Volume 34, Number 2, September 2011

Cover
Tools Name : Constant temperature bath/viscosimeter
ISSN : 2089-3361
Volume 34, No. 2, September 2011

SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS is a printing media to promote research and development
activities which have been done by LEMIGAS Research and Development Centre for Oil and Gas Technology.
Chief Editor
: Dra. Yanni Kussuryani, M.Si. (Chemist)
Managing Editor
: Ir. Daru Siswanto (Chemical Engineering)
Ass. Managing Editor : Drs. Heribertus Joko Kristadi, M.Si. (Geophysic)

Senior Editors
:

Editors
1. Prof, Dr. Maizar Rahman (Chemical Engineering)

2. Ir. E. Jasjfi, M.Sc., APU. (Chemical Engineering)
3. Prof. Dr. Suprajitno Munadi (Geophysics)
4. Prof. M. Udiharto (Biology)
5. Prof. Dr. E. Suhardono (Industrial Chemistry)
6. Ir. Bambang Wicaksono T.M., M.Sc. (Petroleum Geology)
: 1. Dr. Ir. Usman, M.Eng. (Petroleum Engineering)
2. Ir. Sugeng Riyono, M.Phil. (Chemical Engineering)

3. Dr. Ir. Eko Budi Lelono (Palynologist)

4. Abdul Haris, S.Si., M.Si. (Chemistry and Environment)
Peer Group
:

1. Prof. Dr. Ir. Septoratno Siregar (Petroleum Engineering)

2. Prof. Dr. R.P. Koesoemadinata (Geological Engineering)
3. Prof. Dr. Wahjudi Wisaksono (Energy and Environment)
4. Dr. Ir. M. Kholil, M.Kom. (Management of Environment)
5. Dr. Ir. Bambang Widarsono, M.Sc. (Petroleum Engineering)
6. Ferry Imanuddin Sadikin, S.T., M.E. (Electrical Engineering)
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: Publications affairs
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Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas is published by LEMIGAS Research and Development Centre for Oil and Gas
Technology. Chief Editor : Dra. Yanni Kussuryani, M.Si. Managing Editor: Ir. Daru Siswanto

ISSN : 2089-3361
Volume 34, Number 2, September 2011
Page
CONTENTS
introduction
iii
ABSTRACTS
iv
OLIGOCENE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION SCHEME

FROM EAST JAVA SEA
EKo Budi Lelono and Robert J Morley

95 - 104
Rock Wettability Characteristics of Some Indonesian

Limestones. Case Study: Baturaja Formation
Bambang Widarsono

105 - 116
RISKS ANALYSIS OF CARBON DIOXIDE STORAGE IN GEOLOGICAL

FORMATIONS
Lusyana and M. Dwi Atmanto

117 - 126
POLYMER PROPERTIES DETERMINATION FOR DESIGNING

CHEMICAL FLOODING
Sugihardjo

127 - 137
The Importance of Litho-facies Distinction in Determining

the Most Representative Cementation Factors for
Well-log Evaluation: An Old Issue Persistently Neglected
Bambang Widarsono

139 - 148
RANKING OF INDONESIA SEDIMENTARY BASIN AND STORAGE

CAPACITY ESTIMATES FOR CO2 GEOLOGICAL STORAGE
Utomo P. Iskandar, Sudarman Sofyan, and Usman 149 - 156
ii

INTRODUCTION
Dear Readers,
Lemigas Scientific Contributions Volume 34 Number 2 September 2011 has changed its
name to be Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas has met with LIPI Accreditation requirement
which requires the name of journal does not identify the name of its institution.
Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas has a very significant role in Indonesia science
community and oil and gas industry for information dissemination in oil and gas research
and studies.
Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas May 2011,Volume 34, Number 2 presents some selected
results of studies and research in LEMIGAS:
1. Oligocene Palynological Zonation Scheme From East Java Sea; 2. Rock Wettability
Characteristics of Some Indonesian Limestones. Case Study: Baturaja Formation; 3. Risks
Analysis of Carbon Dioxide Storage in Geological Formations; 4. Polymer Properties
Determination for Designing Chemical Flooding; 5. The Importance of Litho-Facies Distinction
in Determining The Most Representative Cementation Factors for Well-log Evaluation: An
Old Issue Persistently Neglected; 6. Ranking Of Indonesia Sedimentary Basin And Storage
Capacity Estimates For Co2 Geological Storage.
September 2011 edition Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas Editorial Team hope that
Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas can be a reference for the authors/researchers. Reader
feedbacks and inputsfor development are strongly suggested and will be highly appreciated
to improve next edition of Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas.
Editorial board, Publisher and Manajemen extend highly gratitude for authors, reviewers
and editors who have worked very hard to making this edition of Scientific Contributions Oil
& Gas is possiable to succesfull published.
Jakarta, September 2011
Redaction
iii
ABSTRACTS
The descriptions given are free terms. This abstract sheet may be reproduced without permission or charge
Eko Budi Lelono1) and Robert J Morley2) 3)
(1)Researcher at LEMIGAS R & D Centre for Oil
and Gas Technology., 2)Palynova Limited, 1 Mow
Fen Road, Littleport, Cambs, CB6 1PY, UK., 3)Dept
Geology, Royal Holloway, University of London,
Egham, Surrey, UK.
OLIGOCENE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION
SCHEME FROM EAST JAVA SEA)
Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas , September 2011,
Vol. 34, No. 2, p. 95 - 104
elements. The above palynological zonation suggests

climate change, which closely parallels the climate
succession from West Java Sea (but with changes less
pronounced). Therefore, this study provides a well
dated Oligocene palynological zonation which can
be applied across Java.
(Author)
Abstract
Bambang Widarsono (Researcher at LEMIGAS R

