Cover illustration:

Science Photo Library.

Atmospheric dynamics is a core component of all atmospheric science curricula.

It is concerned with how and why different classes of geophysical disturbances
form, what dictates their structure and movement, how the Earths uneven surface
impacts with them, how they evolve to mature stage, how they interact with the
background flow, how they decay and how they collectively constrain the general
circulation of the atmosphere.
Mankin Maks new textbook provides a self-contained course on atmospheric
dynamics. The first half of the book is suitable for undergraduates, and develops
the physical, dynamical and mathematical concepts at the fundamental level.
The second half of the book is aimed at more advanced students who are already
familiar with the basics. The contents have been developed from many years of the
authors teaching at the University of Illinois. The discussions are supplemented
with schematics, weather maps and statistical plots of the atmospheric general
circulation. Students often find the connection between theoretical dynamics and
atmospheric observation somewhat tenuous, and this book demonstrates a strong
connection between the key dynamics and real observations in the atmosphere,
with many illustrative analyses in the simplest possible model settings. Physical
reasoning is shown to be even more crucial than mathematical skill in tackling
dynamical problems.
This textbook is an invaluable asset for courses in atmospheric dynamics for
undergraduates as well as graduate students and researchers in atmospheric
science, ocean science, weather forecasting, environmental science and applied
mathematics. Some background in mathematics and physics is assumed.

Cover designed by Hart McLeod Ltd

Atmospheric Dynamics

Atmospheric
Dynamics

Mak

Mankin Mak

Mankin Mak

Atmospheric
Dynamics

Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:02

Atmospheric Dynamics

PR

OO
F

Atmospheric dynamics is a core component of all atmospheric science curricula. It is

concerned with how and why different classes of geophysical disturbances form, what
dictates their structure and movement, how the Earth's uneven surface impacts with them,
how they evolve to mature stage, how they interact with the background ow, how they
decay and how they collectively constrain the general circulation of the atmosphere.
Mankin Maks new textbook provides a self-contained course on atmospheric dynamics.
The rst half of the book is suitable for undergraduates, and develops the physical,
dynamical and mathematical concepts at the fundamental level. The second half of the
book is aimed at more advanced students who are already familiar with the basics. The
contents have been developed from many years of the authors teaching at the University
of Illinois. The discussions are supplemented with schematics, weather maps and statistical
plots of the atmospheric general circulation. Students often nd the connection between
theoretical dynamics and atmospheric observation somewhat tenuous, and this book
demonstrates a strong connection between the key dynamics and real observations in the
atmosphere, with many illustrative analyses in the simplest possible model settings.
Physical reasoning is shown to be even more crucial than mathematical skill in tackling
dynamical problems.
This textbook is an invaluable asset for courses in atmospheric dynamics for undergraduates as well as graduate students and researchers in atmospheric science, ocean
science, weather forecasting, environmental science and applied mathematics. Some background in mathematics and physics is assumed.
Mankin Mak is a Professor Emeritus in the Department of Atmospheric Sciences at the
University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, where he has taught and researched on
atmospheric dynamics for many years. He was born in Hong Kong, China, where he
completed his high school education, before moving on to undergraduate study in Engineering Physics at the University of Toronto, Canada, and graduate study in Meteorology at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA. He has published extensively in various
international journals of atmospheric sciences and served as an editor of the Journal of
Atmospheric Sciences.

Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:02

Praise for this book

Professor Maks new text provides a comprehensive and self-contained introduction to
atmospheric dynamics. The latter chapters provide invaluable material on a range of topics
not found together in other texts: baroclinic lifecycles, the dynamics of stationary waves,
and moist baroclinic instability. It presents a forceful case for the ability of dynamical
analysis to continue to clarify the atmospheres behavior.
Dr Daniel Kirk-Davidoff, Department of Meteorology, University of Maryland

OO
F

This book is a thoughtful distillation of decades of teaching. It includes gures from

illustrative computations that are custom-tted to the mathematical development. Although
it is brisk and condensed, with so much material to cover, the book has a clear and
distinctive voice, and offers some unique treatments and insights.
Dr Brian Mapes, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University
of Miami

