The Effects of Stretching On Performance.12

TRAINING, PREVENTION, AND REHABILITATION
The Effects of Stretching on Performance

Evan Peck, MD1; Greg Chomko, DPT2; Dan V. Gaz, MS3; and Ann M. Farrell, MLS4
stretching on performance in three
categories of sport: strength and power
dominant, speed and agility dominant,
and endurance dominant. We categorized strength- and power-dominant
activities as those involving a brief and
maximal effort, such as a countermovement jump for maximum height or a
one-repetition maximum (1RM) in resistance exercises such as the bench
press. We categorized speed-and agilitydominant activities as either cyclical, short-duration, fast
muscular contraction events such as sprinting (100 m or less),
or agility tasks that involved repeated quick and multidirectional movements. We categorized endurance-dominant
activities as either cyclical, longer-duration (200 m or greater)
tasks such as distance running or cycling or submaximal
muscular endurance performance in resistance exercises such
as the bench press.
This categorization is acknowledged as subjective and
has significant limitations, as many sports involve some
degree of all three components. However the authors believe that this categorization helped define the results of the
literature better and may assist athletes, coaches, and sports
medicine providers in making decisions regarding the implementation of stretching in a training program.
Abstract
Stretching long has been commonplace in the training programs of recreational and competitive athletes. Its role in performance enhancement has
been debated. This review discusses the literature concerning the effects of
static, dynamic, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching on
performance in three categories of sporting activity: strength- and powerdominant, speed- and agility-dominant, and endurance-dominant activities.
Introduction
The use of stretching in the training programs of recreational and competitive athletes has been historically commonplace. The role of stretching in enhancing athletic performance
has been debated (49). The purpose of this review was to
examine the literature regarding the effect of stretching on
performance, without regard to any of the other purported
effects of stretching, including improvements in joint range
of motion, muscle length, or recovery from or susceptibility
to injury.
There are three primary types of stretching, although
numerous subtypes exist. For the purposes of this review,
we categorized the type of stretching utilized in a study into
one or more of the following: static stretching, dynamic
stretching, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation
(PNF) stretching. Static stretching involves lengthening a
muscle and holding it in a mildly uncomfortable position for
a period, usually somewhere between 10 and 30 s. Dynamic
stretching uses momentum and active muscular effort to
lengthen a muscle, but the end position is not held. PNF
stretching typically involves a contraction of the opposing
muscle to stretch the target muscle, followed by an isometric contraction of the target muscle.
In 2004, Shrier (49) published a review of stretching and
performance. We examined the literature published since
around the time of that review, assessing the effect of
1
Sports Health, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Cleveland Clinic
Florida, West Palm Beach, FL; 2CORA Rehabilitation Services, Palm
Beach Gardens, FL; 3Sports Medicine Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester,
MN; and 4Plummer Library, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
Address for correspondence: Evan Peck, MD, Sports Health, Department

of Orthopaedic Surgery, Cleveland Clinic Florida, 525 Okeechobee Blvd
Ste 1400, West Palm Beach, FL 33401; E-mail: pecke@ccf.org.
1537-890X/1303/179Y185
Current Sports Medicine Reports
Copyright * 2014 by the American College of Sports Medicine
www.acsm-csmr.org
Methods
The MEDLINE database was searched using the Ovid
interface for relevant original research articles published in
English between 2003 and June 2013. Keywords included
stretching, prestretching, performance, preperformance, exertion, and exercise. We excluded articles that solely examined the role of stretching on joint range of motion, muscle
length, injury treatment, or injury prevention. Studies were
excluded if they did not examine the effect of stretching on a
subsequent sporting performance task directly. We excluded
studies that examined the long-term effect of stretching on
performance, as we believed these studies to be measuring a
distinct and potentially more complex process than that in
studies included in this review. We identified 154 potentially
relevant articles. Of these, 62 met the inclusion and exclusion
criteria and were included in this review. These are summarized in Tables 1, 2, and 3, which categorize the primary
study outcomes for each domain of sports performance and
type of stretching.
Copyright 2014 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
179
Table 1.
Summary of studies examining the effect of stretching on strength- and power-dominant activities.
Strength and Power Performance Effects

