Big Bang - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

01.05.
2015
BigBangWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
BigBang
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
TheBigBangtheoryistheprevailingcosmologicalmodel
fortheuniversefromtheearliestknownperiodsthrough
itssubsequentlargescaleevolution.[1][2][3]Itstatesthatthe
universewasinaveryhighdensitystateandthen
expanded.[4][5]Iftheknownlawsofphysicsare
extrapolatedbeyondwheretheyarevalidthereisa
singularity.Modernmeasurementsplacethismomentat
approximately13.8billionyearsago,whichisthus
consideredtheageoftheuniverse.[6]Aftertheinitial
expansion,theuniversecooledsufficientlytoallowthe
formationofsubatomicparticles,andlatersimpleatoms.
Giantcloudsoftheseprimordialelementslatercoalesced
throughgravitytoformstarsandgalaxies.
AccordingtotheBigBangmodel,the
universeexpandedfromanextremelydense
andhotstateandcontinuestoexpandtoday.
Inthemid20thcentury,threeBritishastrophysicists,
StephenHawking,GeorgeEllis,andRogerPenroseturned
theirattentiontotheTheoryofRelativityandits
implicationsregardingournotionsoftime.In1968and1970,theypublishedpapersinwhichthey
extendedEinstein'sTheoryofGeneralRelativitytoincludemeasurementsoftimeandspace.[7][8]
Accordingtotheircalculations,timeandspacehadafinitebeginningthatcorrespondedtotheoriginof
matterandenergy.
SinceGeorgesLematrefirstnoted,in1927,thatanexpandinguniversemightbetracedbackintimeto
anoriginatingsinglepoint,scientistshavebuiltonhisideaofcosmicexpansion.Whilethescientific
communitywasoncedividedbetweensupportersoftwodifferentexpandinguniversetheories,theBig
BangandtheSteadyStatetheory,accumulatedempiricalevidenceprovidesstrongsupportforthe
former.[9]In1929,fromanalysisofgalacticredshifts,EdwinHubbleconcludedthatgalaxiesaredrifting
apart,importantobservationalevidenceconsistentwiththehypothesisofanexpandinguniverse.In
1964,thecosmicmicrowavebackgroundradiationwasdiscovered,whichwascrucialevidenceinfavor
oftheBigBangmodel,sincethattheorypredictedtheexistenceofbackgroundradiationthroughoutthe
universebeforeitwasdiscovered.Morerecently,measurementsoftheredshiftsofsupernovaeindicate
thattheexpansionoftheuniverseisaccelerating,anobservationattributedtodarkenergy.[10]The
knownphysicallawsofnaturecanbeusedtocalculatethecharacteristicsoftheuniverseindetailback
intimetoaninitialstateofextremedensityandtemperature.[11][12][13]
Contents
1Overview
2TimelineoftheBigBang
2.1Singularity
2.2Inflationandbaryogenesis
2.3Cooling
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang
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2.3Cooling
2.4Structureformation
2.5Cosmicacceleration
3Underlyingassumptions
3.1Expansionofspace
3.2Horizons
4History
4.1Etymology
4.2Development
5Observationalevidence
5.1Hubble'slawandtheexpansionofspace
5.2Cosmicmicrowavebackgroundradiation
5.3Abundanceofprimordialelements
5.4Galacticevolutionanddistribution
5.5Primordialgasclouds
5.6Otherlinesofevidence
6Relatedissuesinphysics
6.1Baryonasymmetry
6.2Darkenergy
6.3Darkmatter
6.4Globularclusterage
7Problems
7.1Horizonproblem
7.2Flatnessproblem
7.3Magneticmonopoles
8ThefutureaccordingtotheBigBangtheory
9Before:SpeculativephysicsbeyondtheBigBangtheory
10Religiousandphilosophicalinterpretations
11Seealso
12Notes
13References
13.1Books
14Furtherreading
15Externallinks
Overview
Hubbleobservedthatthedistancestofarawaygalaxieswerestronglycorrelatedwiththeirredshifts.This
wasinterpretedtomeanthatalldistantgalaxiesandclustersarerecedingawayfromourvantagepoint
withanapparentvelocityproportionaltotheirdistance:thatis,thefarthertheyare,thefastertheymove
awayfromus,regardlessofdirection.[18]AssumingtheCopernicanprinciple(thattheEarthisnotthe
centeroftheuniverse),theonlyremaininginterpretationisthatallobservableregionsoftheuniverseare
recedingfromallothers.Sinceweknowthatthedistancebetweengalaxiesincreasestoday,itmust
meanthatinthepastgalaxieswereclosertogether.Thecontinuousexpansionoftheuniverseimplies
thattheuniversewasdenserandhotterinthepast.
Largeparticleacceleratorscanreplicatetheconditionsthatprevailedaftertheearlymomentsofthe
universe,resultinginconfirmationandrefinementofthedetailsoftheBigBangmodel.However,these
acceleratorscanonlyprobesofarintohighenergyregimes.Consequently,thestateoftheuniversein
theearliestinstantsoftheBigBangexpansionisstillpoorlyunderstoodandanareaofopen
investigationandindeed,speculation.
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Thefirstsubatomicparticlesincludedprotons,neutrons,
andelectrons.Thoughsimpleatomicnucleiformed
withinthefirstthreeminutesaftertheBigBang,
thousandsofyearspassedbeforethefirstelectrically
neutralatomsformed.Themajorityofatomsproduced
bytheBigBangwerehydrogen,alongwithheliumand
tracesoflithium.Giantcloudsoftheseprimordial
elementslatercoalescedthroughgravitytoformstars
andgalaxies,andtheheavierelementsweresynthesized
eitherwithinstarsorduringsupernovae.
TheBigBangtheoryoffersacomprehensive
explanationforabroadrangeofobservedphenomena,
HistoryoftheUniversegravitationalwaves
includingtheabundanceoflightelements,thecosmic
arehypothesizedtoarisefromcosmicinflation,
microwavebackground,largescalestructure,and
anexpansionjustaftertheBig
[19]
Hubble'sLaw. TheframeworkfortheBigBang
Bang. [14][15][16][17]
modelreliesonAlbertEinstein'stheoryofgeneral
relativityandonsimplifyingassumptionssuchas
Agraphicaltimelineisavailable
homogeneityandisotropyofspace.Thegoverning
at
equationswereformulatedbyAlexanderFriedmann,and
GraphicaltimelineoftheBig
similarsolutionswereworkedonbyWillemdeSitter.
Bang
Sincethen,astrophysicistshaveincorporatedobservational
andtheoreticaladditionsintotheBigBangmodel,andits
parametrizationastheLambdaCDMmodelservesastheframeworkforcurrentinvestigationsof
theoreticalcosmology.TheLambdaCDMmodelisthestandardmodelofBigBangcosmology,the
simplestmodelthatprovidesareasonablygoodaccountofvariousobservationsabouttheuniverse.