PR

This text neatly and logically outlines atmospheric dynamics, from the fundamental
concepts in Chapter 1 and the development of the primitive equations in Chapter 2 to
wave dynamics in Chapter 5 and overturning circulations in Chapter 10. All the while,
walking the reader through the derivations and theory, yet referencing the physical
applications with maps and diagrams or model outputs. It would be a helpful reference
for any graduate student or scientist. Maks text would quickly educate someone new
to atmospheric science, but ready to jump in to the fray at the graduate level. It really is
a nicely written text.
Dr Teresa Bals-Elsholz, Department of Geography and Meteorology, Valparaiso
University

Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:02

OO
F

Atmospheric Dynamics
MANKIN MAK

PR

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:03

cambridge university press

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,
So Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo, Mexico City
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by
Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521195737

OO
F

# Mankin Mak 2011

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2011

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

PR

Mak, Mankin, 1939

Atmospheric dynamics / Mankin Mak.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-521-19573-7 (Hardback)
1. Atmospheric physicsTextbooks. 2. MeteorologyTextbooks. I. Title.
QC861.3.M335 2011
551.510 5dc22
2010029996
ISBN 978-0-521-19573-7 Hardback

Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/9780521195737

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or
accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to
in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such
websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:03

PR

OO
F

To the memory of my parents who made it possible for me to pursue my dreams

Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:04

Contents

page xi

OO
F

Preface

1 Fundamental concepts and physical laws

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8

Basic notions
Laws of mechanics
Equations of motion in a rotating reference frame
Forces
Conservation of mass
Thermodynamics and equation of state
Stratication and baroclinicity
Summary of the equations for a dry atmospheric model

2 Basic approximations and elementary ows

Sphericity of the Earth and thin-atmosphere approximation

Hydrostatic balance, implications and applications
Geostrophic balance
Thermal wind relation
Balanced ows
Kinematic properties of wind
Divergent wind and vertical motion
Summary: z-, p- and y-coordinates and equations of balance

PR

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8

3 Vorticity and potential vorticity dynamics

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9

vii

Vorticity and circulation of a three-dimensional ow

Relationship between vorticity and circulation
Kelvin circulation theorem
Dynamics of sea-breeze from the circulation perspective
Tendency of relative circulation
General vorticity equation
Vorticity dynamics of a large-scale ow
Potential vorticity dynamics
Impermeability theorem and generalized potential vorticity

1
1
3
5
14
17
19
23
25

27
27
28
38
40
41
49
53
54

55
55
57
60
61
63
64
65
70
79

Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:04

viii

Contents

4 Friction and boundary layers

Scale and estimate of the frictional force
Concept of boundary layer
Reynolds averaging
Boussinesq approximation
Flux-gradient theory of turbulence
Types of boundary layer
Atmospheric Ekman layer
Oceanic Ekman layer
Surface layer
Mixed layer

OO
F

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10

5 Fundamentals of wave dynamics

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10

Preliminary remarks
Physical nature of internal gravity waves
Generic model of IGW
Properties of prototype IGW
Rudimentary characteristics of wave motions in large-scale ows
Physical nature of Rossby waves in a simplest possible model
Properties of prototype Rossby waves
Forced orographic Rossby waves in a shallow-water model
Some observed statistical properties of Rossby waves
Edge waves

6 Quasi-geostrophic theory and two-layer model

Observed features of a synoptic disturbance

Scale analysis
Quasi-geostrophic system of equations
Diagnostic function of the QG theory
Prognostic function of the QG theory
Intrinsic wave modes in a QG model
Evolution of a baroclinic jet streak in a quasi-geostrophic two-layer model
Inuences of the Earths sphericity in the QG theory

PR

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8

7 Dynamic adjustment
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

Problem of rotational adjustment

Rossby problem of geostrophic adjustment
Complementary Rossby problem
Gradient-wind adjustment problem
Concluding remarks

88
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
103
107
108

111
111
113
113
119
129
131
132
141
147
149

153
153
155
157
160
165
168
172
182

187
187
188
196
201
207

Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:05

ix

Contents

209

8 Instability theories
Part 8A Small-scale and meso-scale instability
8A.1 Static instability and the impact of damping
8A.2 Inertial instability and an application
8A.3 Symmetric instability and an application

