f pem`1q, . . . , f penq formeaza o baza a lui f pV q. este suficient sa aratam
ca f pem`1q, . . . , f penq sunt l. ind., deoarece genereaza f pV q.
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Pp. ca f pem`1q, . . . , f penq nu sunt l.i. Exista am`1, . . . an P F a..

n

k f pe k q 0 W ,

km`1

iar din liniaritatea lui f ,

fp

k e k q 0 W ,

k m` 1

adica

k ek P ker f.

k m` 1

si deci se sunt comb. liniara de e1, . . . em. Dar e1, . . . en formeaza baza in V deci
km`1 kn 0, adica f pem`1q, . . . , f penq sunt l.i.. gata dem.
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Teorema 26. Fie F : V W liniara V si W s.v., si dim V dim W 8. Atunci,

f pV q W d.s.n.d ker f t0V u. In particular f is surj. d.s.n.d. A bij.
Dem Pp. ker f t0v u. f pV q subspatiu a lui W , deci dim V dim f pV q dim W ,
adica dim f pV q dim W , adica f pV q W .

f pV q W implica ker f t0V u analog.

sf. dem
Propositia 27. Fie f : V W liniara V, W s.v. peste F. Daca f este bijectie ,
rezulta ca inversa f 1 : W V este liniara.
Dem f bij. @w1, w2 P W , D! v1, v2 P V ,a.i. f pviq wi, i 1.2. Deoarece f liniara
, avem
1w1 ` 2w2 a1f pv1q ` a2f pv2q f pa1v1 ` 2v2q.
Deci a1v1 ` 2v2 f 1p1w1 ` 2w2q, so

f
Algebra liniara

p1w1 ` 2w2q 1f

pw1`q ` 2f

pw 2 q
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sf. dem
Definitia 28. O aplicatie liniara bij.
izomorfism intre V si W

f : V W intre s.v.

V, W peste F s.n.

Un s.v. V s.n. izomorf cu un s.v. W daca exista un izomorfism f : V W . Daca

s.v. V si W sunt izomorfe, vom nota acest fapt cu V W .
Example
Fie V un F s.v. si V1, V2 subspatii suplementare adica V V1 V2. @v P V avem
descompunerea unica v v1 ` v2, cu v1 P V1 and v2 P V2. Aplicati a

p : V V1, ppv q v1, @v P V

s.n. proiectia lui V pe V1, paralela cu V2,.
Aplicatia s : V V, spv q v1 v2, @v P V s.n.simetria lui V relativa la V1,
paralela V2.
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Avem v P V1, v2 0, adica ppv q v and spv q v , iar pt. v P V2, v1 0, so

ppv q 0 and spv q v .

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Propriet
ati ale lui LpV, W q
Propositia 29.

Fie f : V W lniara intre s.v. V, W peste F.

1. Daca V1 V subsp. a lui V , atunci f pV1q subspatiu a lui W .

2. Daca W1 subspatiu a lui W , atunci f 1 subspatiu a lui V .
Dem 1. Let w1, w2 be in f pV q. It follows that there exists v1, v2 P V such that
f pviq wi, i 1, 2. The, for every , P F we have

w1 ` w2 f pv1q ` f pv2q f pv1 ` v2q P f pV q.

2. For v1, v2 P f 1pW1q we have that f pv1q, f pv2q P W , so @ P F, f pv1q `
f pv2q P W . Because F is linear f pv1q ` f pv2q f pv1 ` v2q v1 ` v2 P
f 1pW q.
sf. dem
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Propositia 30.

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Fie f : V W apl. liniara intre sp. vect. V, W .

1. f este injectiva ker f t0u.

2. f surjectiva f pV q W .
3. f bijectiva ker f t0u and f pV q W .
Dem 1 PP. ca f inj. Deoarece f p0q 0 P W rezuta ca ker f t0u V . Pt
incluziunea inversa ker f t0u. Let v1, v2 P V with f pv1q f pv2q. Rezulta ca
f pv1 v2q 0 si deoarece ker f t0u it follows that v1 v2.
2 and 3 similar (pt voi).
sf. dem
Propositia 31. Fie f : V W liniara intre sp vect V, W iar S tvi|i P I u un sistem
de vectori in V .
1. daca f inj. S este liniar ind., atunci f pS q este lin. independent.
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2. daca f surj S sist. de generatori, atunci f pS q este sist. de gen.

3. daca t bij. si S baza V , atunci f pS q este baza W .
n
Dem 1. Fie tw1, . . . wnu o parte finita din f pS q, and i P F with i1 aiwi 0.
n
n
Exista vi P V a.i. f pviq wi, @ i 1, . . . n. Atunci i1 aiwi i1 aif pviq
n
n
f p i1 aiviq 0, so i1 aivi 0. Deoarece S este lin. ind. i 0@ i 1, . . . , n,
deci f pS q este lin. ind..
2. Fie w P W . exista v P V a.i. f pv q w. Deoarece S este sistem de generatori
n
exista in S , vi, si scalarii i P F, i1, . . . , n a.i. i1 aivi v . rezulta ca:

w f pv q f p

i1

aiviq

aif pviq,

i1

3. Deoarece f este bij. si S este baza V , rezulta ca 1 si 2 au loc, deci f pS q is a baza

pt. W . sf. dem
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Definitia 32. Let f, g : V W be linear maps between the linear spaces V.W over
F, and inF. We define
1. f ` g : V W by pf ` g qpv q f pv q ` g pv q.@ v P V , the sum of the linear maps,
and
2. f : V W by pf qpv q f pv q, @ v P V, @ P F, the scalar multiplication of a
linear map.
Propositia 33.
over F.