TimelineoftheBigBang
Singularity
Extrapolationoftheexpansionoftheuniversebackwardsintimeusinggeneralrelativityyieldsan
infinitedensityandtemperatureatafinitetimeinthepast.[20]Thissingularitysignalsthebreakdownof
generalrelativityandthus,allthelawsofphysics.Howcloselywecanextrapolatetowardsthe
singularityisdebatedcertainlynocloserthantheendofthePlanckepoch.Thissingularityis
sometimescalled"theBigBang",[21]butthetermcanalsorefertotheearlyhot,densephase
itself,[22][notes1]whichcanbeconsideredthe"birth"ofouruniverse.Basedonmeasurementsofthe
expansionusingTypeIasupernovae,measurementsoftemperaturefluctuationsinthecosmic
microwavebackground,andmeasurementsofthecorrelationfunctionofgalaxies,theuniversehasan
estimatedageof13.7980.037billionyears.[23]Theagreementofthesethreeindependent
measurementsstronglysupportstheCDMmodelthatdescribesindetailthecontentsoftheuniverse.
Inflationandbaryogenesis
TheearliestphasesoftheBigBangaresubjecttomuchspeculation.Inthemostcommonmodelsthe
universewasfilledhomogeneouslyandisotropicallywithanincrediblyhighenergydensityandhuge
temperaturesandpressuresandwasveryrapidlyexpandingandcooling.Approximately1037seconds
intotheexpansion,aphasetransitioncausedacosmicinflation,duringwhichtheuniversegrew
exponentially.[24]Afterinflationstopped,theuniverseconsistedofaquarkgluonplasma,aswellasall
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otherelementaryparticles.[25]Temperaturesweresohighthattherandommotionsofparticleswereat
relativisticspeeds,andparticleantiparticlepairsofallkindswerebeingcontinuouslycreatedand
destroyedincollisions.[4]Atsomepointanunknownreactioncalledbaryogenesisviolatedthe
conservationofbaryonnumber,leadingtoaverysmallexcessofquarksandleptonsoverantiquarksand
antileptonsoftheorderofonepartin30million.Thisresultedinthepredominanceofmatterover
antimatterinthepresentuniverse.[26]
Cooling
Theuniversecontinuedtodecreasein
densityandfallintemperature,hencethe
typicalenergyofeachparticlewas
decreasing.Symmetrybreakingphase
transitionsputthefundamentalforcesof
physicsandtheparametersofelementary
particlesintotheirpresentform.[27]After
about1011seconds,thepicturebecomes
lessspeculative,sinceparticleenergiesdrop
tovaluesthatcanbeattainedinparticle
Panoramicviewoftheentirenearinfraredskyrevealsthe
physicsexperiments.Atabout106seconds,
distributionofgalaxiesbeyondtheMilkyWay.Galaxiesare
quarksandgluonscombinedtoformbaryons
colorcodedbyredshift.
suchasprotonsandneutrons.Thesmall
excessofquarksoverantiquarksledtoa
smallexcessofbaryonsoverantibaryons.Thetemperaturewasnownolongerhighenoughtocreate
newprotonantiprotonpairs(similarlyforneutronsantineutrons),soamassannihilationimmediately
followed,leavingjustonein1010oftheoriginalprotonsandneutrons,andnoneoftheirantiparticles.A
similarprocesshappenedatabout1secondforelectronsandpositrons.Aftertheseannihilations,the
remainingprotons,neutronsandelectronswerenolongermovingrelativisticallyandtheenergydensity
oftheuniversewasdominatedbyphotons(withaminorcontributionfromneutrinos).
Afewminutesintotheexpansion,whenthetemperaturewasaboutabillion(onethousandmillion109
SIprefixgiga)kelvinandthedensitywasaboutthatofair,neutronscombinedwithprotonstoformthe
universe'sdeuteriumandheliumnucleiinaprocesscalledBigBangnucleosynthesis.[28]Mostprotons
remaineduncombinedashydrogennuclei.Astheuniversecooled,therestmassenergydensityofmatter
cametogravitationallydominatethatofthephotonradiation.Afterabout379,000yearstheelectrons
andnucleicombinedintoatoms(mostlyhydrogen)hencetheradiationdecoupledfrommatterand
continuedthroughspacelargelyunimpeded.Thisrelicradiationisknownasthecosmicmicrowave
backgroundradiation.[29]ThechemistryoflifemayhavebegunshortlyaftertheBigBang,13.8billion
yearsago,duringahabitableepochwhentheuniversewasonly1017millionyearsold.[30][31][32]
Structureformation
Overalongperiodoftime,theslightlydenserregionsofthenearlyuniformlydistributedmatter
gravitationallyattractednearbymatterandthusgrewevendenser,forminggasclouds,stars,galaxies,
andtheotherastronomicalstructuresobservabletoday.[4]Thedetailsofthisprocessdependonthe
amountandtypeofmatterintheuniverse.Thefourpossibletypesofmatterareknownascolddark
matter,warmdarkmatter,hotdarkmatter,andbaryonicmatter.Thebestmeasurementsavailable(from
WMAP)showthatthedataiswellfitbyaLambdaCDMmodelinwhichdarkmatterisassumedtobe
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cold(warmdarkmatterisruledoutbyearlyreionization[33]),andisestimatedtomakeupabout23%of
thematter/energyoftheuniverse,whilebaryonicmattermakesupabout4.6%.[34]Inan"extended
model"whichincludeshotdarkmatterintheformofneutrinos,thenifthe"physicalbaryondensity"
bh2isestimatedatabout0.023(thisisdifferentfromthe'baryondensity'bexpressedasafractionof
thetotalmatter/energydensity,whichasnotedaboveisabout0.046),andthecorrespondingcolddark
matterdensitych2isabout0.11,thecorrespondingneutrinodensityvh2isestimatedtobelessthan
0.0062.[34]
Cosmicacceleration
IndependentlinesofevidencefromTypeIasupernovaeandtheCMBimply
thattheuniversetodayisdominatedbyamysteriousformofenergyknown
asdarkenergy,whichapparentlypermeatesallofspace.Theobservations
suggest73%ofthetotalenergydensityoftoday'suniverseisinthisform.
Whentheuniversewasveryyoung,itwaslikelyinfusedwithdarkenergy,
butwithlessspaceandeverythingclosertogether,gravitypredominated,
anditwasslowlybrakingtheexpansion.Buteventually,afternumerous
billionyearsofexpansion,thegrowingabundanceofdarkenergycaused
theexpansionoftheuniversetoslowlybegintoaccelerate.Darkenergyin
itssimplestformulationtakestheformofthecosmologicalconstanttermin
Einstein'sfieldequationsofgeneralrelativity,butitscompositionand
mechanismareunknownand,moregenerally,thedetailsofitsequationof
stateandrelationshipwiththeStandardModelofparticlephysicscontinue
tobeinvestigatedbothobservationallyandtheoretically.[10]
Abell2744galaxycluster
HubbleFrontierFields
view. [35]
Allofthiscosmicevolutionaftertheinflationaryepochcanberigorouslydescribedandmodelledbythe
CDMmodelofcosmology,whichusestheindependentframeworksofquantummechanicsand
Einstein'sGeneralRelativity.Thereisnowellsupportedmodeldescribingtheactionpriorto1015
secondsorso.Apparentlyanewunifiedtheoryofquantumgravitationisneededtobreakthisbarrier.
