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1923.]
THE
GEOMETRY
OF RIEMANN
AND
EINSTEIN.
425
Fpq =
requires
but whichare calledpoints,linesand planes. To followsuchreasoning
1 See the 1ast sentence of section 14.
2 Read at the summermeetingof the Associationat
Vassar College,Poughkeepsie,New
York,September6, 1923.
titleforthepaperis "EllipticGeometry." Riemannshowedthatthemetric
An alternative
ofa space of constantcurvatureis definedby
[1 +
dx12 +
(X12 +
+ dx.2
n+ x2)/4R2]2
426
THE
GEOMETRY
OF RIEMANN
AND
EINSTEIN.
[Dec.,
a great efforton the part of the reader and this no doubt explainswhyrelatively
few persons have devoted much attention to this subject. There is another
way quite as rigorousand, as the authorbelieves,moreattractiveto the ordinary
mathematicianand phvsicist. We will admit that the propositionsof Euclidean
geometryhave been established with entire rigor and proceed by its aid to
constructanothergeometrywhichforshortwe call Riemannian or R-geometry.
Our method is analogous to that used in general arithmetic: grantingthat the
arithmeticof ordinaryreal numbershas been established,we may take pairs of
them as (a, b) to definea new class of numbersordinarilydenoted by a + ib.
Or we may take sets of four (a, b, c, d) to forma class of new numbersusually
denotedby a + bi + cj + dk and called quaternions. No one thinksit necessary
to go back to firstprinciplesand develop an abstract theoryof magnitude in
orderto develop the arithmeticof quaternions.
A great meritof the methodadopted in this paper, so it seems to the writer,
lies in its intuitiveness; the reader has the thingsdealt with constantlyunder
his eyes. As will be seen, the geometryof R-space in the immediate vicinity
of the observeris sensiblythe same as in ordinarygeometry,it is only whenlarge
portionsof space are consideredthat the great difference
betweenthe two geometries,Euclidean and Riemannian,becomes apparent.
1. The Metric ofRiemann. We beginby recallinga fewfactsofE-geometry.1
We take a rectangularcoordinatesystemwhose originwe denoteby 0; the coordinates of a point x we denote by x1, X2, X3,etc. If x + dx is a point near by,
its distance do-fromx is given by
Let
do-2=
Xi =
dxl 2+
X2 =
fl(t)
dX22+ dx32.
p02(t),
x3 =
(1)
(t)
(2)
0f= J -dt.
The curve (2) is a straightwhen o-is less than for any adjacent curve If x,
x + dx, x + Ax are the coordinates of three nearby points, they determinea
little trianglethe lengthof whose sides may be denoted by do-,&o, Ao-. If 0 is
the angle betweendo-,&or,
that is, the angle whose vertexis the point x, we have
A2
e2 -
2do-*
cos 0,
(3)
(4)
d2 +
Co
do- o-
do- o-
do- o-
This may be taken as the definitionof the angle 0 between two curves meeting
at x.
1 The lettersE and R beforea wordare to be read Euclidean,Riemannian.
1923.]
THE
OF RIEMANN
GEOMETRY
AND
EINSTEIN.
427
[1 +
X22 +
x32)/4R2]2
fs
d
ddt.
(6)
Let us compare (5) with (1). We see that the numeratorof (5) is de2 while
r2 = x12 + X22+ x32is the square of the distance fromthe origin0 to the point
x in E-measure. We mav set thus
do-
= Mdo-,
ds = 1 + r2/4R2
(7)
xi= lit,
X2 12t)
(~dt
1+
X3 13t;
t2/4R2
o-
2R arctg2R
r
p = 2R arctgj *
'As we shall see these lines are also straightlines in R-geometry.
(8)
428
[Dec.,
r = 2R tan-P-,
2R
(9)
In E-polar coordinates,
de = dr2+
r2d02 +
r2 sin2 Od 2.
ds2 = dp2 +
(10)
in R-polar coordinates.
As an application of R-polar coordinates,let us findthe lengthin R-measure
of the curve
x1= r cos o,
X2=
r sin,
X3 = 0.
R sinR
dxp =
2rR sinR
By (7) ds = gudo,bs =
cos
d62 +
?0
_
aS2 A-2
2ds*s
s? =de
be
2do- o
= cos?
This gives the importanttheorem: The angle betweentwo curveshas the same
valuein R- as in E-measure.
1 This is
1923.]
THE
GEOMETRY
OF RIEMANN
AND
EINSTEIN.
