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Teaching and
Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1."
2."
3."
4."
5."
X" INTRODUCTION
In general, teaching and learning are two important aspects related to an
educator. As a teacher, he or she needs to know how each learner learns as
studies have shown that each student attempts learning in a particular way. In
other words, each learner has his or her own learning styles. Knowing these
learning styles would be beneficial for a teacher to seek the best possible ways of
identifying and executing the best teaching practices in the classroom. By
identifying the differences in learning styles among learners, we can plan and
apply teaching strategies which best meet the needs of learners. Similarly, the
differences in styles of teaching among teachers have some effects on the success
of the lesson too. Do you have any idea what they are? Let us look at these
aspects in detail to learn more.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Describe your teaching style in brief. Why do you prefer this style?
TOPIC 1
1.1
As mentioned earlier, teaching and learning are two important aspects which
teachers should look into when planning to teach. In the following subtopics, you
are going to look into some factors that affect teaching and learning process and
what one should be aware of as an educator.
1.1.1
Styles of Teaching
Joyce, Weil and Calhoun (2009) posit that teachers teaching styles are very much
influenced by their own personalities. They have identified four variances of
personalities associated to learning styles. These four variances are explained in
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Four Variances of Personalities
Variance of
Personality
Description
Warmth
Gregariousness/
Sociability
Academic
Learning
Conceptual
Level
On the other hand, Grasha (1996) has identified four approaches to teaching
styles. They are formal authority, demonstrator, facilitator and delegator. These
four approaches are explained further in Table 1.2.
TOPIC 1
W 3
Description
Formal
Authority
Demonstrator
Facilitator
Delegator
ACTIVITY 1.2
Explain how the various teaching styles can affect the choice of
strategies employed in the classroom.
TOPIC 1
1.1.2
Types of Learners
Types of learners also play an important role in the selection of suitable strategies
in the classroom. McCarthy (1997) has identified four types of learners. These
learners are elaborated further in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Four Types of Learners
Type
Characteristics
Innovative
Learners
Analytic
Learners
Common
Sense
Learners
Dynamic
Learners
ACTIVITY 1.3
Can you identify the types of learners that you have in your classroom?
Explain the criteria you use to identify them.
TOPIC 1
1.1.3
W 5
Are you aware that the traditional method of teaching and learning is a one-way
interaction empowering the teacher on the teaching and learning procedure?
However, changes have taken place where students needs are also taken into
consideration. Educators realise that students do not come into the classroom
with empty heads. They do bring in their own beliefs based on their experiences
gained outside the classroom. These should be considered when planning for the
best teaching practice. In addition, there are also four basic elements of teaching
in general to be considered and practised. Figure 1.1 shows you these four basic
elements.
Before we go further, let us define teaching and learning. Let us take a look at the
definition of teaching.
Teaching involves planning and implementation of instructional activities
and experiences to meet intended learner outcomes according to a teaching
plan.
How about learning?
On the other hand, learning involves acquiring knowledge, skills and
attitude leading to relatively permanent change to learners behaviour.
TOPIC 1
Description
Meaningful
Learning
This refers to the need for meaningful learning to take place for
students to acquire knowledge and skills. Otherwise, they will not be
able to recall what they have learned.
Active
Participation
This involves students wanting to learn and taking part in the activities
planned by the teacher. Through learning how to do, students will be
able to grasp the learnt concepts much faster.
Positive
Feedback
Two-Way
Interaction
There is a need for two-way interaction between the teacher and the
student. This will enable learners to question their doubts and for the
teacher to clarify those doubts. Besides, constant checking on students
understanding will help the teacher to pace his/her teaching.
ACTIVITY 1.4
Can you think of other factors that influence teaching and learning
process? List them.
1.2
Are you aware that instruction is an important aspect involved in the teaching
and learning process? In this subtopic, you are introduced to the teacher-centred
instruction and the student-centred instruction and how they can benefit the
learners to achieve meaningful learning.
1.2.1
Teacher-Centred Instruction
TOPIC 1
(a)"
W 7
(d)" The teachers rely heavily on the textbook to guide curricular and
instructional decision making; and
(e)"
1.2.2
Student-Centred Instruction
(f)"
TOPIC 1
Description
Learners do more of:
x" Organising the content;
x" Generating the examples;
x" Asking the questions;
x" Answering the questions;
x" Summarising the discussion;
x" Solving problems; and
x" Constructing diagrams.
