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Abstract
Friction behavior is a critical factor in brake system design and performance. For up-front design and system modeling it is
desirable to describe the frictional behavior of a brake lining as a function of the local conditions such as contact pressure, temperature, and sliding speed. Typically, frictional performance is assessed using brake dynamometer testing of full-scale hardware, and
the average friction value is then used for the remaining brake system development. This traditional approach yields a hardwaredependent, average friction coefficient that is unavailable in advance of component testing, ruling out true up-front design and
leading to redundant lining screening tests. To address this problem, a reduced-scale inertial brake dynamometer was developed to
determine the frictional characteristics of lining materials. Design of a reduced-scale dynamometer began with the choice of a
scaling relation. In this case, the energy input per unit contact area was held constant between full-scale and reduced-scale hardware.
All linear variables were thereby scaled by the square root of the scaling factor, while the pressure, temperature, sliding velocity,
and deceleration were kept constant. Experimental validation of the scaling relations and the reduced-scale dynamometer focused
on comparisons with full-scale dynamometer data, particularly the friction coefficient. If similar trends are observed between
reduced-scale and full-scale testing, the reduced-scale dynamometer will become an important tool in the up-front design and
modeling of brake systems. 2001 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
Keywords: Brake; Dynamometer; Reduced-scale; Coefficient of friction
1. Introduction
Reduced-scale or reduced-sample friction testing has
the potential to decrease brake system development cost
and time. Historically, reduced-scale testing has been
used to compare friction materials for quality control,
lining development, and material property assessments.
For example, the friction assessment screening test
(FAST) was developed to screen the friction stability of
disk brake lining materials [1], while the Chase machine
was used to monitor drum brake lining materials [2].
Other reduced-scale devices have been designed to measure friction as a function of temperature, pressure, and
temperature by external control of these variables [3,4].
Generally, reduced-scale testing has not been utilized to
obtain quantitative data about friction material performance relative to real-world usage primarily because
reduced-scale test machines historically did not reproduce the operating conditions that the friction materials
experienced on vehicles.
610
(1)
(2)
1
Mv2
2A s
(3)
2. Scaling
One of the primary goals of reduced-scale testing is
to measure the friction coefficient as a function of sliding
velocity, pad pressure, and temperature. For this reason
it is critical to maintain a one-to-one relationship
between full-scale and reduced-scale testing with respect
to these parameters. Table 1 lists parameters that are the
same in full-scale and reduced-scale dynamometer testing.
Scaling the test parameters by the pad area is one way
to maintain the constant relationships, including constant
energy dissipation per unit area (energy density). The
Girling dynamometer [5] is a scaled version of a singleended dynamometer designed to have equivalent energy
dissipation per unit area. This energy density approach
Table 1
Constant parameters
Ea
1 vs
I
2A Rr
(4)
i a rr
I A Rr
(5)
Inserting the scaling factor (Eq. (1)) into Eq. (5) yields
I=iS 2, and this relation is included in Table 2.
Selecting a scaling factor is primarily dependent on
vehicle size and available effective radii on the reducedscale dynamometer. The scaling factor also impacts the
size of the reduced-scale pad, which is commonly cut
from a full-scale brake pad. Generally, a scaling factor
Table 2
Scaling relations
Variable
Units
Symbol
Variable
Units
Relation
Sliding velocity
Deceleration
Pad pressure
Energy density
Disk temperature
Stop time
m/s
g
Pa
J/mm2
C
s
vs
g
P
Ea
T
ts
Pad area
Effective radius
Rolling radius
Linear velocity
Torque
Inertia
mm2
mm
mm
km/h
Nm
kg m2
A=aS
Re=reS 1/2
Rr=rrS 1/2
Vl=vlS 1/2
T=tS 3/2
I=iS 2
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of approximately 10 is appropriate for cars, while a factor of 15 works well for light trucks.
By scaling the thermal mass it is possible to achieve
agreement between the temperature rise observed in
reduced-scale and full-scale braking events. For initial
correlation exercises, where full-size hardware was
already available, the thermal mass of the rotor was
determined by measuring the temperature rise during
typical stops on the full-scale dynamometer. Determining the thermal mass in this way includes heat dissipation by conduction into the mounting hardware. To
achieve the same temperature rise in the reduced-scale
stop, the mass of the disk was adjusted so that the calculated disk temperature rise (TfinalTinitial) matched that of
the rotor. The reduced-scale disk mass was calculated
using the predicted energy absorbed by the disk (e) from
the scaled kinetic energy dissipated and the temperaturedependent specific heat of cast iron, Cp(T) (Eq. (6)).