& D Centre for Oil and Gas Technology)
Rock Wettability Characteristics
of Some Indonesian Limestones. Case
Study: Baturaja Formation
Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas, September 2011,
Vol. 34, No. 2, p. 105 - 116
Abstract
Rock wettability plays a very important role in
affecting various rock physical properties such as
relative permeability and capillary pressure. Common
practice at present is that carbonate rocks are assumed
to be preferentially oil wet in nature. This assumption
may prove fatal since the need of true knowledge over
the real wettability for ones carbonate reservoir is
often neglected, and wettability aspect in reservoir
modeling is in turn based on assumption. To prove
over reliability of the assumption a study is carried
out using information from 350 core samples taken
from Baturaja Formation. The choice for the Baturaja
limestone is basically based on the fact that it is a
mature productive rock formation and its extensive
spread into three of the most productive sedimentary
basin in Indonesia, Northwest Java Basin, South
Sumatra Basin, and Sunda Basin. The study proves
that the assumption of the generally oil wet limestone
does not apply for Baturaja limestone. The Baturaja
limestone tend to exhibit, quantitatively, equality
in their tendency towards oil wettability and water
wettability and leave some proportion to neutral or
mix wettability as well. However, when a more detailed
comparison is made results show that qualitatively the
Systematic biostratigraphic analyses have been

undertaken on the Oligocene clastic and carbonate
Kujung Formation from the East Java Sea, North
of Madura. The succession has been examined
mainly using cutting samples in two wells, using
a combination of foraminiferal, nannofossil
and palynological analyses at regular spacing.
Nannofossil analysis indicates that the Late
Oligocene to basal Early Miocene succession is
more or less complete, with zones NP24, NP25 and
NN1 are all being well developed. In addition, the
Early Oligocene is indentified by larger foraminifera
indicating the Tc/ Td Letter Stage. Because the
traditional palynological zonation of Morley (1978)
does not work well in this area, the succession has
been divided into broad assemblage zones, which
appear to be controlled mainly by climate. These
zones are OL-1, OL-2, OL-3, OL-4 and OL-5. Zone
OL-1 is based essentially on the absence of seasonal
climate and riparian elements, whilst zone OL-2 is
characterized by the regular occurrence of seasonal
climate elements, especially of Malvacipollis
diversus. Zone OL-3 is indicated by common to
abundant Dacrydium and Casuarina pollen, with
a strong acme of dinoflagellate cysts dominated by
Operculodinium spp. and Spiniferites spp., whereas
zone OL-4 is marked by abundant Dacrydium and
regular Casuarina pollen, but low representation
of riparian elements. Finally, the youngest zone is
OL-5 which is characterized by reduced Dacrydium
and Casuarina pollen, and increased riparian
iv

Keywords: Oligocene, Palynological zonation, East

Java Sea.
limestone are indeed more inclined to oil wettability

than water wettability even though this finding is
insufficient to support a conclusion that the Baturaja
limestone are specifically oil wet. Other finding
from comparison with past studies also shows that
limestone may behave in the way sandstones do. Both
limestone and sandstones may vary in the same way
and no assumption over their preferential wettability
is justified without direct measurements. Wettability
alteration as the result of hot core cleaning following
the widely accepted standard procedure is also
strongly indicated. It is therefore concluded that the
practice has to be abandoned for a better and reliable
laboratory testing results.
(Author)
Keywords: wettability, limestone, Baturaja

Formation, wettability variation, wettability
alteration
Lusyana1) and M. Dwi Atmanto1) (1)Researcher at
LEMIGAS R & D Centre for Oil and Gas Technology)
RISKS ANALYSIS OF CARBON DIOXIDE STORAGE IN GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS
Vol. 34, No. 2, p. 117 - 126
ABSTRACT
Concerning to global climate change, Indonesia has
committed to reduce CO2 emissions. The CO2 injection
and storage in underground geologic formations is
one practical method for reducing large volumes
of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. However,
the risks associated with the geological storage of
CO2 are a key factor affecting the implementation
of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS). A better
understanding and quantification of these risks is
required to ensure risks associated with CO2 storage
in underground formations meets acceptable safety
standards. In this paper, the risks are quantified and
justified by using Subjective Risk Assessment method.
The results show that the risks are low through
medium for three types of geological formations i.e.
depleted oil and gas reservoirs, unmineable coal
seams, and deep saline reservoirs.
(Author)
Keywords: CO2 storage, geological reservoirs, risks
analysis

Sugihardjo (Researcher at LEMIGAS R & D Centre for Oil and Gas Technology)
POLYMER PROPERTIES DETERMINATION FOR
DESIGNING CHEMICAL FLOODING
Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas , September 2011,
Vol. 34, No. 2, p. 127 - 137
ABSTRACT
Waterflooding became the standard practice in many
reservoirs formation in petroleum industries, the
strengths and weaknesses of the methods were quite
well established. In particular, the inefficiency of the
waterflood oil displacement mechanism as a result of
either an unfavorable mobility ratio or heterogeneity
was largely identified. Therefore, chemicals injections as the improvement displacement processes
had been proposed to support petroleum industries
to recover the production of oil. Chemical injection
normally consists of alkaline, surfactant, and polymer
(ASP). They could be injected as standalone fluid or
mixture of fluids; it depends upon the injection fluid
design appropriate for particular field. Polymer
solution could be prepared for mixtures of injection
fluid and or as chase fluid injection which is injected
behind surfactant or ASP. The main function of polymer solution primarily is to viscosity the injection
water as a mobility control. This work is proposed
to determine the important polymer properties which
are suitable for mobility control in such EOR plan in
the particular field. This field is sandstone reservoir
with oil gravity of 23 to 26oAPI and viscosity of 3cp at
90oC. Two kinds of polymers have been chosen such
as: HPAM-1 and HPAM-2 and subject to be tested for
the properties characteristic. Intensive works have
been done to evaluate the bulk polymer properties at
laboratory scale which include rheology, filtration,
thermal stability, retention/adsorption, and injectivity
or permeability reduction tests. The results indicated
that HPAM-1 polymer is suitable for injection fluid
design for Zone-B while HPAM-2 for Zone-A.
(Author)
Keywords: polyacrylamide (PAM), partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM), mobility control
Bambang Widarsono (1)Researcher at LEMIGAS R