Teachers do more
design work (of
activities and learning
experiences)
Teachers do more
modelling
TOPIC 1
W 9
Do you know that Kolbs Model of Experiential Learning provides one of the
foundations for this model of how learning occurs in the classroom? Figure 1.2
shows you this model.
As shown in Figure 1.2, you can see that this model of learning consists of four
steps. These steps are further explained in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6: Four Steps of Kolb's Model of Experiential Learning
Step
Description
Action/
Activity
Reflection
The learner reflects on what they did and what happened as a result of
their activity. This can be in one of several forms free writing,
journaling or small or large group discussions.
Knowledge/
Theory
The learner uses the results of the reflection to develop knowledge and
theories, which help further the learning process because the learner is
conceptualising their own theories, not just accepting the theory of the
instructor.
Planning
Based on the learners theories, they plan what to do next and anticipate
the results of further activity. This process moves the learner into the
higher levels of thinking than merely recall/recite facts or information.
1.2.3
In this subtopic, we are going to compare the two instructions that we learnt
previously. Generally, teacher-centred instruction is a traditional method of
teaching involving the teacher as the dictator deciding what and how to teach.
10 X
TOPIC 1
This method of teaching is a one way interaction where the students are passive
learners.
On the other hand, the student-centred instruction requires that students be
responsible for their learning. This will lead them to start experiencing the
consequences of decisions they make about learning.
There are other differences between these two types of instruction. The following
Table 1.7 summarises them further.
Table 1.7: Teacher versus Student-Centred Instruction
Teacher-Centred
Student-Centred
Focus is on instructor
Classroom is quiet
interact
Source: www.nclrc.org/essentials/goalsmethods/learncentpop
ACTIVITY 1.5
Can you provide other differences between student-centred and
teacher-centred instruction? Explain the differences.
Which form of instruction do you think works well in the classroom?
Justify your answer.
with
TOPIC 1
1.3
W11
Are you aware that inductive and deductive approaches to learning are
commonly used by teachers in a learning environment? Both approaches have
their own strengths and are dependent on the role of the teacher. Now let us look
at each one more closely.
1.3.1
Let us begin this subtopic by looking at Scenario 1.1 which shows you how
Ms Johana begins her lesson using the inductive approach.
Scenario 1.1:
Ms Johana begins her lesson by presenting five words (that represent
examples) and another five words (that represent non-examples) of a mystery
concept (noun) on the board. She asks her students to think about how the
words are related to each other but not to the non-examples of the mystery
concept. Her students start brainstorming possible characteristics of concepts
by comparing examples and non-examples in groups. They later come up with
a list of characteristics.
The inductive approach focuses on identifying examples and non-examples
leading to the characteristics of a concept. In Scenario 1.1, Ms. Johana presents
both examples and non-examples of a concept (noun). Students are required to
study and identify the characteristics of the concept. This allows them to
emphasise critical and higher order thinking skills into finding the unknown.
What is unique about the inductive approach in teaching grammar is the fact that
rules are presented in a real language context. Students learn through practice
and gain the rules from the practical examples. The teacher plays the role of
providing meaningful contexts to encourage demonstration of the rule.
There are several advantages of the inductive approach. Among them are:
(a)"
Students can focus on the use of the language without being held back by
grammatical terminology and rules that can inhibit fluency; and
(b)" It increases student participation and practice of the target language in the
classroom, in meaningful contexts.
12 X
TOPIC 1
1.3.2
Now let us move on to the deductive approach. Let us read Scenario 1.3 where
Mrs Lim uses the deductive approach in her classroom.
Scenario 1.3:
Mrs Lim begins her lesson by introducing gases to her students. She asks her
students to generate a list of gases that they encounter on a daily basis. Mrs Lim
writes the answers provided by the students on the board. She divides her
students into groups and asks each group to brainstorm on the characteristics
related to the concept. Students examine the class-generated list of gases and
write their own new list of characteristics or properties. Students organise the
concept characteristics by placing the brainstormed ideas into categories.
TOPIC 1
W13
Based on Scenario 1.3, the deductive approach to learning begins with the
introduction of the concept to the students. The teacher plays an important role
in disseminating knowledge to her students. This method of teaching is
traditional in nature where rote learning is highly emphasised. Students learn the
rule and apply it after they have been introduced to the rule. Teacher plays an
important role as knowledge provider through presentation and explanation.
This approach is suitable for learners of lower level.