Understandingthisearliestoferasinthehistoryoftheuniverseiscurrentlyoneofthegreatestunsolved
problemsinphysics.
Underlyingassumptions
TheBigBangtheorydependsontwomajorassumptions:theuniversalityofphysicallawsandthe
cosmologicalprinciple.Thecosmologicalprinciplestatesthatonlargescalestheuniverseis
homogeneousandisotropic.
Theseideaswereinitiallytakenaspostulates,buttodaythereareeffortstotesteachofthem.For
example,thefirstassumptionhasbeentestedbyobservationsshowingthatlargestpossibledeviationof
thefinestructureconstantovermuchoftheageoftheuniverseisoforder105.[36]Also,general
relativityhaspassedstringenttestsonthescaleoftheSolarSystemandbinarystars.[notes2]
IfthelargescaleuniverseappearsisotropicasviewedfromEarth,thecosmologicalprinciplecanbe
derivedfromthesimplerCopernicanprinciple,whichstatesthatthereisnopreferred(orspecial)
observerorvantagepoint.Tothisend,thecosmologicalprinciplehasbeenconfirmedtoalevelof105
viaobservationsoftheCMB.Theuniversehasbeenmeasuredtobehomogeneousonthelargestscales
atthe10%level.[37]
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Expansionofspace
Generalrelativitydescribesspacetimebyametric,whichdeterminesthedistancesthatseparatenearby
points.Thepoints,whichcanbegalaxies,stars,orotherobjects,themselvesarespecifiedusinga
coordinatechartor"grid"thatislaiddownoverallspacetime.Thecosmologicalprincipleimpliesthat
themetricshouldbehomogeneousandisotropiconlargescales,whichuniquelysinglesoutthe
FriedmannLematreRobertsonWalkermetric(FLRWmetric).Thismetriccontainsascalefactor,
whichdescribeshowthesizeoftheuniversechangeswithtime.Thisenablesaconvenientchoiceofa
coordinatesystemtobemade,calledcomovingcoordinates.Inthiscoordinatesystemthegridexpands
alongwiththeuniverse,andobjectsthataremovingonlyduetotheexpansionoftheuniverseremainat
fixedpointsonthegrid.Whiletheircoordinatedistance(comovingdistance)remainsconstant,the
physicaldistancebetweentwosuchcomovingpointsexpandsproportionallywiththescalefactorofthe
universe.[38]
TheBigBangisnotanexplosionofmattermovingoutwardtofillanemptyuniverse.Instead,space
itselfexpandswithtimeeverywhereandincreasesthephysicaldistancebetweentwocomovingpoints.
Inotherwords,theBigBangisnotanexplosioninspace,butratheranexpansionofspace.[4]Because
theFLRWmetricassumesauniformdistributionofmassandenergy,itappliestoouruniverseonlyon
largescaleslocalconcentrationsofmattersuchasourgalaxyaregravitationallyboundandassuchdo
notexperiencethelargescaleexpansionofspace.[39]
Horizons
AnimportantfeatureoftheBigBangspacetimeisthepresenceofhorizons.Sincetheuniversehasa
finiteage,andlighttravelsatafinitespeed,theremaybeeventsinthepastwhoselighthasnothadtime
toreachus.Thisplacesalimitorapasthorizononthemostdistantobjectsthatcanbeobserved.
Conversely,becausespaceisexpanding,andmoredistantobjectsarerecedingevermorequickly,light
emittedbyustodaymaynever"catchup"toverydistantobjects.Thisdefinesafuturehorizon,which
limitstheeventsinthefuturethatwewillbeabletoinfluence.Thepresenceofeithertypeofhorizon
dependsonthedetailsoftheFLRWmodelthatdescribesouruniverse.Ourunderstandingofthe
universebacktoveryearlytimessuggeststhatthereisapasthorizon,thoughinpracticeourviewisalso
limitedbytheopacityoftheuniverseatearlytimes.Soourviewcannotextendfurtherbackwardin
time,thoughthehorizonrecedesinspace.Iftheexpansionoftheuniversecontinuestoaccelerate,there
isafuturehorizonaswell.[40]
History
Etymology
EnglishastronomerFredHoyleiscreditedwithcoiningtheterm"BigBang"duringa1949BBCradio
broadcast.ItispopularlyreportedthatHoyle,whofavoredanalternative"steadystate"cosmological
model,intendedthistobepejorative,butHoyleexplicitlydeniedthisandsaiditwasjustastriking
imagemeanttohighlightthedifferencebetweenthetwomodels.[41][42][43]:129
Development
TheBigBangtheorydevelopedfromobservationsofthestructureoftheuniverseandfromtheoretical
considerations.In1912VestoSliphermeasuredthefirstDopplershiftofa"spiralnebula"(spiralnebula
istheobsoletetermforspiralgalaxies),andsoondiscoveredthatalmostallsuchnebulaewerereceding
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fromEarth.Hedidnotgraspthecosmologicalimplicationsofthis
fact,andindeedatthetimeitwashighlycontroversialwhetheror
notthesenebulaewere"islanduniverses"outsideourMilky
Way.[45][46]Tenyearslater,AlexanderFriedmann,aRussian
cosmologistandmathematician,derivedtheFriedmannequations
fromAlbertEinstein'sequationsofgeneralrelativity,showingthat
theuniversemightbeexpandingincontrasttothestaticuniverse
modeladvocatedbyEinsteinatthattime.[47]In1924Edwin
Hubble'smeasurementofthegreatdistancetothenearestspiral
nebulaeshowedthatthesesystemswereindeedothergalaxies.