& D Centre for Oil and Gas Technology)
T he I mportance of L itho - facies
Distinction in Determining the Most
Representative Cementation Factors
for Well-log Evaluation: An Old Issue
Persistently Neglected
Vol. 34, No. 2, p. 139 - 148
Utomo P. Iskandar1), Sudarman Sofyan2), and Usman3) (Candidate Researcher1), Earth Investigator2),
Researcher3) at LEMIGAS R & D Centre for Oil
and Gas Technology)
RANKING OF INDONESIA SEDIMENTARY
BASIN AND STORAGE CAPACITY ESTIMATES
FOR CO2 GEOLOGICAL STORAGE
Vol. 34, No. 2, p. 149 - 156
Abstract
Abstract
Cementation factor is a parameter always required

in any conventional open-hole log analysis leading
to determination of water saturation. Considering the
central of water saturation in the estimation of hydrocarbon in place and reserves, any error in the use of
the parameter may prove fatal. A common practice
in the oil industry is that acquisition of laboratoryderived cementation factor has never been given a
proper attention. It occurs very often that too few
samples hardly represent the rocks of reservoir of
concern are assigned for laboratory test. The practical use of the parameter in the log analysis also often
draw question, in which un-representative cementation factor is arbitrarily used due to lack of the data.
The effect of this practice has long been known but is
often neglected with all of its consequences up to
present day. This study tries to revive the awareness
through presenting a fact that cementation factor may
vary due to differences in litho-facies characteristics.
Formation resistivity factor data from forty-seven
limestone core-plug samples were taken from a West
Java (WJ) field. Visual description over the samples
has shown that they belong to several litho-facies
types. Results of the study have mainly proved that
different litho-facies type may have significantly different cementation factors. An averaging effect is also
obvious when data from all samples are processed
collectively. The effect of improper use of cementation
factor is shown through the application of three water
saturation models through which erroneous water
saturation estimates are produced. The finding of the
study is again hoped to reinforce the awareness of the
use of proper and representative cementation factor.
(Author)
Keywords: cementation factor, improper use,
erroneous water saturation, better practice
The various possible strategies to combat global

warming are explored within a wide-ranging of efforts. Practical solutions will need to stop or even
reverse the build-up of CO2 in the environment by
using existing technology that has not been integrated, carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS)
(Hansson, 2008). The main objectives of this study
are to develop criteria for sedimentary basins
ranking system in terms of their suitability for CO2
storage and estimate the storage capacity available.
We adapt the method developed by Bachu (2003) to
the Indonesia geological characteristics. Once the
criteria has been developed and the basins ranked
based on their suitability, oil and gas fields located
within these basins were estimated their potential
storage capacity using the methodology developed by Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum
(CSLF). From 60 identified sedimentary basins,
vi

Kutei, Tarakan and South Sumatera basins are

respectively positioned in top three of the ranking system. Well known geological structure,
adequate data, relatively stable geological
structure and established infrastructures are the
main factors make these basins have higher suitability. Estimation result showed from 48 fields
that are considered depleted from their Np/Ult
ratio (hydrocarbon cumulative production over
ultimate recovery), Riau and South Sumatera
region have large storage capacities which
are around 229 and 144 MtCO2 respectively.
The ranking of Indonesia sedimentary basins
can then be used in making decisions for the
large-scale implementation of CCS Project. The
potential storage capacity might increase as
data more available. The estimates resulted from
this study is not a conclusive estimation where Indonesia has huge potential of CO2 storage in
degree of geological and economic uncertainty depleted oil and gas reservoirs.
associated with a capacity estimate is still high.
(Author)
However, from this estimation shows that Keywords: Ranking of sedimentary basin, basin
suitability, CO2 geological storage, storage capacity
vii

FROM EAST JAVA SEA
Eko Budi Lelono1) and Robert J Morley2) 3)
1)
Researcher at LEMIGAS R & D Centre for Oil and Gas Technology
Jl. Ciledug Raya, Kav. 109, Cipulir, Kebayoran Lama, P.O. Box 1089/JKT, Jakarta Selatan 12230 INDONESIA
Tromol Pos: 6022/KBYB-Jakarta 12120, Telephone: 62-21-7394422, Faxsimile: 62-21-7246150
2)
Palynova Limited, 1 Mow Fen Road, Littleport, Cambs, CB6 1PY, UK
3)
Dept Geology, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, UK
First Registered on March 23rd 2011; Received after Corection on May 31st 2011
Publication Approval on : September 30th 2011
ABSTRACT
Systematic biostratigraphic analyses have been undertaken on the Oligocene clastic and carbonate Kujung Formation from the East Java Sea, North of Madura. The succession has been examined
mainly using cutting samples in two wells, using a combination of foraminiferal, nannofossil and
palynological analyses at regular spacing. Nannofossil analysis indicates that the Late Oligocene
to basal Early Miocene succession is more or less complete, with zones NP24, NP25 and NN1
are all being well developed. In addition, the Early Oligocene is indentified by larger foraminifera
indicating the Tc/ Td Letter Stage. Because the traditional palynological zonation of Morley (1978)
does not work well in this area, the succession has been divided into broad assemblage zones,
which appear to be controlled mainly by climate. These zones are OL-1, OL-2, OL-3, OL-4 and
OL-5. Zone OL-1 is based essentially on the absence of seasonal climate and riparian elements,
whilst zone OL-2 is characterized by the regular occurrence of seasonal climate elements, especially of Malvacipollis diversus. Zone OL-3 is indicated by common to abundant Dacrydium and
Casuarina pollen, with a strong acme of dinoflagellate cysts dominated by Operculodinium spp.
and Spiniferites spp., whereas zone OL-4 is marked by abundant Dacrydium and regular Casuarina
pollen, but low representation of riparian elements. Finally, the youngest zone is OL-5 which is
characterized by reduced Dacrydium and Casuarina pollen, and increased riparian elements. The
above palynological zonation suggests climate change, which closely parallels the climate succession from West Java Sea (but with changes less pronounced). Therefore, this study provides a
well dated Oligocene palynological zonation which can be applied across Java.
Keywords: Oligocene, Palynological zonation, East Java Sea.
I. INTRODUCTION
The Oligocene of East Java Sea area (here known
as Kujung Formation) is usually subdivided biostratigraphically using a combination of nannofossils and
foraminifera. It is indeed one of the mainstay areas for
larger foraminifera, with many classic papers from
the onshore region (van der Vlerk and Umgrove,
1927 and Leupold and van der Vlerk, 1931). This
is understandable as most Oligocene succession is
dominated by marine sediment. In this situation, palynology concerning non-marine micro-flora received
less attention. However, in the area of study which