However, there are several disadvantages of the deductive approach. Among
them are:
(a)"
Teaching is in isolation;
1.4
Lastly, let us get to know some models of teaching and learning. As a teacher,
you need to be aware of these models in catering to the needs of your learners
with different learning styles. These models are frameworks that serve as guide
in designing suitable activities in the classroom. Awareness of the various types
of teaching models will also allow you to analyse and evaluate their strengths
and weaknesses so as to plan and implement appropriate follow-up actions.
In addition, models of teaching and learning are considered as a blueprint which
specifies approaches to instruction with three main focuses:
(i)"
14 X
TOPIC 1
There are four models that will be introduced to you in this subtopic. They are
listed in Figure 1.3.
1.4.1
The social learning models are based on the social learning theory. This theory
emphasises that the learning focus is within a social context. Learning can take
shape through observation and imitation of actions. Reinforcement of behaviour
is achieved through reward and punishment.
In addition, these models also enable learners to work together to identify and
solve problems, to develop skills in human relations and to become aware of
personal and social values. Table 1.8 lists the types of social learning models.
These models will be discussed in greater detail in other topics that follow.
TOPIC 1
W15
Developer
x"Partners in Learning
"Positive
Interdependence
Feature
x" Development of strategies to help
students work effectively together.
x" Development
participation
process.
of
in
skills
for
democratic
x"Jurisprudential
Inquiry
1.4.2
Information-Processing Models
16 X
TOPIC 1
Developer
Feature
Inductive Thinking
Hilda Taba
Concept Attainment
Jerome Bruner
Emily Calhoun
Scientific Inquiry
Joseph Schwab
Inquiry Training
Richard Suchman
Mnemonics
Michael Pressley
Strategies
for
memorising
assimilating information.
Joel Levin
and
Richard Anderson
Synectics
William Gordon
Advance Organisers
David Ausubel
1.4.3
Behaviourist Models
The behaviourist models of teaching and learning focus on the teacher as one
who plays a dominant role. It operates on a principle of stimulus-response. This
theory assumes learners as passive and that they start off as a clean slate.
Behaviour of learners can be shaped through positive or negative reinforcement.
There are five types of behaviourist models and these are explained further in
Table 1.10.
TOPIC 1
W17
Developer
Feature
Mastery Learning
Benjamin Bloom
James Block
Direct Instruction
Tom Good
Jere Brophy
Carl Bereiter
Ziggy Engleman
Wes Becker
Simulation
Carl Smith
Mary Smith
Social Learning
Albert Bandura
Carl Thoresen
Wes Becker
Programmed
Schedule
B. F. Skinner
(Task Performance
Reinforcement)
Source: Joyce et al. (2009)
1.4.4
Personal family models of teaching and learning allow students to increase their
sense of self-worth and recognise their emotions and are aware on how emotions
affect their behaviour. The models also increase their creative thinking. There are
two types of personal family models; these are explained in Table 1.11.
Table 1.11: The Personal Family Models
Models
Developer
Purpose
Non-Directive Teaching
Carl Rogers
Building
capacity
for
personal
development, self understanding and
autonomy and esteem of self.
Enhancing Self-Esteem
Abraham
Maslow
18 X
TOPIC 1
Before we end this topic, let us make a conclusion on the teaching and learning
models. Bear in mind that it is important to be aware of the different types of
teaching models in order for one to identify the best method of teaching his/her
learners. This awareness will guide teachers to create conducive environment for
their learners who consist of different types of learners.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
List two models that represent social learning models, informationprocessing models, behaviourist models and personal family models
perspectively.
x"
Two main factors that affect teaching and learning processes are styles of
teaching and types of learners.
x"
x"
x"
x"
x"
x"
x"
The four models of teaching and learning discussed in this topic are social
learning models, information-processing models, behaviourist models and
personal family models.
TOPIC 1
W19
x"
The social learning models are based on the social learning theory.
x"
x"
The behaviourist models of teaching and learning focus on the teacher as one
who plays a dominant role.
x"
Deductive approach
Models of teaching
Inductive approach
Student-centred instruction
Learning
Teaching
Learning styles
Teacher-centred instruction
Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2009). Models of teaching. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
Cuban, L. (1983). How teachers taught. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Grasha, A. F. (1996). Teaching with style. Pittsburgh, PA: Alliance Publishers.
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
A tale of four learners: 4MATs learning styles. How
Children Learn, 54(6), 46-51.
McCarthy, B. (1997).