Static stretching
Positive Effect
Negative Effect
No Effect
Pacheco et al., 2011
Barroso et al., 2012
Knudson et al., 2004
Behm and Kibele, 2007
Holt and Lambourne, 2008
Behm et al., 2011
Little and Williams, 2006
Bradley et al., 2007
Molacek et al., 2010
Brandenburg, 2006
Taylor et al. 2009
Carvalho et al., 2012
Wallmann et al., 2008
Cramer et al., 2004

Curry et al., 2009
Fletcher and Monte-Colombo, 2010
Gergley, 2009
Herda et al., 2008
La Torre et al., 2010
Pearce et al., 2009
Power et al., 2004
Robbins and Scheuermann, 2008
Sim et al., 2009
Taylor et al., 2009
Winchester et al., 2009
Young and Behm, 2003
Dynamic stretching
Behm et al., 2011
Dalrymple et al., 2010
Carvalho et al., 2012
Curry et al., 2009
Christensen and Nordstrom, 2008
Fletcher, 2010
Herda et al., 2008
Fletcher and Monte-
Jaggers et al, 2008
Colombo, 2010
Torres et al., 2008
Holt and Lambourne, 2008

Moran et al., 2009
Needham et al., 2009
Pearce et al., 2009
Perrier et al., 2011
Turki et al., 2011
Yamaguchi et al., 2007
PNF stretching
Pacheco et al., 2011
Christensen and Nordstrom, 2008
Molacek et al., 2010
PNF, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.
Static Stretching for Strength- and

Power-Dominant Sports
A considerable body of literature indicates that static
stretching performed prior to strength- and power-dominant
activities results in performance deficits, including such tasks
as countermovement jump height, 1RM in the bench press,
and peak torque output (2Y7,11,13,20,22,28,34,42,44,45,
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Volume 13 & Number 3 & May/June 2014
50,52,59,62). When examining the countermovement jump,

the detrimental effect of static stretching may be pronounced
more at knee angles closer to extension (34). Gergley et al.
(22) showed that passive static stretching during warm-up in
young competitive male golfers caused decreased club head
speed, distance, and accuracy. Little and Williams (35) conversely
found that static stretching did not impair countermovement
Stretching and Performance
Table 2.
Summary of studies examining the effect of stretching on speed- and agility-dominant activities.
Speed and Agility Performance Effects
Static stretching
Positive Effect
Negative Effect
No Effect
Favero et al., 2009
Amiri-Khorasani et al., 2010
Chaouachi et al., 2010
Fletcher and Jones, 2004
Favero et al., 2009
Fletcher and Anness, 2007
Sim et al., 2009
Taylor et al., 2009
Kistler et al., 2010

Sayers et al., 2008
Sim et al., 2009
Stewart et al., 2007
Taylor et al., 2009
Dynamic stretching
None
None
None
Fletcher and Anness, 2007

Fletcher and Jones, 2004
Needham et al., 2009
Turki et al., 2012
Van Gelder and Bartz, 2011
PNF stretching
None
jump performance. Moran et al. (38) found that static

stretching did not affect club head or ball speeds in golfers,
while Knudson et al. (33) likewise found that static stretching
had no effect on tennis serving speed and accuracy.
When static stretching is performed prior to a general

warm-up or dynamic stretching, performance deficits may
be reversed partially or completely (29,37,52,57). However
when static stretching was performed after a general warm-up
Table 3.
Summary of studies examining the effect of stretching on endurance-dominant activities.
Endurance Performance Effects
Static stretching
Positive Effect
Negative Effect
No Effect
None
Esposito et al., 2012
Esposito et al., 2012
Franco et al., 2008
Gomes et al., 2011
Nelson et al., 2005
Hayes and Walker, 2007
Wilson et al., 2010
Mojock et al., 2011
Wolfe et al., 2011
Samogin Lopes et al., 2010

Hayes and Walker, 2007
Dynamic stretching
None
None
PNF stretching
None
Zourdos et al., 2010