is NW of Madura (Figure 1), the Kujung Formation

often contains interbedded clastics. In one hand, this
introduces additional correlation problems, whilst in
another hand, this offers possibility for palynology
to study the Oligocene section to clarify correlations
of this area.
Palynological analysis has revealed the presence
of rich pollen and spore assemblages throughout the
Oligocene succession. This is the first time that a
well-dated marine Oligocene succession has yielded
a good quality palynological record. The traditional
palynological zonation (Morley 1978) does not work
95

EKO BUDI LELONO AND ROBERT J MORLEY
well in this area, and so the succession has

been divided into broad assemblage zones,
which appear to be controlled mainly by
climate. Some pollen types found to be
stratigraphically useful in the Sunda Basin
have also been recorded, and can be used
in this area to help define the zones. The
palynological zones appear to provide the
best criteria for correlation of the observed
succession. The age of the assemblage
zones, however, is best determined on
nannofossils, with support from larger
foraminifera. Providing one of the first instances where an Oligocene palynological
succession from the SE Asian region can be
independently dated using marine fossils.
The palynological succession is
characterised by the assemblages that
are very similar to those from the Sunda
Basin, in the West Java Sea, which has never
been satisfactorily dated using marine fossils. The
palynological succession also suggests climate
change, which closely parallels the climate succession
from West Java Sea, but with changes less pronounced
(Morley, 2000). This study provides a well dated
Oligocene palynological zonation which can be
applied across Java.
II. MATERIAL AND METHOD
The data used in this study are derived from well
samples supplied by the oil companies for the purpose
of the provision of the technical services. Having this
fact, data produced during this study are considered
to be confidential. Regarding data confidentiality,
well names are therefore hidden and alternated by
using alphabetical codes. Two wells are selected
to cover Oligocene sediment including X and Y. In
addition, only relevant information is exhibited in
this paper due to space limitation. In this case, the
biostratigraphic diagrams only show selected taxa
which determine interpretation.
The materials used in this research are cutting
samples which were collected from the selected
intervals of the studied wells. These samples were
processed in the LEMIGAS Stratigraphy Laboratory using the standard methods including HCl,
HF and HNO3 macerations, which were employed
to get sufficient recovery of plant micro-fossils for
palynological analysis. These acid treatments were
96
SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 95 - 104
Figure 1
Location of the studied wells
followed by the alkali treatment using 10% KOH

to clear up the residue. Sieving using 5 microns
sieve was conducted to collect more palynomorphs
by separating them from debris materials. Finally,
residue was mounted on the slides using polyvinyl
alcohol and canada balsam.
The fossil examination was taken under the
transmitted light microscope with an oil immersion
objective and X 12.5 eye piece. The result of
examination is recorded in the determination sheets
and used for the analyses. As this study applies a
quantitative analysis, it is required to count 250
palynomorphs in each sample. Meanwhile, for
foraminiferal analysis, this method means weighing
100 grs of wet samples. For nannoplankton analysis,
the quantitative method is counting the absolute
occurrence of micro-fossil which occurs in 200 fields
of view for each sample. The percentage abundance
of micro-fossils from every sample was plotted onto a
chart to illustrate temporal abundance fluctuations of
each fossil type, using a statistically viable population
(=count number) of fossils in every sample.
The Age interpretation is mainly based on
marine fossils including planktonic foraminifera
(Blow, 1969), larger foraminifera (Berggren, 1973;
Haak and Postuma, 1975 and Billman et al., 1980)
and nannoplankton (Martini, 1971). In addition,
palynological assemblage allows detail subdivision
of Oligocene age which is applied across Java area.

III. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE STUDY AREA

A regional stratigraphy of East Java basin is
shown in Figure 2. It is commenced by the occurrence
of Ngimbang Formation which was unconformably

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 95 - 104
deposited over pre-Tertiary basement during

Eocene to Oligocene. This formation is considered
as a synrift deposit consisting of thin sand, shale
and coal alternation. It is characterized by the
Figure 2
Regional stratigraphy of the NE Java Sea.
97


VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 95 - 104
Figure 3
Foraminifera from Well X and Well Y.
transgressive sediment as indicated by the occurrence

of carbonate deposit in the upper formation as a
result of sea level rise. However, it was reported
the presence of deeper sedimentary unit grouped
as pre-Ngimbang Formation in the Kangean area.
This unit is unconformably overlain by Ngimbang
Formation which is subsequently followed by postrift tectonic quiescence with the deposition of a thick
and extensive carbonate platform sequence during
Late Oligocene-Early Miocene (Johansen, 2003).
This is usually referred to as Kujung Formation which
was unconformably deposited above Ngimbang
Formation during transgressive phase. In addition, the
deposition of Late Oligocene-Early Miocene shallow
marine carbonate is widespread along the Java Sea
area, from the Sunda Basin in the West to the North
East Java Basin in the East. The Kujung Formation is
divided into three units including Kujung Units III, II
98
and I. Kujung unit III is the oldest (Late Oligocene)

comprising of the alternation of shale, sand and
limestone. Meanwhile, Kujung unit II is characterized
by siliciclastic-carbonates such as basal sandstone
(lower unit) and carbonates (upper unit) which
was formed during Late Oligocene-Early Miocene,
whilst Kujung unit I is represented by Early Miocene
carbonate build ups widespread over an extensive
carbonate platform of Kujung unit II.
The Kujung Formation is conformably overlain
by the Neogene sequences comprising of Tuban,
Ngrayong, Wonocolo, Ledok and Mundu Formations.
Tuban Formation is dominated by claystone with
the intercalation of foraminiferal rich-marls which
was formed during Early Miocene in outer neritic
(Firdaus et al., 2004). However, sandy limestone
dominantly appears in the upper Tuban formation.
Following the deposition of Tuban Formation,