With the operations above defined LpV, W q becomes a vector space

In the next we specialize the study of the linear maps, namely we consider the case
V W.
Definitia 34.

The set of endomorphisms of e linear space pV q is the set:

EndpLq tf : V V |f linearu

By the results from the previous section, EndpV q is an F linear space.

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Let W, U another linear spaces over the same field F, f P LpV, W q and g P LpW, U q.
We define the product (composition) of f and g by h g f : V U ,

hpv q g pf pv qq, @ v P V.
Propositia 35.

The product of two linear maps is a linear map.

Moreover if f and g as above are isomorphisms, the product h g f is an

isomorphism.
Dem

hpv1 ` v2q

g pf pv1 ` v2qq g pf pv1q ` f pv2qq g pf pv1qq ` g pf pv2qq

hpv1q ` hpv2q, @ v1, v2 P V, @ , P F

The last statement follows from the fact that h is a linear bijection. sf. dem
It can be shown that the composition is distributive with respect to the sum of linear
maps, so EndpV q becomes an unitary ring.
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Propositia 36.
Definitia 37.

Radu

The isomorphism between two F linear spaces is an equivalence relation.

Let V be an F linear space. The set

AutpV q tf P EndpV q|f isomorphismu

is called the set of automoprhisms of the vector space V .
Propositia 38.

AutpV q is a group with respect to the composition.

Dem It is only needed to list the properties.

1. the identity map 1V is the unit element.
2. g f is an automorphism for f and g automorphisms.
3. the inverse of an automorphism is an automorphism.
sf. dem
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The group of automoprhisms of a linear space is called the general linear group and is
denoted by GlpV q.
Example
Projectors endomorphisms. An endomorphismp : V V is called projector of the
linear space F is p2 p (p2 p p). If p is a projector, then:
1. ker p ppV q V
2. the endomorphism q 1V p s again a projector.
Denote v1 ppv q and v2 v v1, it follows that ppv2q ppv q ppv1q
ppv q p2pv q 0v , so v2 P ker f . It follows that

v v1 ` v2, @ v P V, where v1 P f pV qand v2 P f pV q,

and moreover the decomposition is unique, so we have the direct sum decomposition
ker p ppV q V . For the last assertion simply compute q 2 p1V pq p1V pq
1V p p ` p2 1V p q , because p is a projector. It can be seen that
q pV q ker p and ker q q pV q. Denote by v1 ppV q and V2 ker p. It follows
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that p is the projection of V on V1, parallel with V2, and q is the projection of V on
V2 parallel with V1.
Involutive automorphisms. An operator s : V V is called involutive iff s2 1V .
From the definition and the previous example one have:
1. an involutive operator is an automorphism
2. for every involutive automorphism, the linear operators:

ps
qs

1
pv ` spv qq
2
1
: V V, qspv q pv spv qq
2
: V V, pspv q

are projectors and satisfy the relation ps ` qs 1V .

3. reciprocally, for a projector p : V V , the operator sp : V V , given by
sppv q 2ppv q v is an involutive automorphism.
From the previous facts it follows that ps s s ps p, sp p p sp p.
An involutive automorphism s ia a symmetry of V with respect to the subspace pspV q,
parallely with the subspace ker ps.
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Linear maps between finite dimensional subspaces

Up to now we studied the global properties of linear maps. In this section we are
interested to see how they look like locally, for example how they acts on basis, or what
objects characterize the transformation of vectors by linear maps.
All this section is related to finite dimensional spaces. We will write V n for a vector
space of dimension n.
Let V n a linear space over F, of dimension n, and E te1, . . . , enu a basis. A
n
vector v P V can be uniquely written as v i1 viei. We will call pv1, . . . , vnq the
coordinates (components) of v in the basis E .
We will start this section with the change of basis. Consider two basis E
te1, . . . , enu and F tf1, . . . , fnu, of the vector space V . It follows that there exists
the scalars aij P F, i, j 1, . . . , n such that
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fj

aij ei, j 1, . . . n

i1

For e vector v which has the components pv1, . . . , vnq and pv11 , . . . , vn1 q resp. we
have its representation in the basis E and F

1
vj f j

j 1

j 1

1
vi

aij ei

i1

n
n

aij vj ei,

(1)

i1 j 1

that is
n

i1

n
n

1
vi e i
p aij vj qei,
i1 j 1

and from the fact that the coordinates in a basis are unique we have that
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vi

aij vj , i 1, n

j 1

We denote

v1
rv sE ...
vn
and A paij qi,j 1,n, we can write

rv sE Arv sF ,
relation which express the change from the basis E to the basis F . Let G
tg1, . . . , gnu be third coordinate system, and rv sG the coordinates of v in G, we have
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rv sF A1rv sG,
for some matrix A1.We deduce that

rv sE Arv sF AA1rv sG.

Particularly it is true for G E , so in this case we obtain that In AA1.

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