None
Franco et al., 2008

Gomes et al., 2011
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181
(5 min of treadmill running), Holt and Lambourne (29)

found that increases in countermovement jump performance were less than those when performing a general
warm-up alone. Pearce et al. (42) likewise found that with
a warm-up period after a static stretching session, the
strength and power performance deficits created by static
stretching persisted.
Provided that the static stretch is performed for at least
15 s, further increases in duration of stretch do not appear
to alter the effect on performance (6). However Winchester
et al. (59) found that while a single 30-s static stretch
inhibited maximal voluntary strength, additional sets of
30-s static stretching further diminished strength.
Pacheco et al. (41) uniquely found that static stretching
enhanced squat jump, countermovement jump, and drop
jump performance, while other studies have demonstrated
that static stretching prior to activity has no effect on strength
and power (8,12,14,16,24Y26,31,37,46,53). Bradley et al.
(5) found that static stretching induces a decrease in countermovement jump performance that persists for 5 min but returns to baseline at 15 min. Gonzalez-Rave et al. (24) found
no differences in countermovement jump performance between groups performing static stretching alone, heavy-load
exercises alone, and a combination of static stretching and
heavy-load exercises prior to activity.
Although evidence is conflicting, a preponderance of the
evidence suggests that static stretching immediately prior to
strength and power activities diminishes performance.
However it also appears that if static stretching is performed
with adequate time (e.g., 15 min) prior to the event or is
combined with a subsequent general warm-up, it has no
effect on strength and power performance.
Static Stretching for Speed- and Agility-Dominant Sports
Static stretching prior to activity also appears to affect
speed and agility negatively (1,8,9,19,20,32,48,50,51,52).
Kistler et al. (32) found that static stretching decreased
sprint speed, with slowing between 20 and 40 m in both 60and 100-m sprints. Static stretching also has been shown to
produce slower 20-, 30-, and 40-m sprint times (19,48,51).
Fletcher and Monte-Colombo (20) found both 20-m sprint
times and Balsom agility tests to be affected negatively by
static stretching prior to activity. However Amiri-Khorasani
et al. (1) found that static stretching had no effect on the
Illinois agility test in professional soccer players.
When static stretching is followed by dynamic stretching
or a general warm-up prior to speed- and agility-dominant
activities, impairments related to static stretching may be
reversed (1,8,9,16,35,50,52). Conversely Fletcher and Anness
(18) found that the combination of static stretching followed
by dynamic stretching decreased sprint performance. Furthermore Chaouachi et al. (8) found that dynamic stretching
followed by static stretching also decreased sprint performance.
The baseline level of flexibility of the athlete may impact
the performance effect of stretching in speed and agility
tasks. Favero et al. (16) showed that subjects with low
baseline flexibility scores had a performance benefit from
static stretching, with an improvement in 40-m sprint time,
whereas those subjects that had higher baseline flexibility
scores were affected adversely by static stretching, with
slower sprint times.
182
Based on the available literature, static stretching prior to