429
(12)
4R2xi
l
4Z2-
where
We findat onicethat
while (11) gives
4R2X2
Z3
(4R2 - a),
(13)
X= r2+4R2.
z12 + z22+
2=
(14)
R2
(15)
Thus while x ranges over the x1x2-plane,the point z ranges over the E-sphere
(14), whichwe shall call the S-sphere,whose centeris 0 and radius is R. Moreoverwhenx describesan elementofarc ds, the relation(15) showsthat z describes
an element of arc on this sphere of equal length. The relation between the
pointsx and z is uniform. For, solving (13), we get
2Rz1
x1 = R+
R + Z3',
2RZ2
x = R+
x2
IR2.(16)
(6
(17)
(18)
(F),
(19)
430
[Dec.,
(20)
1.923.]
THE
GEOMETRY
OF RIEMANN
AND
EINSTEIN.
431
ds=1+
dzl2 + dx22
+ x)/4R2'(1
(xl
2
(21)
wherexi, x2 are the coordinatesof P'. If we want ds' = ds,that is, if we want
arcs in the x1x2-planeto have the same lengthas the correspondingarcs on the
sphere,we must change our definitionof lengthin accordance with (21), that is,
we must defineour metricby (11). Since stereographicprojectionleaves angles
unchanged,we do not need to adopt a new definitionof measureforangles.
3. Two Kinds of R-geometry. Since diametral circles'cut in two points,
one inside, the other outside the fundamentalcircle F, two R-straightscut in
two points, and not in one as in E-geometry. Also two points do not always
determinean R-straight,viz.: two diametricallyopposite points on the fundamental circle.
On this account we may defineanothergeometryin which these exceptions
do not occur,as follows:
(1) Diametricallyopposite points on the fundamentalcircle are regardedas
one and the same point,1
(2) All points without the fundamentalcircle are regarded as non-existent,
or imaginary.
Let a diametral circle cut the fundamentalcircle F in the points A, A'. If B
is a point of this diametralcirclelyingwithinF, the arc ABA' is the R-straight
in this geometry. A is identical with A', this line is closed and its length is
obviouslyonly 7rR.
and may be
R-geometry,
This new geometrymnaybe called the restricted
denoted by R*.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
R-GEOMETRY.
432
where
X= r2+ 4R2,
[Dec.,
(23)
Z22 +
z42 =
Z32+
R2.
We
(24)
Xi= iR
= 21,
2,3.
(25)
Thus to each set 1 of values: Zl, *.**, Z4, satisfying(24) correspondsa singlepoint
as the coordinates
(X1, X2, X3) and conversely. We may regardZi,. *, Z4, therefore,
of a point whose x-coordinatesare given by (25).
It may aid the readerto have a geometricinterpretation
of the z-coordinates.
Let x1, X2, X3 be the x-coordinatesof a point P, the length of the segmentOP
in E-measure is r; in R-measureits lengthis, by (8),
*
p = 2R arctg2-R
(26)
(27)
4Rr= sin
In fact by (26)
sinL =
sin(2 arctg
Now
.
r
arctg R-= arc sin
Also
arctg -=
2R
1
2 sin(arctg -) Cos(arctg2)
/r
2R
1+4R2/
arc cos
2
=r
1 + 4R2
Z2 = Z3 = O, Z4 =
ar sn
are cos
r cs-
2
2R
- R, may be treated as in ? 2.
1923.]
Therefore,
2R
.X.s_=_,
=2
which establishes (28).
We show furtherthat
4R2- r2=
For
cos(2 arctg2)
4R2
whichestablishes (29).
4Rr
p(29)
{cos(arctg2)}'
=cos
(arc cos2-!
r2
~R
X
COSR=
433
4R2-
-{
)}
sin(arctg )2
-{sin (arc
sin-4=)}
r2
z = R sin%cos ai,
i = 1, 2, 3;
Z4=
R cos2
(30)
(31)
definesa locus whichwe shall call an R-plane. The justificationof such a name
will follow presently; we introduceit now merelyto have a name for such a
relationinasmuchas it entersinto our analysis in a vital manner.
If we replace the z's in termsof the x's as definedin (22), the relation (31)
becomes
(32)
4R2,
(33)
434
THE
GEOMETRY
OF RIEMANN
AND
EINSTEIN.
[Dec.,
(34)
z =Rcoscai,
A;
i= 1,2,3;
Z4=0.
A';
i= 1, 2, 3;
zi' =-zi,
Z4 = 0.
P2 (t),
X2 =
(oi(t),
P3(t).
X3 =
FEdt,
.dt
(35)
(d82
dt
setting
(dzi)2+ + /dz\2
dt
dct
ri
?2 +
?,=dti
3 2+
(dz2
'dt
t4
'
(d 2
dt'
As
(36)
i =1, 2, 3, 4.
X2 =
Xi + 8X?,
X2 + 8X2,
X3=
+ 8X3,
the Axbeing small quantities. At the same time eacll z, becomes zi = zi + 8zi,
= ti + 3j and F becomesF
F + 8F. The length
of the new curve C betweenA, B is now
rb_
s + ss= .LFdt;
that is, in passing fromC to 0 the lengthof the are AB has been increasedby bs.