IndependentlyderivingFriedmann'sequationsin1927,Georges
Lematre,aBelgianphysicistandRomanCatholicpriest,proposed
thattheinferredrecessionofthenebulaewasduetotheexpansion
oftheuniverse.[48]
In1931Lematrewentfurtherandsuggestedthattheevident
expansionoftheuniverse,ifprojectedbackintime,meantthatthe
furtherinthepastthesmallertheuniversewas,untilatsomefinite
timeinthepastallthemassoftheuniversewasconcentratedintoa
singlepoint,a"primevalatom"whereandwhenthefabricoftime
andspacecameintoexistence.[49]
Startingin1924,Hubblepainstakinglydevelopedaseriesof
distanceindicators,theforerunnerofthecosmicdistanceladder,
usingthe100inch(2,500mm)HookertelescopeatMountWilson
Observatory.Thisallowedhimtoestimatedistancestogalaxies
whoseredshiftshadalreadybeenmeasured,mostlybySlipher.In
1929Hubblediscoveredacorrelationbetweendistanceand
recessionvelocitynowknownasHubble'slaw.[18][50]Lematre
hadalreadyshownthatthiswasexpected,giventheCosmological
Principle.[10]
Inthe1920sand1930salmosteverymajorcosmologistpreferred
aneternalsteadystateuniverse,andseveralcomplainedthatthe
beginningoftimeimpliedbytheBigBangimportedreligious
conceptsintophysicsthisobjectionwaslaterrepeatedby
supportersofthesteadystatetheory.[51]Thisperceptionwas
enhancedbythefactthattheoriginatoroftheBigBangtheory,
MonsignorGeorgesLematre,wasaRomanCatholicpriest.[52]
ArthurEddingtonagreedwithAristotlethattheuniversedidnot
haveabeginningintime,viz.,thatmatteriseternal.Abeginningin
timewas"repugnant"tohim.[53][54]Lematre,however,thoughtthat
Iftheworldhasbegunwithasinglequantum,thenotionsof
spaceandtimewouldaltogetherfailtohaveanymeaningat
thebeginningtheywouldonlybegintohaveasensible
meaningwhentheoriginalquantumhadbeendividedintoa
HubbleeXtremeDeepField
(XDF)
XDFsizecomparedtothesizeof
themoonseveralthousand
galaxies,eachconsistingof
billionsofstars,areinthissmall
view.
XDF(2012)vieweachlight
speckisagalaxysomeofthese
areasoldas13.2billionyears[44]
theuniverseisestimatedto
contain200billiongalaxies.
XDFimageshowsfullymature
galaxiesintheforegroundplane
nearlymaturegalaxiesfrom5to9
billionyearsagoprotogalaxies,
blazingwithyoungstars,beyond
9billionyears.
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sufficientnumberofquanta.Ifthissuggestioniscorrect,the
beginningoftheworldhappenedalittlebeforethebeginning
ofspaceandtime.[55]
Duringthe1930sotherideaswereproposedasnonstandardcosmologiestoexplainHubble's
observations,includingtheMilnemodel,[56]theoscillatoryuniverse(originallysuggestedbyFriedmann,
butadvocatedbyAlbertEinsteinandRichardTolman)[57]andFritzZwicky'stiredlighthypothesis.[58]
AfterWorldWarII,twodistinctpossibilitiesemerged.OnewasFredHoyle'ssteadystatemodel,
wherebynewmatterwouldbecreatedastheuniverseseemedtoexpand.Inthismodeltheuniverseis
roughlythesameatanypointintime.[59]TheotherwasLematre'sBigBangtheory,advocatedand
developedbyGeorgeGamow,whointroducedbigbangnucleosynthesis(BBN)[60]andwhose
associates,RalphAlpherandRobertHerman,predictedthecosmicmicrowavebackgroundradiation
(CMB).[61]Ironically,itwasHoylewhocoinedthephrasethatcametobeappliedtoLematre'stheory,
referringtoitas"thisbigbangidea"duringaBBCRadiobroadcastinMarch1949.[43]:129[notes3]Fora
while,supportwassplitbetweenthesetwotheories.Eventually,theobservationalevidence,most
notablyfromradiosourcecounts,begantofavorBigBangoverSteadyState.Thediscoveryand
confirmationofthecosmicmicrowavebackgroundradiationin1964[63]securedtheBigBangasthebest
theoryoftheoriginandevolutionoftheuniverse.Muchofthecurrentworkincosmologyincludes
understandinghowgalaxiesforminthecontextoftheBigBang,understandingthephysicsofthe
universeatearlierandearliertimes,andreconcilingobservationswiththebasictheory.
SignificantprogressinBigBangcosmologyhavebeenmadesincethelate1990sasaresultofadvances
intelescopetechnologyaswellastheanalysisofdatafromsatellitessuchasCOBE,[64]theHubble
SpaceTelescopeandWMAP.[65]Cosmologistsnowhavefairlypreciseandaccuratemeasurementsof
manyoftheparametersoftheBigBangmodel,andhavemadetheunexpecteddiscoverythatthe
expansionoftheuniverseappearstobeaccelerating.
Observationalevidence
Theearliestandmostdirect
observationalevidenceofthe
"[The]bigbangpictureistoo
validityofthetheoryarethe
firmlygroundedindatafrom
expansionoftheuniverse
everyareatobeprovedinvalid
accordingtoHubble'slaw(as
initsgeneralfeatures."
indicatedbytheredshiftsof
LawrenceKrauss[66]
galaxies),discoveryand
measurementofthecosmic
Artist'sdepictionoftheWMAP
microwavebackgroundandtherelativeabundancesoflight
satellitegatheringdatatohelp
elementsproducedbyBigBangnucleosynthesis.Morerecent
scientistsunderstandtheBigBang
evidenceincludesobservationsofgalaxyformationandevolution,
andthedistributionoflargescalecosmicstructures,[67]Theseare
sometimescalledthe"fourpillars"oftheBigBangtheory.[68]
PrecisemodernmodelsoftheBigBangappealtovariousexoticphysicalphenomenathathavenotbeen
observedinterrestriallaboratoryexperimentsorincorporatedintotheStandardModelofparticle
physics.Ofthesefeatures,darkmatteriscurrentlysubjectedtothemostactivelaboratory
investigations.[69]Remainingissuesincludethecuspyhaloproblemandthedwarfgalaxyproblemof
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colddarkmatter.Darkenergyisalsoanareaofintenseinterestforscientists,butitisnotclearwhether
directdetectionofdarkenergywillbepossible.[70]Inflationandbaryogenesisremainmorespeculative
featuresofcurrentBigBangmodels.Viable,quantitativeexplanationsforsuchphenomenaarestill
beingsought.Thesearecurrentlyunsolvedproblemsinphysics.
Hubble'slawandtheexpansionofspace
Observationsofdistantgalaxiesandquasarsshowthattheseobjectsareredshiftedthelightemitted
fromthemhasbeenshiftedtolongerwavelengths.Thiscanbeseenbytakingafrequencyspectrumof
anobjectandmatchingthespectroscopicpatternofemissionlinesorabsorptionlinescorrespondingto
atomsofthechemicalelementsinteractingwiththelight.Theseredshiftsareuniformlyisotropic,
distributedevenlyamongtheobservedobjectsinalldirections.IftheredshiftisinterpretedasaDoppler
shift,therecessionalvelocityoftheobjectcanbecalculated.Forsomegalaxies,itispossibletoestimate
distancesviathecosmicdistanceladder.Whentherecessionalvelocitiesareplottedagainstthese
distances,alinearrelationshipknownasHubble'slawisobserved:[18]
v=H0D,
where
vistherecessionalvelocityofthegalaxyorotherdistantobject,
Disthecomovingdistancetotheobject,and
+1.3
H0isHubble'sconstant,measuredtobe70.4 1.4km/s/MpcbytheWMAPprobe.[34]
Hubble'slawhastwopossibleexplanations.Eitherweareatthecenterofanexplosionofgalaxies
whichisuntenablegiventheCopernicanprincipleortheuniverseisuniformlyexpandingeverywhere.