Ngrayong Sand (Formation) conformably occurred

over the previous formation during Middle Miocene
composing quartz sandstone, shale and claystone.
This formation is then conformably overlain by
Wonocolo Formation which is characterized by
fine to medium grain sediment such as calcareous
claystone, sandy marl and volcanic clastic deposit.
This formation was deposited during Middle to Late
Miocene. Ledok Formation conformably overlies
Wonocolo Formation consisting of glauconitic
limestone with marl intercalation which was formed
during Pliocene. Finally, the youngest sequences of
Mundu Formation end the East Java succession. This
formation is indicated by fine grain-volcanic clastic
with thin marl intercalation.
IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
A. Foraminiferal Analysis
The succession yields variable recovery of
foraminifera, consisting mainly of calcareous
benthonics (Figure 3), with larger foraminifera
featuring prominently. Planktonics, however, are
poorly represented.
With respect to planktonics, the presence of
Globigerina tripartita and Globorotalia opima nana
in Well X indicates reference to the Late Oligocene
planktonic zone P22, but correlation to Well Y cannot
be achieved as planktonics in that well are very rare
indeed.
Larger foraminifera provides a better basis for
correlation (Figure 3), since Lower Te foraminifera
(Spiroclypeus spp. without Miogypsina spp.) are well
represented in both wells. The Early Oligocene Tc
letter stage is represented in Well Y from the regular
presence of Nummulites fitchelii, but not in Well X.
However, the occurrence of Tb marker Nummulites
variolensis near the base of the well, although
present in both sections, may be due to reworking
(see below).

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 95 - 104
species appears much lower stratigraphically in Well

Y, where it is likely to be present closer to its true
base. Its base in Well X is likely to be controlled by
environmental restraints.
There are no nannofossils to date the Early
Oligocene, although the topmost Eocene nannofossil
Discoaster saipanensis (top in NP20) occurs at the
base of both wells, for which reworking is suspected.
Eocene foraminifera and nannofossils are associated
with a basal lag over basement in both Well X
and Well Y. Foraminifers include Globorotaloides
carsoseleensis (tops in P16) and Morozovella lehneri
(tops in P14) and Cribrohantkenina inflata (range
P16/17) together with the Tb larger foram Nummulites
variolensis. The Eocene assemblage is thus from a
variety of different stratigraphic intervals, with the
ranges of the taxa that do not overlap. The likelihood
is that the basal lag contains a mixture of reworked
Eocene fossils and may be of Early Oligocene age.
The rarity of palynomorph markers for top Eocene
would also support the idea that Eocene sediments
are missing form these sections.
C. Palynological Zonation Scheme
Rich pollen and spore assemblages were found
more or less throughout the succession, and dinoflagellates cysts and other marine palynomorphs were
also well represented. Pollen/spore assemblages can
be divided into three groups, mangroves, hinterland
pollen and spores. The hinterland pollen group
shows the most interesting succession, with elements
suggesting on the one hand everwet climates, and
seasonal elements on the other, characterising the
succession (Figure 5).
Based on the assemblage changes, five
palynological zones are proposed as follows (Figure
6):
Zone OL-1
B. Nannofossil Analysis
This zone is difficult to define, and is based

essentially on the rarity of seasonal climate and
riparian elements.
Nannofossil recovery from both sections

was good in the upper part, and zone NP25 can
be interpreted from the interval between top
Sphenolithus ciperoensis and top Sphenolithus
distentus (Figure 4). The base of NP24 is marked
by the base of Sphenolithus ciperoensis, but this
This zone is characterized by the regular

occurrence of seasonal climate elements, especially
of Malvacipollis diversus, with the top continuous
occurrence of this species parking the top of
the zone. Other seasonal climate elements are
Zone OL-2
99

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 95 - 104
Figure 4
Nannofossils from Well X and Well Y

100

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 95 - 104
Figure 5
Mangrove, hinterland pollen and Dacrydium/Casuarina from Well X and Well Y

101

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 95 - 104
Figure 6
Algal palynomorphs from Well X and Well Y and proposed palynological zonation

102

Gramineae pollen and Echiperiporites schoutenioides

(Schoutenia pollen). Riparian elements are also well
represented in this interval.
Zone OL-3
Zone OL-3 is characterized by common to
abundant Dacrydium and Casuarina pollen, with a
strong acme of dinoflagellate cysts dominated by
Operculodinium spp. and Spiniferites spp. marking
the top of the zone but the low representation of
Pandanus, Ilex and other riparian elements.
Zone OL-4
Zone OL-4 is characterized by abundant
Dacrydium and regular Casuarina pollen, but the low
representation of Pandanus, Ilex and other riparian
elements and dinoflagellate cysts.
Zone OL-5
Zone OL-5 is characterized by reduced Dacrydium
and Casuarina pollen, and increased riparian elements
such as Ilex and Pandanus.
V. CONCLUSION
Based on the occurrence of age-restricted nannoplankton supported by larger benthonic foraminifera,
the studied successions (here are the Kujung Formation) occurring in two well sections are assigned to
Oligocene age. The appearance of interbedded clastics provide opportunity to study palynology which
is hoped clarifying the stratigraphic correlation of
this area. In fact, these sections contain rich pollen
and spore assemblages. This is the first time that a
well-dated marine Oligocene succession has yielded
a good quality palynological record.
The traditional palynological zonation (Morley
1978) is less applicable in this area, therefore the
successions have been divided into broad assemblage
zones, which appear to be controlled mainly by
climate. These zones, from older to younger are
OL-1, OL-2, OL-3, OL-4 and OL-5. Zone OL-1
is based essentially on the absence of seasonal
climate and riparian elements, whilst zone OL-2 is
characterized by the regular occurrence of seasonal
climate elements, especially of Malvacipollis
diversus. Zone OL-3 is indicated by common to
abundant Dacrydium and Casuarina pollen, with a
strong acme of dinoflagellate cysts dominated by
Operculodinium spp. and Spiniferites spp., whereas


VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 95 - 104
zone OL-4 is marked by abundant Dacrydium and

regular Casuarina pollen, but low representation of
riparian elements. Finally, zone OL-5 is characterized
by reduced Dacrydium and Casuarina pollen, and
increased riparian elements.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the Stratigraphy Group
of LEMIGAS Exploration Division for its great helps
in identifying palynomorphs, nannoplankton and
foraminifera from the studied wells. The authors also
would like to thank Sulistiyono for supplying figures
of the Northeast Java stratigraphy.
REFERENCES
1. Billman, H., L. Hottinger and H. Oesterle.,
1980. Neogene to Recent Rotaliid Foraminifera
from the Indopacific Ocean; their Canal System,
their Classification and their Stratigraphic Use.
Schweizerische Palaontologische Abhanlungen,
vol. 101, pp. 71112, 39 pl.
2. Berggren, W. A., 1973. Messinian Events. Mid.
WHOI Tech. report, pp. 73-140.
3. Blow, W. H., 1969. Late Middle Eocene to Recent
Planktonic Foraminiferal Biostratigraphy. Proc.
1st Int. Conf. Plank. Microfossils 1, pp. 191422.
4. Firdaus, I., Soeka, S., Irwansyah and Prayitno,
I., 2004. The Application of Quantitative
Biostratigraphy for Identifying Stratigraphic
Traps in East Java Block-Madura Strait. Unpublished Report of Lemigas In-house Reseacrh.
5. Haak, R. and Postuma, J. A., 1975. The Relation
between the Tropical Planktonic Foraminiferal
Zonation and the Tertiary Far East Letter
Classification. Geol. En Mijnbouw, v.54 (3-4), pp.
195-198.
6. Johansen, K. B., 2003, Depositional Geometries
and Hydrocarbon Potential within Kujung
Carbonates along the Madura Platform, as
Revealed by 3D and 2D Seismic Data. Proceeding
of Indonesian Petroleum Association, 29th Annual
Convention and Exhibition, Jakarta
7. Leupold, W. and van der Vlerk, I.M., 1931. The
Tertiary. In: B.G. Escher et al. (eds.) Stratigraphie
van Nederlandsch Oost-Indie, Feestbundel
Martin, Leidsche Geol. Meded. 5, pp. 611-648.
103

8. Martini, E., 1971. Standard Tertiary and

Quaternary Calcareous Nannoplankton Zonation.
In Farinacci, A. (Ed.), Proc. 2nd Plank. Conf.
Roma, pp. 739-784.
9. Morley, R.J., 1978. Palynology of Tertiary
and Quaternary Sediments in Southeast Asia.
Proceedings of the 6 th Annual Convention,
Indonesian Petroleum Association. May 1977,
pp 255-276.
104

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 95 - 104
10. Morley, R.J., 2000, Origin and Evolution of

Tropical Rain Forests, Wiley & Sons, London,
362pp.
11. Van der Vlerk, I.M. & J.H.F. Umbgrove., 1927.
Tertiaire idsforaminiferen van Nederlandsch
Oost Indie. Wetensch. Meded. Dienst Mijnbouw
Nederl. Oost-Indie 6, pp. 1-45.
Rock Wettability Characteristics of Some

Indonesian Limestones.
Case Study: Baturaja Formation
Bambang Widarsono

First Registered on September 22nd 2011; Received after Corection on September 26th 2011
Abstract
Rock wettability plays a very important role in affecting various rock physical properties
such as relative permeability and capillary pressure. Common practice at present is that carbonate
rocks are assumed to be preferentially oil wet in nature. This assumption may prove fatal since the
need of true knowledge over the real wettability for ones carbonate reservoir is often neglected, and
wettability aspect in reservoir modeling is in turn based on assumption. To prove over reliability of
the assumption a study is carried out using information from 350 core samples taken from Baturaja
Formation. The choice for the Baturaja limestone is basically based on the fact that it is a mature
productive rock formation and its extensive spread into three of the most productive sedimentary
basin in Indonesia, Northwest Java Basin, South Sumatra Basin, and Sunda Basin. The study proves
that the assumption of the generally oil wet limestone does not apply for Baturaja limestone. The
Baturaja limestone tend to exhibit, quantitatively, equality in their tendency towards oil wettability
and water wettability and leave some proportion to neutral or mix wettability as well. However, when
a more detailed comparison is made results show that qualitatively the limestone are indeed more
inclined to oil wettability than water wettability even though this finding is insufficient to support
a conclusion that the Baturaja limestone are specifically oil wet. Other finding from comparison
with past studies also shows that limestone may behave in the way sandstones do. Both limestone
and sandstones may vary in the same way and no assumption over their preferential wettability
is justified without direct measurements. Wettability alteration as the result of hot core cleaning
following the widely accepted standard procedure is also strongly indicated. It is therefore concluded
that the practice has to be abandoned for a better and reliable laboratory testing results.
Keywords: wettability, limestone, Baturaja Formation, wettability variation, wettability

alteration
I. Introduction
As the effort for maximizing oil recovery from
existing accumulations is gaining momentum, the
challenges faced by geologists, petrophysicists,
and engineers to understand more about carbonate
reservoirs are mounting. These challenges
become specifically significant when high level of
heterogeneity commonly shown by carbonate rocks
is taken into consideration. From petrophysical

point of view this high level of heterogeneity also

provides challenges in understanding variations
and regularities of properties such as porosity,
permeability, and wettability.
Wettability is simply defined as the tendency
of a solid surface (i.e. reservoir rocks surface) to
be alternately wetted by oil or formation water, but
since its effect on oil recovery cannot yet be readily
quantified and directly related its presence is often
105
ROCK WETTABILITY CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME INDONESIAN