speed- and agility-dominant activities appears to be detrimental to performance. Dynamic stretching or a general
warm-up after static stretching may reverse this effect. It
also appears that static stretching may affect speed and
agility performance differently based on the athletes baseline level of flexibility.
Static Stretching for Endurance-Dominant Sports
In longer-duration activities (200 m or greater) such as
running or cycling, static stretching prior to activity has
been found to be detrimental to performance (15,58,60).
However other data indicate that static stretching has no
effect on endurance performance (27,36,47). Samogin Lopes
et al. (47) found changes in metabolic measures after static
stretching, such as improvement in blood lactate accumulation time and oxygen deficit; however performance improvements were not seen.
The effect of static stretching on submaximal muscular
endurance performance is unclear. Nelson et al. (40) found
that static stretching prior to activity decreased the number
of repetitions that could be performed in a knee flexion
exercise with an external resistance of both 40% and 60%
of body mass. Conversely Gomes et al. (23) found that static
stretching prior to activity did not affect the number of
repetitions performed at 40%, 60%, and 80% of 1RM in
the bench press or a knee extension exercise. Franco et al.
(21) found that a static stretch of 40 s prior to activity reduced the number of repetitions that could be performed at
85% of 1RM in the bench press, but a static stretch of 20 s
prior to activity did not affect this performance.
A consensus statement regarding the effects of static
stretching on endurance activities is difficult to make from
the current literature. It is unclear whether static stretching
impairs either longer-duration (200 m or greater) cyclic activity or submaximal muscular endurance, but it is notable
that no study shows a performance benefit from static stretching
performed prior to these activities.
Dynamic Stretching for Strength- and
Power-Dominant Sports
Dynamic stretching has been shown to enhance performance when instituted prior to strength and power activities (4,7,13,17,20,29,38,39,42,43,55,61). Moran et al. (38)
found that dynamic stretching prior to golf improved club
head speeds and ball speeds. Fletcher (17) found that a dynamic stretch performed with faster speed may affect performance more positively. Dynamic stretching in conjunction
with a general warm-up has been shown to improve countermovement jump performance further (7,29,43). Needham
et al. (39) also found that athletes combining dynamic
stretching and front squats (using external resistance of
20% of body mass) had higher countermovement jump than
that of athletes performing either dynamic stretching alone
or static stretching alone, while dynamic stretching alone
produced better performances than those produced by static
stretching alone. However Turki et al. (55) found that dynamic stretching combined with heavy dead lifts, maximal isometric squats, tuck jumps, and drop jumps did not
benefit countermovement jump performance versus dynamic
stretching alone.
Fewer studies have shown either no difference or a detrimental effect of dynamic stretching on strength and power
performance (2,5,10,28,30,35,53). Jaggers et al. (30) found
that dynamic stretching did not improve countermovement
jump performance. Dalrymple et al. (14) found that among
collegiate female volleyball players, there were no differences in countermovement jump performance between
static stretching, dynamic stretching, and no stretching
protocols.
It appears from the preponderance of evidence that dynamic stretching improves strength and power performance
when performed immediately prior to the event. Whether a
combination of dynamic stretching and heavy-load exercises prior to an activity such as the countermovement jump
further improves performance is unclear.
Dynamic Stretching for Speed- and
Agility-Dominant Sports
There is literature supporting the benefit of dynamic
stretching on speed- and agility-dominant activities (1,18,
19,20,35,39,54,56). Little and Williams (35) demonstrated
that dynamic stretching during a warm-up for professional
soccer players improved both sprint and agility performance. Fletcher and Anness (18) found that dynamic
stretching combined with an 800-m jog led to faster 50-m
sprint times. Needham et al. (39) found, similar to their
findings with the countermovement jump, that athletes
combining dynamic stretching and front squats had improved sprint times versus those of athletes performing dynamic stretching alone, and both of these groups sprinted
faster than a static stretching group. Dynamic stretching
also has been shown to improve 20-m sprint times (20), and
one or two sets of dynamic stretching within the warm-up
each improved 20-m sprint times (19). However three or
more sets of dynamic stretching induced fatigue and impaired 10- and 20-m sprint times (54). Chaouachi et al. (8)
found that dynamic stretching performed either alone, with
static stretching, or with a general warm-up all had no effect
on sprint performance.
Regarding agility test times, dynamic stretching has been
found to produce faster 505 agility test, Balsom agility test,
and Illinois agility test times (1,20,56). It appears, however,
that more experienced athletes may have less of an improvement (1).
The limited available evidence appears to indicate that
speed and agility performance are improved by dynamic
stretching prior to activity. However excessive volume may
induce fatigue and affect speed and agility performance
adversely.
Dynamic Stretching for Endurance-Dominant Sports
There is insufficient evidence either to support or refute
the practice of dynamic stretching prior to endurance activity (27,63). Further research is needed in this area.
PNF Stretching for All Sports
There is limited research on PNF stretching within the
scope of this review, so these findings are summarized in
one section. Molacek et al. (37) found that PNF stretching
had no effect on 1RM bench press in highly trained individuals. Pacheco et al. (41) found that PNF stretching
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enhanced squat jump, countermovement jump, and drop