ThisuniversalexpansionwaspredictedfromgeneralrelativitybyAlexanderFriedmannin1922[47]and
GeorgesLematrein1927,[48]wellbeforeHubblemadehis1929analysisandobservations,andit
remainsthecornerstoneoftheBigBangtheoryasdevelopedbyFriedmann,Lematre,Robertson,and
Walker.
Thetheoryrequirestherelationv=HDtoholdatalltimes,whereDisthecomovingdistance,visthe
recessionalvelocity,andv,H,andDvaryastheuniverseexpands(hencewewriteH0todenotethe
presentdayHubble"constant").Fordistancesmuchsmallerthanthesizeoftheobservableuniverse,the
HubbleredshiftcanbethoughtofastheDopplershiftcorrespondingtotherecessionvelocityv.
However,theredshiftisnotatrueDopplershift,butrathertheresultoftheexpansionoftheuniverse
betweenthetimethelightwasemittedandthetimethatitwasdetected.[71]
Thatspaceisundergoingmetricexpansionisshownbydirectobservationalevidenceofthe
CosmologicalprincipleandtheCopernicanprinciple,whichtogetherwithHubble'slawhavenoother
explanation.Astronomicalredshiftsareextremelyisotropicandhomogeneous,[18]supportingthe
Cosmologicalprinciplethattheuniverselooksthesameinalldirections,alongwithmuchother
evidence.Iftheredshiftsweretheresultofanexplosionfromacenterdistantfromus,theywouldnotbe
sosimilarindifferentdirections.
Measurementsoftheeffectsofthecosmicmicrowavebackgroundradiationonthedynamicsofdistant
astrophysicalsystemsin2000provedtheCopernicanprinciple,that,onacosmologicalscale,theEarth
isnotinacentralposition.[72]RadiationfromtheBigBangwasdemonstrablywarmeratearliertimes
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throughouttheuniverse.Uniformcoolingofthecosmicmicrowavebackgroundoverbillionsofyearsis
explainableonlyiftheuniverseisexperiencingametricexpansion,andexcludesthepossibilitythatwe
areneartheuniquecenterofanexplosion.
Cosmicmicrowavebackgroundradiation
In1964ArnoPenziasandRobertWilsonserendipitously
discoveredthecosmicbackgroundradiation,an
omnidirectionalsignalinthemicrowaveband.[63]Their
discoveryprovidedsubstantialconfirmationofthegeneral
CMBpredictions:theradiationwasfoundtobeconsistent
withanalmostperfectblackbodyspectruminall
directionsthisspectrumhasbeenredshiftedbythe
expansionoftheuniverse,andtodaycorrespondsto
approximately2.725K.Thistippedthebalanceofevidence
infavoroftheBigBangmodel,andPenziasandWilson
wereawardedaNobelPrizein1978.
9yearWMAPimageofthecosmic
microwavebackgroundradiation
(2012). [73][74]Theradiationisisotropicto
roughlyonepartin100,000. [75]
Thesurfaceoflast
scattering
correspondingtoemissionoftheCMBoccursshortlyafter
recombination,theepochwhenneutralhydrogenbecomesstable.
Priortothis,theuniversecomprisedahotdensephotonbaryon
plasmaseawherephotonswerequicklyscatteredfromfree
chargedparticles.Peakingataround372 14kyr,[33]themean
freepathforaphotonbecomeslongenoughtoreachthepresent
dayandtheuniversebecomestransparent.
In1989NASAlaunchedtheCosmicBackgroundExplorer
satellite(COBE).Itsfindingswereconsistentwithpredictions
regardingtheCMB,findingaresidualtemperatureof2.726K
(morerecentmeasurementshaverevisedthisfiguredown
[76]
slightlyto2.725K)andprovidingthefirstevidencefor
bodyspectruminnature. Thedata
fluctuations(anisotropies)intheCMB,atalevelofaboutone
pointsanderrorbarsonthisgraphare
partin105.[64]JohnC.MatherandGeorgeSmootwereawarded
obscuredbythetheoreticalcurve.
theNobelPrizefortheirleadershipinthiswork.Duringthe
followingdecade,CMBanisotropieswerefurtherinvestigatedby
alargenumberofgroundbasedandballoonexperiments.In20002001severalexperiments,most
notablyBOOMERanG,foundtheshapeoftheuniversetobespatiallyalmostflatbymeasuringthe
typicalangularsize(thesizeonthesky)oftheanisotropies.
Thecosmicmicrowavebackground
spectrummeasuredbytheFIRAS
instrumentontheCOBEsatelliteis
themostpreciselymeasuredblack
Inearly2003thefirstresultsoftheWilkinsonMicrowaveAnisotropyProbe(WMAP)werereleased,
yieldingwhatwereatthetimethemostaccuratevaluesforsomeofthecosmologicalparameters.The
resultsdisprovedseveralspecificcosmicinflationmodels,butareconsistentwiththeinflationtheoryin
general.[65]ThePlanckspaceprobewaslaunchedinMay2009.Othergroundandballoonbasedcosmic
microwavebackgroundexperimentsareongoing.
Abundanceofprimordialelements
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UsingtheBigBangmodelitispossibletocalculatetheconcentrationofhelium4,helium3,deuterium,
andlithium7intheuniverseasratiostotheamountofordinaryhydrogen.[28]Therelativeabundances
dependonasingleparameter,theratioofphotonstobaryons.Thisvaluecanbecalculated
independentlyfromthedetailedstructureofCMBfluctuations.Theratiospredicted(bymass,notby
4
number)areabout0.25for He/H,about103for H/H,about104for He/Handabout109for

7
Li/H.[28]
Themeasuredabundancesallagreeatleastroughlywiththosepredictedfromasinglevalueofthe
baryontophotonratio.Theagreementisexcellentfordeuterium,closebutformallydiscrepantfor He,
7
andoffbyafactoroftwofor Liinthelattertwocasestherearesubstantialsystematicuncertainties.
Nonetheless,thegeneralconsistencywithabundancespredictedbyBigBangnucleosynthesisisstrong
evidencefortheBigBang,asthetheoryistheonlyknownexplanationfortherelativeabundancesof
lightelements,anditisvirtuallyimpossibleto"tune"theBigBangtoproducemuchmoreorlessthan
2030%helium.[77]IndeedthereisnoobviousreasonoutsideoftheBigBangthat,forexample,the
younguniverse(i.e.,beforestarformation,asdeterminedbystudyingmattersupposedlyfreeofstellar
3
nucleosynthesisproducts)shouldhavemoreheliumthandeuteriumormoredeuteriumthan He,andin
constantratios,too.