8B.1
8B.2
8B.3
8B.4
8B.5
8B.6
8B.7
8B.8

OO
F

Part 8B Purely barotropic and purely baroclinic instability

Historical highlights of past studies
Aspects of barotropic instability
Optimal growth of barotropic disturbance
Baroclinic instability in a two-layer QG model
Modal growth
Transient growth
Optimal growth
Wave-activity density and general necessary condition for instability
Concluding remarks

Part 8C Instability of jets

Nature and scope of the problem

Barotropic-governor effect
Instability of baroclinic jets
Instability of a localized barotropic jet
Instability of a localized baroclinic jet
Concluding remarks

PR

8C.1
8C.2
8C.3
8C.4
8C.5

Part 8D Moist baroclinic instability

8D.1 Introductory remarks

8D.2 A particular instability analysis
Concluding remarks

9 Stationary planetary wave dynamics

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6

Observed characteristics of stationary planetary waves

Introductory remarks about the dynamics of stationary waves
Impact of basic zonal ow on wave propagation
Thermally forced stationary waves
Orographically forced stationary waves
Illustrative application: mean Asian monsoonal circulation
Concluding remarks

209
210
213
220
225
225
227
235
240
245
256
259
262
264
265
265
267
270
276
282
290
290
290
292
308

309
309
311
313
320
333
341
348

Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:06

Contents

10 Wave-mean ow interaction
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5

Eulerian mean meridional overturning circulation

Lagrangian mean meridional overturning circulation
Linear theory for the overturning circulation
Non-Acceleration Theorem
Stratospheric sudden warming

11 Equilibration dynamics of baroclinic waves

Introductory remarks
Rudiments of geostrophic turbulence in a two-layer model
Life cycle of baroclinic waves
Symbiotic relation between synoptic and planetary waves
Relative intensity of the winter storm tracks

OO
F

11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5

12 Nongeostrophic dynamics

12.1 Surface frontogenesis

12.2 Hadley circulation
12.3 Non-supercell tornadogenesis

PR

Appendix: Mathematical tools

References
Index
The color plates are situated between pages 370 and 371.

350
350
355
356
373
375

382
382
385
393
403
410

419
419
428
443
458
476
481

Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:06

Preface

PR

OO
F

Atmospheric dynamics is the foundation for understanding the movement of air currents.
As such, it is a core component of all atmospheric science curricula. Atmospheric dynamics is the discipline concerned with what different classes of geophysical disturbances are
made up of, how and why they form, what factors dictate their structure and movement,
how the Earths uneven surface impacts them, how they evolve to their mature stage, how
they interact with the background ow, how they eventually decay and, above all, how
they collectively constrain the atmospheric general circulation as a whole. An analysis of
atmospheric dynamics can be process-oriented trying to address one or more of the
questions above. Its goal would be to establish quantitative understanding of the nature
of those processes. An analysis of atmospheric dynamics can be also phenomenon-oriented
with the objective of developing a feel for why a specic phenomenon is as observed. We
strive to cover both aspects of atmospheric dynamics in this book.
This book is mainly intended to serve students of atmospheric sciences. The goal is to
come up with a book distinctly different from but complementary to the existing pool of
texts on atmospheric dynamics. This book aims at being a resource valuable to instructors
and self-explanatory to students as much as possible. It would be a bonus if weather
forecasters as well as some practitioners in atmospheric science, ocean science, environmental science and applied mathematics nd this book to be a useful reference.
Progress in atmospheric dynamics would not have been possible without the introduction of various insightful concepts and approximations. They greatly simplify the quantitative investigations of atmospheric disturbances with analytical and numerical methods.
Computer graphics help visualize the structures and processes. For this reason, all of them
receive due emphasis in the discussions. We extensively use schematics to depict the
conceptual issues. We use different means to strengthen the connection between theoretical
dynamics and atmospheric observations. For instance, real-time weather maps are generated to illustrate the various dynamical characteristics of atmospheric disturbances. The
spatial and temporal statistical properties of various classes of disturbances are examined
as background information for related theoretical discussions of their dynamical roles.
Analyses with idealized models are used to highlight the essence of the phenomena under
consideration.
The rst half of the book discusses the physical concepts of atmospheric dynamics as
well as the mathematical methodology at the fundamental level. The emphasis is to
elucidate the physical nature of dynamical processes. The materials are written with
undergraduates in mind who might have only cursory exposure to atmospheric sciences.
With the exception of several sections on the more advanced topics, the rst ve chapters
can be used in an introductory course on atmospheric dynamics. It would be helpful and/or