Conductive temperature losses in the reduced-scale test
are minimized through the use of a ceramic insulator
between the disk and the mounting hardware. For prototype testing, disk mass may be estimated by dividing the
prototype rotor mass by the scaling factor.
m T
(6)
final
Cp(t)+dT
Tinitial
(7)
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3. Experimental
Brake dynamometer testing was used to evaluate the
friction behavior of two lining materials: (1) a nonasbestos inorganic (NAO) or Japanese-type lining used
on a full-size car, and (2) a semi-metallic lining used on
a sport utility vehicle (SUV). Testing was first performed
with full-scale hardware on an inertial brake dynamometer. Next, parameters for the scaled tests were calculated from the vehicle and hardware parameters (Table
3), and scaled disks and pads fabricated. The same friction assessment test procedure was then run for each
lining on the reduced-scale dynamometer.
A Ford Motor Company brake dynamometer friction
assessment test procedure was used that is similar to
many industry-standard screening tests. This procedure
consists of approximately 100 burnish stops and 100
stops to assess pressure, temperature and speed sensitivity as well as fade performance and recovery. Burnish
stops are performed from an initial brake temperature
(IBT) of 80C at 0.25 and 0.15g decelerations. The temperature sensitivity stops, initiated at a range of IBTs,
and the velocity sensitivity stops, initiated at a range of
speeds, are all at a deceleration of 0.4g. The pressure
sensitivity stops from 80 kph are performed at line pressures from 10 to 80 bar. On the scaled dynamometer a
load cell replaces the hydraulic pressure apply system
used on full-scale dynamometers; load control set points
that achieve equivalent nominal contact pressure are programmed into the scaled dynamometer.
Table 3
Brake dynamometer experimental parameters
Vehicle parameter
NAO
Full-scale
475
308
45
9930
113
Semi-metallic
Reduced-scale
0.39
11
900
34
Full-scale
610
344
72
14,120
127
Reduced-scale
0.39
14
1016
34
613
Fig. 2. Constant pressure dynamometer stops (60 bar, 80C IBT, 80 kph) for NAO (a, c) and semimetallic (b, d) lining materials. Torque, pressure,
and friction coefficient are compared in (a, b) and velocity, disk temperature, and pad temperature are compared in (c, d). Curves depict full-scale
data and symbols show reduced-scale data.
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Fig. 3. Comparison of constant deceleration dynamometer stops (0.4g, 200C IBT, 100 kph) for NAO (a, c) and semimetallic (b, d) lining
materials. Torque, pressure, and friction coefficient are compared in (a, b) and velocity, disk temperature, and pad temperature are compared in
(c, d). Curves depict full-scale data and symbols show reduced-scale data.
Although the curves are not exactly the same shape, the
minimum and maximum temperatures show good agreement.
The average friction coefficients (averaged over the
whole test procedure excluding burnishes) are shown in
Table 4. There is good agreement for the NAO lining
material, although the variability is higher for the
reduced-scale testing. For the semi-metallic material, m
is always lower in reduced-scale tests, most likely as a
result of batch-to-batch lining variability and lower
pad temperatures.
To improve the reduced-scale tests, it is apparent that
machine drag, lining variability, and pad temperature
issues should be addressed. Programming the drive
motor to provide a small amount of power to the dynamometer during the stop can minimize the effects of
parasitic dynamometer drag. This additional energy will
compensate for the bearing drag, which is roughly a linear function of the rotational velocity. The lining variability can be assessed by careful attention to the lining
batch and the location from which the reduced-scale pad
is cut from the full-scale pad. The lining temperature
during reduced-scale testing was consistently low, particularly for higher conductivity, semi-metallic linings.
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Table 4
Average friction coefficient
NAO
Semi-metallic
Hardware
Repeat
Full-scale
Reduced-scale
Full-scale
Reduced-scale
A
A
B
B
Average
Deviation
1
2
1
2
0.39
0.38
0.36
0.37
0.37
0.02
0.38
0.43
0.31
0.34
0.37
0.05
0.37
0.41
0.39
0.41
0.40
0.02
0.28
0.31
0.31
0.34
0.31
0.02
Acknowledgements
J.W. Fash initiated the reduced-scale dynamometer
work at Ford. R. Hasson did some of the early validation
exercises on the instrument and R. Mangan of Link
Engineering performed the reduced-scale measurements
reported in this paper.
References
5. Summary
Reduced-scale dynamometer data based on constant
energy density scaling has been compared to full-scale
dynamometer results. The agreement between dynamometer tests is excellent, especially for NAO materials
which exhibit minimal batch-to-batch friction variability.
Several areas for improvement were identified on the
reduced-scale dynamometer, including corrections for
parasitic drag and reducing the thermal conductivity of
the pad fixture. Overall, the data generated by the
reduced-scale dynamometer are highly correlated with
those from full-scale testing. The reduced-scale dynamometer promises to be an important lining screening
and design tool; friction coefficients can be determined
in advance of prototype hardware, enabling true up-front
CAE and friction behavior modeling.