Galacticevolutionanddistribution
Detailedobservationsofthemorphologyanddistributionofgalaxiesandquasarsareinagreementwith
thecurrentstateoftheBigBangtheory.Acombinationofobservationsandtheorysuggestthatthefirst
quasarsandgalaxiesformedaboutabillionyearsaftertheBigBang,andsincethenlargerstructures
havebeenforming,suchasgalaxyclustersandsuperclusters.Populationsofstarshavebeenagingand
evolving,sothatdistantgalaxies(whichareobservedastheywereintheearlyuniverse)appearvery
differentfromnearbygalaxies(observedinamorerecentstate).Moreover,galaxiesthatformed
relativelyrecentlyappearmarkedlydifferentfromgalaxiesformedatsimilardistancesbutshortlyafter
theBigBang.Theseobservationsarestrongargumentsagainstthesteadystatemodel.Observationsof
starformation,galaxyandquasardistributionsandlargerstructuresagreewellwithBigBang
simulationsoftheformationofstructureintheuniverseandarehelpingtocompletedetailsofthe
theory.[78][79]
Primordialgasclouds
In2011astronomersfoundwhattheybelievetobepristinecloudsofprimordialgas,byanalyzing
absorptionlinesinthespectraofdistantquasars.Beforethisdiscovery,allotherastronomicalobjects
havebeenobservedtocontainheavyelementsthatareformedinstars.Thesetwocloudsofgascontain
noelementsheavierthanhydrogenanddeuterium.[80][81]Sincethecloudsofgashavenoheavy
elements,theylikelyformedinthefirstfewminutesaftertheBigBang,duringBigBang
nucleosynthesis.TheircompositionmatchesthecompositionpredictedfromBigBangnucleosynthesis.
Thisprovidesdirectevidencethattherewasaperiodinthehistoryoftheuniversebeforetheformation
ofthefirststars,whenmostordinarymatterexistedintheformofcloudsofneutralhydrogen.
Otherlinesofevidence
TheageofuniverseasestimatedfromtheHubbleexpansionandtheCMBisnowingoodagreement
withotherestimatesusingtheagesoftheoldeststars,bothasmeasuredbyapplyingthetheoryofstellar
evolutiontoglobularclustersandthroughradiometricdatingofindividualPopulationIIstars.[82]
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ThepredictionthattheCMBtemperaturewashigherinthepasthas
beenexperimentallysupportedbyobservationsofverylow
temperatureabsorptionlinesingascloudsathighredshift.[83]This
predictionalsoimpliesthattheamplitudeoftheSunyaev
Zel'dovicheffectinclustersofgalaxiesdoesnotdependdirectlyon
redshift.Observationshavefoundthistoberoughlytrue,butthis
effectdependsonclusterpropertiesthatdochangewithcosmic
time,makingprecisemeasurementsdifficult.[84][85]
On17March2014,astronomersattheHarvardSmithsonianCenter
forAstrophysicsannouncedtheapparentdetectionofprimordial
gravitationalwaves,which,ifconfirmed,mayprovidestrong
evidenceforinflationandtheBigBang.[14][15][16][17]However,on
19June2014,loweredconfidenceinconfirmingthefindingswas
reported[86][87][88]andon19September2014,evenmorelowered
confidence.[89][90]
FocalplaneofBICEP2telescope
underamicroscopemayhave
detectedgravitationalwavesfrom
theinfantuniverse. [14][15][16][17]
Relatedissuesinphysics
Baryonasymmetry
Itisnotyetunderstoodwhytheuniversehasmorematterthanantimatter.[91]Itisgenerallyassumedthat
whentheuniversewasyoungandveryhot,itwasinstatisticalequilibriumandcontainedequalnumbers
ofbaryonsandantibaryons.However,observationssuggestthattheuniverse,includingitsmostdistant
parts,ismadealmostentirelyofmatter.Aprocesscalledbaryogenesiswashypothesizedtoaccountfor
theasymmetry.Forbaryogenesistooccur,theSakharovconditionsmustbesatisfied.Theserequirethat
baryonnumberisnotconserved,thatCsymmetryandCPsymmetryareviolatedandthattheuniverse
departfromthermodynamicequilibrium.[92]AlltheseconditionsoccurintheStandardModel,butthe
effectisnotstrongenoughtoexplainthepresentbaryonasymmetry.
Darkenergy
MeasurementsoftheredshiftmagnituderelationfortypeIasupernovaeindicatethattheexpansionof
theuniversehasbeenacceleratingsincetheuniversewasabouthalfitspresentage.Toexplainthis
acceleration,generalrelativityrequiresthatmuchoftheenergyintheuniverseconsistsofacomponent
withlargenegativepressure,dubbed"darkenergy".[10]Darkenergy,thoughspeculative,solves
numerousproblems.Measurementsofthecosmicmicrowavebackgroundindicatethattheuniverseis
verynearlyspatiallyflat,andthereforeaccordingtogeneralrelativitytheuniversemusthavealmost
exactlythecriticaldensityofmass/energy.Butthemassdensityoftheuniversecanbemeasuredfrom
itsgravitationalclustering,andisfoundtohaveonlyabout30%ofthecriticaldensity.[10]Sincetheory
suggeststhatdarkenergydoesnotclusterintheusualwayitisthebestexplanationforthe"missing"
energydensity.Darkenergyalsohelpstoexplaintwogeometricalmeasuresoftheoverallcurvatureof
theuniverse,oneusingthefrequencyofgravitationallenses,andtheotherusingthecharacteristic
patternofthelargescalestructureasacosmicruler.
Negativepressureisbelievedtobeapropertyofvacuumenergy,buttheexactnatureandexistenceof
darkenergyremainsoneofthegreatmysteriesoftheBigBang.Possiblecandidatesincludea
cosmologicalconstantandquintessence.ResultsfromtheWMAPteamin2008areinaccordancewitha
universethatconsistsof73%darkenergy,23%darkmatter,4.6%regularmatterandlessthan1%
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neutrinos.[34]Accordingtotheory,theenergydensityinmatterdecreaseswiththeexpansionofthe
universe,butthedarkenergydensityremainsconstant(ornearlyso)astheuniverseexpands.Therefore
mattermadeupalargerfractionofthetotalenergyoftheuniverseinthepastthanitdoestoday,butits
fractionalcontributionwillfallinthefarfutureasdarkenergybecomesevenmoredominant.