For C to have minimumlengthit is necessarythat this incrementshould vanish,
neglectingsmall quantitiesof higherorderthan the first,i.e., when C is replaced
by theadjacent curveC, the integral(35) receivesno incrementin small quantities
of the firstorder. In other words the curve C renders the integral (35) sta-
1923.]
435
bs= a
d.sdt= o.
(37)
a dt
8=8s-8=
Now
F2
or by(36)
Fdt-
JaF*dt.
Fdt= J(F-F)dt=
,(g; + 5R;)2=
i = 1, ...
(38)
4.
We shall consider onlv curves C such that (86i)2 iS small compared with the
increments86. Thus, neglecting(8F)2 and the (86?)2, the above gives
F8F=
aF
= 0.
(39)
We can get rid ofF in the denominatorifwe take s insteadof t as the independent
variable. In this case F = 1, by (36), since ds/ds= 1. Thus (39) becomes
16
-4,6
dsy,8
=,
~~~dzi
,kd(dzi's]
dsy
i= 1, ..4,
(40)
d
(
ds
d
dz
Z) =dz
/dz)
ds
ds ds
i forthemoment.
For brevitywe have droppedthesubscript
(41)
436
Also,
d dz
az
ds ds
or
on using (41).
[Dec.,
)=
d2z dz d
+ -*.
ds2 ds ds(sz)
az
d -I-z1
(dz \
d2Z dz
=8sz* -+-.a
ds \ds, /
S2 ds
idz\
-.
\ds(
(42)
d2Z
Sz
[daz
("lodz tdz\
d)ds
ds +
Jd-
(43)
. a (dZ)s=,(z
I-ds=
dd-z
dde
Jads
8 ?j
fdsEzi
d2sZ2.
zi* n.d8.
= 0.
(44)
*** +
or
Z43Z4 = 0
Eziazi = 0,
which shows that only three of the four 8zi are independent. Let H be an
arbitraryfunctionof the zi, then the last equation gives
HIIEzi8zi = 0
EHzi8zi = 0.
or
dsy
d2Z +
Hzi 0zi= 0.
(45
' d'82+Ht8t(5
(46)
8Z3 as arbitrary.
de2
i =I1, 2, 3, 4.
Ez d + HDzi2
= 0.
(47)
1923.]
437
R2. Therefore,
E d2ZA +R2H=O.
(47')
ds
Differentiating
this gives
EZis2 +
dZ$) =2
Now we have already seen, using (36), that the second termon the left = 1.
Therefore,
z
ideZt
+ 1 = 0.
-1+R2H
=0
or
HR1.
d2zi+ z=
=1,*
(48)
**,4,
whichare therefore
the differential
equationsdefiningan R-straight.These
1, 2, 3, 4.
(49)
Here the constantsof integration,as, bi, are subject to the conditionthat the zi
satisfythe relation (24). For s = 0 this gives zi = ai while, for s = r-R/2,we
get zi = bi. Thus the ai and the bi are coordinatesof two pointsa, b and by (24)
b12+ ...
+ b42= R2.
(50)
cos2
Therefore,
= (cos2 R+
sin2 )R2
+ 2 sinjRcos-R*laibi
Thus
0 = 2 sin cos-* Eaibs,
aibi.
438
Therefore,
Eaibi
0.
[Dec.,
(51)
(52)
wherethe A's and B's are arbitrary. Geometrically,these two equations define
two R-planes or, from the standpoint of E-geometrv,two diametral spheres.
But if the coordinateszi of (49) satisfythese equations (52), this means that the
points of an R-straightlie on the intersectionof two R-planes (52), and this is
our fundamentaltheorem. To prove it we set (49) in (52); we get
aiBj
bjAj+
bjBj+
This requiresthat
a2A2 +
a3A3 +
***
***
a4A4 =
0,
+ b4A4= 0,
+ a4B4 = O,
(53)
+ b4B4= 0.
If the two R-planes are distinct,that is, if the B's are not proportionalto the
A's, we may forexample expressa1, a2 in termsof a3, a4 and similarlyb1,b2 in
termsof b3,b4. If we put thesevaluesof a,, a2, b1,b2in termsof a3, a4, b3,b4
in the three equations (50) and (51), we see that there is only one degree of
freedomleft. That means, for example, that we may take the point a, from
which we measure s, at any point on the intersectionof the two R-planes (52).
Conversely,the a's and b's being chosen so as to satisfythe relations (50),
(51), the equations (52) determinethe coefficients
A, B of the two R-planes (52),
aside of course fromconstantfactors. Thus the fundamentaltheoremis established.
Let us multiplythe firstequation of (52) by B4, the second equation by A4
and subtract; we get
ClZl + C2z2+ C3z3= 0,
where Ci = AiB4 - BA4,
X's by (22), we get
i =
= 0,
ClXl + C2X2+ C3X3
in thenextissue.)
(To beconcluded