BAMBANG WIDARSONO

regarded as of secondary importance. The still widely

practiced standard procedure of core hot cleansing a
practice that can alter rock original wettability prior
to various core measurements provides an example.
With the increasingly intensive global effort to maximizing oil production from existing oil pools e.g.
application of waterflood and enhanced oil recovery
information provided by laboratory measured rock
wettability cannot be longer neglected.
Wettability of limestone is as varied as in the case
of sandstone, and it is often perceived that limestone
is in general more inclined towards oil wettability
than sandstone. This common perception is certainly
not unfounded since some studies regarding the issue
have been performed in the past. For instance, Treiber
et al (1972) conducted a series of wettability tests
on 30 sandstone and 25 limestone samples found
that 88% of the limestone samples are oil wet by
nature, with the remaining comprised 4% neutral and
8% water-wet. In a similar but more recent study,
Chilingarian and Yen (1983) found similar finding
of 80% oil-wet, 12% neutral, and 8% water-wet.
The perception of oil-wet limestone also applies in
Indonesia and this is widely practiced when reservoir
modeling on limestone reservoirs is of concern. No
one actually knows what the reality is and to the
authors knowledge there no such study has been
performed on Indonesian limestone. Therefore, such
study has to be carried out so that its valuable finding
will be beneficial to all.
The choice over samples from Baturaja Formation
comes from the fact that this geological formation
contains many producing reservoirs that contribute
significantly to Indonesias national oil production
up to present. A deeper study on the reservoir rocks
has become relevant in order to understand further
their nature, especially when it is considered that
from those reservoirs further oil recovery is expected
(e.g. through enhanced oil recovery). As concluded
by Donaldson et al (1969) after a series of core
waterflood tests, a strongly water-wet system the
flooding water tend to breakthrough after most of
the recoverable oil has been produced. No significant
production took place after the water breakthrough.
On the contrary, waterflooding in strongly oil-wet
rocks always experience early water breakthrough
with significant and continuous oil production
occurring long after the breakthrough. The need for
106

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 105 - 116
information regarding reservoir rock wettability is

therefore obvious.
The study over limestone reservoir rocks of the
Baturaja Formation used data from 350 core samples
consisting of both reports from wettability and wateroil relative permeability tests. From the results of
wettability tests the original wettability tendency of
the Baturaja limestone is studied, whereas the effect
of core cleansing during core preparation is also
investigated using the relative permeability data.
Upon using results from the core analysis tests a more
comprehensive understanding of the Formations
limestone wettability characteristics is hoped.
II. Baturaja Formation: A Brief
Petrophysical Overview
In term of oil and gas production the Baturaja
Formation is one of the most active and productive
rock formations in Indonesia. Its lateral existence
extends in three mature sedimentary basins of South
Sumatera Basin, Sunda Basin, and Northwest Java
Basin. In South Sumatera Basin the early Miocene
Baturaja Formation is widely in the form of platform
carbonates, 20 75 m thick, with some carbonate
buildup and reefs of 60 120 m thick (Hutchinson,
1996). With its maximum thickness of 200 m
(Darman and Sidi, 2000) the Baturaja limestones
are mix of wackestone, grainstone, packstone, and
reef buildup (Hadi and Simbolon, 1976). Table 1
provides description over some typical Baturaja
limestone samples used in the study. High quality
reservoir rocks are mostly located in the southern part
of the basin and become rarer in northward direction.
Most of the porosity of the productive reservoirs
is of secondary porosity as the result of the reefs
aerial or sub-aerial exposure prior to burial. Average
porosity in producing fields is 21% (maximum 38%)
with permeability that ranges from a few milidarcies
up to values of as high as 3.8 Darcies (Ginger and
Fielding, 2005).
In Sunda Basin, the Baturaja limestone reservoirs
are present in the upper part (Upper Baturaja) and
the lower part (Lower Baturaja) of the formation. In
the Upper Baturaja the reservoir rocks are typically
argillaceous, tight, no significant fracturing, and
the limestone is not extensively distributed. On the
contrary, the more extensive reservoirs in the Lower
Baturaja are generally characterized by presence of

BAMBANG WIDARSONO


VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 105 - 116
Tabel 1
Typical limestone of Baturaja Formation (wells: T-07, T-08, and T-10 of Northwest Java Basin)
Sample
Porosity
(%)
Permeability
(mD)
1A
14.54
11.19
3A
21.44
748
LM: Grainstone, brn-wh, bioturb (mold/cast/brw), vug, skeleton, med-v.coarse, grain sprtd, calc, qz,
aragnt
4A
27.91
15.5
LM: Sucrrosic packstone, ltgy-ltbrn, csl, L foram, coral, micro x-lin
9B
15.5
7.59
LM: Wackestone, ltbrn, bioturb (mold/cast), oolites, fine grn, mud sprtd, sli x-lin
12A
22.2
19.85
LM: Packstone-grainstone, ltbrn, hd-vhd, coral, L foram, foss fragm, succrosic, pp-mott vugs
16A
14.93
14.2
LM: Boundstone, ltgy-ltbrn, csl, foram, algae, micro x-lin
17A
17.17
34.99
LM: Grainstone, crm, hd, coral, L. foram, loc succrosic, mot-6 mm vugs
23A
19.49
56.87
LM: Packstone, ltgy-ltbrn/loc hd, L foram, algae, vug < 5 mm, loc intra partcl por.
Visual description
LM: Packstone, ltgy, hd, coral, L. foram, foss, loc x-lin, pp-mott vugs.
secondary and excellent inter-granular porosities

within thick zones. The moldic and inter-crystalline
pores are formed through dissolution of aragonite
skeletal material (Bushnell and Temansja, 1986).
Fractures contribute significantly to the reservoir
rocks permeability. Wight and Hardian (1982)
recognized ten distinctive facies, both depositional
and clastic types, and concluded that biomicrite
(sparsely fossiliferous limestone) as the most
extensive facies. They put further that this facies
was deposited in low to intermediately high energy
lagoonal areas and parts of the back-reef. Thickness
may exceed 30 meters with average porosity of
25%.
In the Arjuna Basin of the Northwest Java
Basin, the reservoirs are mainly reef buildup which
developed at various places on and around Basement
highs. The porosity, as well as permeability was
developed through dissolution during sea level
low-stands through which leaching of aragonite
grain occurred and moldic porosity was generated
(Pertamina, 1996). Thickness of the reef varies within
30 45 m with reservoir net-pay thickness within 2
8 m. Porosity and permeabiliy vary but may reach
as high as 36% and 1 D, respectively (Pertamina,
1996). In the Jatibarang Basin part of the Northwest
Java Basin the reef thickness can also reach up to 50
m with comparable quality to the reservoirs in the
Arjuna Basin. However, reservoirs in the Jatibarang
Basin contribute little to total production of Baturaja
reservoirs in the Northwest Java Basin (estimated at