Darkmatter
Duringthe1970sand80s,various
observationsshowedthatthereisnot
sufficientvisiblematterintheuniverse
toaccountfortheapparentstrengthof
gravitationalforceswithinandbetween
galaxies.Thisledtotheideathatupto
90%ofthematterintheuniverseisdark
matterthatdoesnotemitlightorinteract
withnormalbaryonicmatter.Inaddition,
Chartshowstheproportionofdifferentcomponentsofthe
theassumptionthattheuniverseis
universeabout95%isdarkmatteranddarkenergy.
mostlynormalmatterledtopredictions
thatwerestronglyinconsistentwith
observations.Inparticular,theuniversetodayisfarmorelumpyandcontainsfarlessdeuteriumthancan
beaccountedforwithoutdarkmatter.Whiledarkmatterhasalwaysbeencontroversial,itisinferredby
variousobservations:theanisotropiesintheCMB,galaxyclustervelocitydispersions,largescale
structuredistributions,gravitationallensingstudies,andXraymeasurementsofgalaxyclusters.[93]
Indirectevidencefordarkmattercomesfromitsgravitationalinfluenceonothermatter,asnodark
matterparticleshavebeenobservedinlaboratories.Manyparticlephysicscandidatesfordarkmatter
havebeenproposed,andseveralprojectstodetectthemdirectlyareunderway.[94]
Globularclusterage
Inthemid1990sobservationsofglobularclustersappearedtobeinconsistentwiththeBigBangtheory.
Computersimulationsthatmatchedtheobservationsofthestellarpopulationsofglobularclusters
suggestedthattheywereabout15billionyearsold,whichconflictedwiththe13.8billionyearageofthe
universe.Thisissuewaspartiallyresolvedinthelate1990swhennewcomputersimulations,which
includedtheeffectsofmasslossduetostellarwinds,indicatedamuchyoungerageforglobular
clusters.[95]Thereremainsomequestionsastohowaccuratelytheagesoftheclustersaremeasured,but
itisclearthatobservationsofglobularclustersnolongerappearinconsistentwiththeBigBangtheory.
Problems
TherearegenerallyconsideredtobethreeoutstandingproblemswiththeBigBangtheory:thehorizon
problem,theflatnessproblem,andthemagneticmonopoleproblem.Themostcommonanswertothese
problemsisinflationarytheoryhowever,sincethiscreatesnewproblems,otheroptionshavebeen
proposed,suchastheWeylcurvaturehypothesis.[96][97]
Horizonproblem
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Thehorizonproblemresultsfromthepremisethatinformationcannottravelfasterthanlight.Ina
universeoffiniteagethissetsalimittheparticlehorizonontheseparationofanytworegionsof
spacethatareincausalcontact.[98]TheobservedisotropyoftheCMBisproblematicinthisregard:if
theuniversehadbeendominatedbyradiationormatteratalltimesuptotheepochoflastscattering,the
particlehorizonatthattimewouldcorrespondtoabout2degreesonthesky.Therewouldthenbeno
mechanismtocausewiderregionstohavethesametemperature.
Aresolutiontothisapparentinconsistencyisofferedbyinflationarytheoryinwhichahomogeneousand
isotropicscalarenergyfielddominatestheuniverseatsomeveryearlyperiod(beforebaryogenesis).
Duringinflation,theuniverseundergoesexponentialexpansion,andtheparticlehorizonexpandsmuch
morerapidlythanpreviouslyassumed,sothatregionspresentlyonoppositesidesoftheobservable
universearewellinsideeachother'sparticlehorizon.TheobservedisotropyoftheCMBthenfollows
fromthefactthatthislargerregionwasincausalcontactbeforethebeginningofinflation.
Heisenberg'suncertaintyprinciplepredictsthatduringtheinflationaryphasetherewouldbequantum
thermalfluctuations,whichwouldbemagnifiedtocosmicscale.Thesefluctuationsserveastheseedsof
allcurrentstructureintheuniverse.Inflationpredictsthattheprimordialfluctuationsarenearlyscale
invariantandGaussian,whichhasbeenaccuratelyconfirmedbymeasurementsoftheCMB.
Ifinflationoccurred,exponentialexpansionwouldpushlargeregionsofspacewellbeyondour
observablehorizon.
Flatnessproblem
Theflatnessproblem(alsoknownastheoldness
problem)isanobservationalproblemassociatedwitha
FriedmannLematreRobertsonWalkermetric.[98]The
universemayhavepositive,negative,orzerospatial
curvaturedependingonitstotalenergydensity.
Curvatureisnegativeifitsdensityislessthanthe
criticaldensity,positiveifgreater,andzeroatthecritical
density,inwhichcasespaceissaidtobeflat.The
problemisthatanysmalldeparturefromthecritical
densitygrowswithtime,andyettheuniversetoday
remainsveryclosetoflat.[notes4]Giventhatanatural
timescalefordeparturefromflatnessmightbethe
Plancktime,1043seconds,[4]thefactthattheuniverse
hasreachedneitheraheatdeathnoraBigCrunchafter
billionsofyearsrequiresanexplanation.Forinstance,
evenattherelativelylateageofafewminutes(thetime
ofnucleosynthesis),theuniversedensitymusthavebeen
withinonepartin1014ofitscriticalvalue,oritwould
notexistasitdoestoday.[99]
Theoverallgeometryoftheuniverseis
determinedbywhethertheOmega
cosmologicalparameterislessthan,equaltoor
greaterthan1.Shownfromtoptobottomarea
closeduniversewithpositivecurvature,a
hyperbolicuniversewithnegativecurvature
andaflatuniversewithzerocurvature.
Magneticmonopoles
Themagneticmonopoleobjectionwasraisedinthelate1970s.Grandunificationtheoriespredicted
topologicaldefectsinspacethatwouldmanifestasmagneticmonopoles.Theseobjectswouldbe
producedefficientlyinthehotearlyuniverse,resultinginadensitymuchhigherthanisconsistentwith
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observations,giventhatnomonopoleshavebeenfound.Thisproblemisalsoresolvedbycosmic
inflation,whichremovesallpointdefectsfromtheobservableuniverse,inthesamewaythatitdrives
thegeometrytoflatness.[98]
ThefutureaccordingtotheBigBangtheory
Beforeobservationsofdarkenergy,cosmologistsconsideredtwoscenariosforthefutureofthe
universe.Ifthemassdensityoftheuniverseweregreaterthanthecriticaldensity,thentheuniverse
wouldreachamaximumsizeandthenbegintocollapse.Itwouldbecomedenserandhotteragain,
endingwithastatesimilartothatinwhichitstartedaBigCrunch.[40]Alternatively,ifthedensityin
theuniversewereequaltoorbelowthecriticaldensity,theexpansionwouldslowdownbutneverstop.
Starformationwouldceasewiththeconsumptionofinterstellargasineachgalaxystarswouldburnout
leavingwhitedwarfs,neutronstars,andblackholes.Verygradually,collisionsbetweenthesewould
resultinmassaccumulatingintolargerandlargerblackholes.Theaveragetemperatureoftheuniverse
wouldasymptoticallyapproachabsolutezeroaBigFreeze.Moreover,iftheprotonwereunstable,then
baryonicmatterwoulddisappear,leavingonlyradiationandblackholes.Eventually,blackholeswould
evaporatebyemittingHawkingradiation.Theentropyoftheuniversewouldincreasetothepointwhere
noorganizedformofenergycouldbeextractedfromit,ascenarioknownasheatdeath.