jump performance, whereas Christensen and Nordstrom
(10) found that PNF stretching had no effect on countermovement jump performance. Bradley et al. (5) found that
countermovement jump performance was affected negatively by PNF stretching. Barroso et al. (2) found that PNF
stretching negatively affected 1RM leg press performance
and decreased the total number of submaximal repetitions
that could be performed. Franco et al. (21) found that PNF
stretching prior to activity decreased submaximal repetitions in the bench press, and Gomes et al. (23) also found
decreased submaximal bench press and knee extension
performance following PNF stretching.
Discussion
Based on the available evidence, it is reasonable to recommend against static stretching immediately prior to
strength and power activities (2Y7,11,13,20,22,28,34,42,44,45,
50,52,59,62). However if a general warm-up or dynamic
stretching is performed after static stretching, any negative effect on strength and power performance may be reversed
(29,37,52,57), although this contention has been disputed
(29,42).
Conversely the preponderance of evidence indicates that
dynamic stretching prior to a strength- and power-dominant
activity is beneficial (4,7,13,17,20,29,38,39,42,43,55,61).
Fewer studies have shown no difference or a detriment to
strength and power performance following dynamic stretching
(2,5,10,28,30,35,53). The limited evidence regarding PNF
stretching prior to strength- and power-dominant activities is
principally neutral or negative (2,5,10,37), with only one
study showing a performance benefit (41).
The bulk of the literature suggests that static stretching
prior to speed- and agility-dominant activities is detrimental
to performance (1,9,19,20,32,48,50,51,52). However as
with strength- and power-dominant activities, an intervening period of a general warm-up or dynamic stretching may
reverse this negative effect (1,8,9,16,35,50,52). Similar with
strength and power, the use of dynamic stretching in the
period prior to speed- and agility-dominant activities appears to be beneficial (1,18,19,20,35,39,54,56). There is
insufficient evidence to recommend for or against PNF
stretching prior to speed- and agility-dominant activities.
The available evidence shows static stretching to have
either no effect or a detrimental effect on endurance performance (15,21,23,27,36,40,47,58,60). The effects of dynamic stretching on endurance performance are unclear
(27,63). No recommendations can be made for or against
PNF stretching prior to longer-duration cyclical endurance
events, but the limited evidence regarding PNF stretching
prior to submaximal muscular endurance activity is generally negative (2,21,23).
Conclusions
In summary, dynamic stretching generally can be
recommended in the period immediately prior to activity for
most athletes, and static stretching and PNF stretching
probably are reserved best for the period after activity, if
used. If static stretching or PNF are used prior to activity,
they probably should be followed by an intervening sufficient period (e.g., 5 min), dynamic stretching session, or
183
general warm-up prior to the activity to dissipate any potential negative effects on performance.
23. Gomes TM, Simao R, Marques MC, et al. Acute effects of two different
stretching methods on local muscular endurance performance. J. Strength
Cond. Res. 2011; 25:745Y52.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest and do not

have any financial disclosures.
24. Gonzalez-Rave JM, Machado L, Navarro-Valdivielso F, Vilas-Boas JP. Acute

effects of heavy-load exercises, stretching exercises, and heavy-load plus
stretching exercises on squat jump and countermovement jump performance.
J. Strength Cond. Res. 2009; 23:472Y9.
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TRAINING, PREVENTION, AND REHABILITATION

The Effects of Stretching on Performance

Address for correspondence: Evan Peck, MD, Sports Health, Department

Strength and Power Performance Effects

Pacheco et al., 2011

Barroso et al., 2012

Knudson et al., 2004

Behm and Kibele, 2007

Holt and Lambourne, 2008

Behm et al., 2011

Little and Williams, 2006

Bradley et al., 2007

Molacek et al., 2010

Taylor et al. 2009

Carvalho et al., 2012

Wallmann et al., 2008

Cramer et al., 2004

Behm et al., 2011

Barroso et al., 2012

Dalrymple et al., 2010

Carvalho et al., 2012

Bradley et al., 2007

Little and Williams, 2006

Curry et al., 2009

Christensen and Nordstrom, 2008

Herda et al., 2008

Fletcher and Monte-

Jaggers et al, 2008

Torres et al., 2008

Holt and Lambourne, 2008

Pacheco et al., 2011

Barroso et al., 2012

Christensen and Nordstrom, 2008

Bradley et al., 2007

Molacek et al., 2010

PNF, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.

Static Stretching for Strength- and

Volume 13 & Number 3 & May/June 2014

50,52,59,62). When examining the countermovement jump,

Speed and Agility Performance Effects

Favero et al., 2009

Amiri-Khorasani et al., 2010

Amiri-Khorasani et al., 2010

Chaouachi et al., 2010

Chaouachi et al., 2010

Chaouachi et al., 2008

Chaouachi et al., 2008

Fletcher and Jones, 2004

Favero et al., 2009

Fletcher and Anness, 2007

Sim et al., 2009

Fletcher and Monte-Colombo, 2010

Taylor et al., 2009

Kistler et al., 2010

Amiri-Khorasani et al., 2010

Chaouachi et al., 2010

Fletcher and Anness, 2007

PNF, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.

jump performance. Moran et al. (38) found that static

When static stretching is performed prior to a general

Endurance Performance Effects

Esposito et al., 2012

Esposito et al., 2012