xi

Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:07

xii

Preface

OO
F

necessary for an instructor to elaborate on the more technical aspects of the materials for
the benet of the uninitiated students. The more advanced topics are best reserved for a
follow-up course of atmospheric dynamics. A second undergraduate course may begin
with a review of the basic materials at a faster pace and proceed to cover a number of
additional topics selected from the rst eight chapters.
The second half of the book is suitable for graduate students who are already familiar
with the basics. It is a collection upward of twenty-ve illustrative model analyses of a
wide variety of dynamical issues manifested in different interesting phenomena. The
materials may be used as a graduate course sometimes called Special Topics of Atmospheric Dynamics. The overriding objective is to show how one might tackle problems
concerning the dynamics of different types of disturbances with the use of simple models.
I show the merit of different approaches and mathematical methods dependent on the
nature of the problem under consideration. Through the sample analyses, I hope to convey
the idea that physical reasoning is even more crucial than mathematical skill in tackling
dynamical problems. The discussions of several topics extensively make use of published
research articles. The other illustrative model analyses and computations are specically
performed for this book. The physical meanings of the model results are discussed with
generous use of gures. I strive to present each model analysis in a self-contained manner,
so that they need not be read in sequence. The format of presentation in the second half of
the book is therefore quite different from that used in the rst half. These analyses are
considerably more involved than typical homework assignments. They are more akin to
term projects. I would encourage students, either individually or in groups, to reproduce
some of the results as challenging exercises.
The book has twelve chapters starting with a synopsis in each:

PR

Chapter 1 introduces the basic concepts such as the continuum hypothesis of a uid,
Lagrangian versus Eulerian descriptions, non-inertial reference frame, stratication and
baroclinicity. It reviews all the laws of physics needed for investigating the dry dynamics
of atmospheric ows.
Chapter 2 discusses the nature of different types of dynamical balance in atmospheric
ows. The governing equations in different coordinate systems for atmospheric analyses
are derived. We also elaborate on the general kinematic properties of atmospheric ows.
Chapter 3 is a lengthy chapter focusing on the rotational properties of a geophysical ow.
We discuss the concepts of vorticity, circulation and potential vorticity in conjunction
with the related governing equations and mathematical theorems. The roles of different
physical factors are delineated. This chapter also contains a detailed discussion of some
advanced topics such as the impermeability theorem for potential vorticity and the notion
of generalized potential vorticity for succinctly representing the impact of boundary from
the perspective of vorticity dynamics.
Chapter 4 discusses the impacts of small turbulent eddies on a background ow as a
frictional force. The effect of such turbulence is discussed in the context of a simple
parameterization. We introduce the notion of boundary layer. We analyze the structures
of several different types of boundary layers and their implications, especially the
atmospheric and oceanic Ekman layers.

Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:07

xiii

Preface

PR

OO
F

Chapter 5 discusses the fundamentals of wave dynamics concerned with internal gravity
waves and Rossby waves. The characteristics of those free wave modes about their
structure, propagation, dispersion and energetics are quantitatively examined. We also
delineate the dynamical nature of the forced wave modes with two illustrative analyses.
We examine some observed properties of Rossby waves in the format of general
circulation statistics. We nally discuss the dynamics of edge waves.
Chapter 6 presents the quasi-geostrophic theory for large-scale atmospheric ows, which
heralded the major advances of dynamic meteorology. After showing some real-time
weather maps of a representative event, we discuss the formulation of this theory. The
particular form of this theory in a two-layer model setting is presented next. We illustrate
all the dynamical concepts with an analysis of a baroclinic jet streak. The inuences of
the Earths sphericity in the QG theory are nally discussed.
Chapter 7 discusses how and why the velocity and pressure elds of a large-scale
atmospheric ow would rapidly adjust towards a new balanced state whenever their
existing balance is upset by unspecied causes. We analyze the adjustments from two
canonical forms of initial imbalance.
Chapter 8 is a lengthy chapter divided into four parts for clarity. It covers a potpourri of
instability theories for disturbances of widely different sizes arising from different
classes of shear ows. The rst part deals with the instability of small-scale and mesoscale disturbances. The second and third parts discuss the transient and modal dynamics
of cyclogenesis in the extratropics for basic ows of increasing structural complexity.
The fourth part discusses the large-scale moist instability arising from self-induced
condensational heating.
Chapter 9 discusses the observed characteristics and the dynamics of stationary planetary
waves. We examine the propagation of such waves through a weak horizontal or vertical
background shear ow. The similarities and differences in the responses to large-scale
thermal and/or topographic forcing are then delineated. An analysis of the summer mean
Asian monsoon as a forced circulation serves to illustrate the dynamical properties of this
important class of wave disturbances in a recognizable setting.
Chapter 10 addresses the dynamics of interaction between a zonal mean ow and largescale waves in the context of two intriguing phenomena. We begin by examining the
mean meridional overturning circulation in both Eulerian and Lagrangian senses
deduced from a global dataset. We perform a linear model analysis of them with the
use of empirical forcing. Wave-mean ow interaction is then discussed in the context
of stratospheric sudden warming.
Chapter 11 discusses the equilibration dynamics of nonlinear baroclinic waves. We begin
with a discussion of the rudiments of geostrophic turbulence in a two-layer model
setting. It serves as background information for three specic analyses. The rst analysis
delineates the dynamics of life cycle of baroclinic waves. The second analysis brings to
light a symbiotic relation between synoptic-scale waves and planetary-scale waves of
a forced dissipative system. The third analysis looks into the dynamical nature of the
relative intensity of the two major winter storm tracks.
Chapter 12 discusses the nature of nongeostrophic dynamics in the context of three very
different phenomena: surface frontogenesis, Hadley circulation and non-supercell

Comp. by: Kkavitha Stage: Proof Chapter No.: Front Matter Title Name: MAK
Page Number: 0 Date:7/12/10 Time:20:17:08

xiv

Preface

OO
F

tornadogenesis. We present three illustrative model analyses of them using very different
mathematical methods.
An appendix summarizes the mathematical tools used in the book as a quick reference
for some readers who might not have used them for a while.
Problems and exercises are posted online in the website of the Cambridge University
Press with the intention of updating them periodically in future. See www.cambridge.
org/9780521195737
Only the research articles and books that readily came to mind during the writing of this
book are included. I have made no special effort to comprise a comprehensive bibliography. There is no doubt that the resulting list of references is quite incomplete.

PR

The framework of this book has been gradually taking shape over the course of many
years of teaching and research at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois,
USA. Zhenhua Li, Xian Lu, Sara T. Strey, Lantao Sun and Andy Vanloocke provided me
with feedback on a number of chapters in the rst half of the book from the students
perspective. Professors Ming Cai, Yi Deng and Lin Wang at different universities kindly
gave me feedback on three chapters from the instructors perspective. A number of
anonymous reviewers solicited by the publisher provided some valuable suggestions. All
this feedback has prompted signicant revisions of the draft and for that, I am most
appreciative. Joseph Grim and David Wojtowicz helped produce the high-resolution realtime weather maps. Lusheng Liang made the diagnosis of a ve-year global dataset and
wrote the code of model calculation that produces the gures in Chapter 10. Their technical
contributions are indispensable and gratefully acknowledged. Finally, I would like to thank
the editorial staff of Cambridge University Press Matt Lloyd, Chris Hudson, Laura Clark
and Sabine Koch for their inputs and suggestions that helped make writing this book
a wonderful experience of going through the maze of publication protocol.