Modernobservationsofacceleratingexpansionimplythatmoreandmoreofthecurrentlyvisible
universewillpassbeyondoureventhorizonandoutofcontactwithus.Theeventualresultisnot
known.TheCDMmodeloftheuniversecontainsdarkenergyintheformofacosmologicalconstant.
Thistheorysuggeststhatonlygravitationallyboundsystems,suchasgalaxies,willremaintogether,and
theytoowillbesubjecttoheatdeathastheuniverseexpandsandcools.Otherexplanationsofdark
energy,calledphantomenergytheories,suggestthatultimatelygalaxyclusters,stars,planets,atoms,
nuclei,andmatteritselfwillbetornapartbytheeverincreasingexpansioninasocalledBigRip.[100]
Before:SpeculativephysicsbeyondtheBigBangtheory
WhiletheBigBangmodeliswellestablishedincosmology,itislikelytoberefined.TheBigBang
Theory,builtupontheequationsofclassicalgeneralrelativity,indicatesasingularityattheoriginof
cosmictimethisinfiniteenergydensityisregardedasimpossibleinphysics.Still,itisknownthatthe
equationsarenotapplicablebeforethetimewhenuniversecooleddowntothePlancktemperature,and
thisconclusiondependsonvariousassumptions,ofwhichsomecouldneverbeexperimentallyverified.
Oneproposedrefinementtoavoidthiswouldbesingularityistodevelopacorrecttreatmentofquantum
gravity.[101]
Itisnotknownwhatcouldhaveprecededthehotdensestateoftheearlyuniverseorhowandwhyit
originated,thoughspeculationaboundsinthefieldofcosmogony.
Someproposals,eachofwhichentailsuntestedhypotheses,are:
ModelsincludingtheHartleHawkingnoboundarycondition,inwhichthewholeofspacetimeis
finitetheBigBangdoesrepresentthelimitoftimebutwithoutanysingularity.[102]
BigBanglatticemodel,statesthattheuniverseatthemomentoftheBigBangconsistsofan
infinitelatticeoffermions,whichissmearedoverthefundamentaldomainsoithasrotational,
translationalandgaugesymmetry.Thesymmetryisthelargestsymmetrypossibleandhencethe
lowestentropyofanystate.[103]
Branecosmologymodels,inwhichinflationisduetothemovementofbranesinstringtheorythe
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preBigBangmodeltheekpyrotic
model,inwhichtheBigBangisthe
resultofacollisionbetweenbranes
andthecyclicmodel,avariantofthe
ekpyroticmodelinwhichcollisions
occurperiodically.Inthelattermodel
theBigBangwasprecededbyaBig
Crunchandtheuniversecyclesfrom
oneprocesstothe
other.[104][105][106][107]
Eternalinflation,inwhichuniversal
inflationendslocallyhereandtherein
arandomfashion,eachendpoint
leadingtoabubbleuniverse,
expandingfromitsownbig
bang.[108][109]
Proposalsinthelasttwocategories,seethe
BigBangasaneventineitheramuchlarger
andolderuniverseorinamultiverse.
Religiousandphilosophical
interpretations
Thisisanartist'sconceptofthemetricexpansionofspace,
wherespace(includinghypotheticalnonobservableportions
oftheuniverse)isrepresentedateachtimebythecircular
sections.Noteontheleftthedramaticexpansion(notto
scale)occurringintheinflationaryepoch,andatthecenter
theexpansionacceleration.Theschemeisdecoratedwith
WMAPimagesontheleftandwiththerepresentationof
starsattheappropriatelevelofdevelopment.
Asadescriptionoftheoriginoftheuniverse,theBigBanghassignificantbearingonreligionand
philosophy.[110][111]Asaresult,ithasbecomeoneoftheliveliestareasinthediscoursebetweenscience
andreligion.[112]SomebelievetheBigBangimpliesacreator,[113][114]andsomeseeitsmentionintheir
holybooks,[115]whileothersarguethatBigBangcosmologymakesthenotionofacreator
superfluous.[111][116]
Seealso
BigCrunch
CosmicCalendar
Shapeoftheuniverse
Notes
1. ThereisnoconsensusabouthowlongtheBigBangphaselasted.Forsomewritersthisdenotesonlythe
initialsingularity,forothersthewholehistoryoftheuniverse.Usually,atleastthefirstfewminutes(during
whichheliumissynthesized)aresaidtooccur"duringtheBigBang".
2. Detailedinformationofandreferencesfortestsofgeneralrelativityaregiveninthearticletestsofgeneral
relativity.
3. ItiscommonlyreportedthatHoyleintendedthistobepejorative.However,Hoylelaterdeniedthat,saying
thatitwasjustastrikingimagemeanttoemphasizethedifferencebetweenthetwotheoriesforradio
listeners.[62]
4. Strictly,darkenergyintheformofacosmologicalconstantdrivestheuniversetowardsaflatstatehowever,
ouruniverseremainedclosetoflatforseveralbillionyears,beforethedarkenergydensitybecamesignificant.
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Books
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Furtherreading
Foranannotatedlistoftextbooksandmonographs,seephysicalcosmology.
Alpher,R.A.Herman,R.(1988)."Reflectionsonearlyworkon'bigbang'cosmology".PhysicsToday8
(8):2434.Bibcode:1988PhT....41h..24A(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988PhT....41h..24A).
doi:10.1063/1.881126(https://dx.doi.org/10.1063%2F1.881126).
"CosmicJourney:AHistoryofScientificCosmology"(http://www.aip.org/history/cosmology/index.htm).
AmericanInstituteofPhysics.
Barrow,J.D.(1994).TheOriginoftheUniverse.Weidenfeld&Nicolson.ISBN0297814974.
Davies,P.C.W.(1992).TheMindofGod:Thescientificbasisforarationalworld.Simon&Schuster.
ISBN0671710699.
Feuerbacher,B.Scranton,R.(2006)."EvidencefortheBigBang"
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BigBangCosmology(http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/bb_theory.html)WMAP
TheBigBang(http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focusareas/whatpoweredthebigbang/)
NASAScience
Bigbangmodelwithanimatedgraphics
(http://www.scientificblogging.com/hammock_physicist/big_bang_big_bewilderment)
Cosmology(https://www.dmoz.org/Science/Astronomy/Cosmology/)atDMOZ
EvidencefortheBigBang(http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/astronomy/bigbang.html)
Universe(http://www.cosmosportal.org/articles/view/138892)
ACosmicHistoryoftheUniverse(http://logiclaw.com/index.php?
title=A_Cosmic_History_of_Human_Evolution)
23/24
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