5%, Pertamina, 1996). This contribution is unlikely

to change much at present-day production level.
III. Wettability Indicator
Various methods for obtaining indication over
rock wettability have been acknowledged. Apart from
the direct measurement to obtain contact angle data
in water-oil system such as Sessile Drop (e.g Treiber
et al, 1972) and Wilhelmy Plate (e.g Mennella et al,
1995) measurements, some other indirect techniques
are also known and intensively used. Widarsono
(2010) in his study over wettability characteristics
of some western Indonesias sandstones presented
and describe general information about four known
indirect wettability indicators: Amott Wettability
Index, USBM Wettability Index, Direct Imbibitions,
and Water-oil Relative Permeability curves. Briefly,
the techniques are described as follows:
Amott Wettability Index (Amott 1959). The
technique is based on spontaneous imbibition and
forced displacement of oil and water out of tested
core plugs. Through spontaneous imbibitions two
indexes are made, the oil index (lo) and water index
(lw). The oil index is a ratio between volumes of water
in a water-saturated core sample displaced by oil, if
any, in an imbibitions (immersion in oil) process and
volumes of all remaining water displaced through
forced displacement by oil down to irreducible
water saturation (Swirr). For producing water index,
the already oil-saturated sample (at Swirr) is imbibed
with water (immersion in water) leading to some
107

BAMBANG WIDARSONO

volume of displaced oil after which in the same

manner with oil forced displacement a water forceddisplacement is applied to yield total produced oil. In
the same manner to the oil index, the water index is a
ratio between the two produced oil volumes.
Interpretation using the two indexes is somewhat
relative in nature and there is no guideline for definitive
judgment. Amott (1959) put 1.0 as strong wettability
while a value of zero for neutral wettability. Users
may adopt different interpretation for values between
zero and unity. Conclusion from interpretation may
even become less clear when values for the indexes
are somewhat between the two extreme values. In
this case, one can only judge the relative strength
between the two wettability inclinations. In a similar
manner as adopted in Widarsono (2010) this study
puts wettability as Iw - Io for which then the Amott
wettability index would vary from +1 for absolute
water wet to -1 for absolute oil wet with zero
indicating neutral or mixed wettability. A detailed
categorization is set through establishing wettability
sub-class of strong oil wet, medium oil wet, weak
oil wet, neutral, weak water wet, medium water
wet, and strong water wet. A set of similar criteria
for the classes as in Widarsono (2010) is also adopted
and presented in Table 2.
USBM Wettability Index. The principle
of this technique is obtaining capillary pressure
curves through displacing oil and water using
centrifuge equipment (Donaldson et al, 1969).
Forced displacement used in this technique is
similar to the one used in the Amott technique. In
the conduct of this method a sample is alternately
put under forced displacement; firstly, being spun

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 105 - 116
under water-saturated condition with oil as the

displacing fluid, and secondly, centrifuging the now
oil-saturated sample using brine as the displacing
fluid. Capillary pressures are calculated based on the
known rotational speeds.
With this alternate displacement a rock sample
with inclination towards one wettability type will
have two different capillary curves with non-wetting
phase displacing wetting phase having higher and
steeper curve. Presence of two different capillary
pressure curves means that the areas underneath the
curves are also different, a logarithmic ratio of which
is then taken as indicator of the rocks wettability
(Donaldson et al, 1969).
The values of the logarithmic ratio (i.e. the
USBM Wettability Index) could range from +
(complete water wet) to (complete oil wet)
with zero for neutral wettability. No guideline in
regard to classification of wettability. Therefore,
similar to the criteria used for the Amott wettability
index, the USBM index is also divided using the
same categorization into the same seven wettability
groups. Table 2 presents the value ranges in the
categorization.
Direct Imbibitions. This technique is basically
simpler than the Amott and USBM techniques. The
technique assumes that a rock with a preference
toward a certain wettability type responds directly
when being imbibed using the wetting phase, and its
volume and imbibitions rate reflect the wettability
strength. Despite the negligence of other factors such
as imbibing liquid viscosity, permeability, porosity,
and samples edge condition (Tiab and Donaldson,
2004) this technique used to be widely applied.
Tabel 2
Categorization criteria used in the study
Amott
Wettability class
108
' I
USBM
' I
' V
Strong water-wet
0 .8
Medium water-wet
0 .5
' I
0 .8
0 . 25
Weak water-wet
0 .1
' I
0 .5
0 .1
0 . 25
Neutral/mix
0 .1 d
Weak oil-wet
0 .5 d
' I
Medium oil-wet
0 .8 d
' I
Strong oil wet
1 d
' I
' I
Imbibition
f
1
at
' V
d 50
0 . 65
' V
d 15
0 . 55
0 . 45
d 0 . 55
0 . 35
d 0 . 45
0 . 15
d 0 . 35
1 d
d ' V
0 . 25
50
1
100
0 . 65
5
0 .5
d 0 . 85
d
5
15
' V
0 .1
0 .1
rw
d 1
' V
d

ro
15
0 . 85
d 100
0 .1 d
0 .8
' V
0 . 25
V
50
0 .1
0 .1
Relative permeability
d ' V
d 15
d 50
0 . 15

BAMBANG WIDARSONO


VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 105 - 116
Tabel 3
Origin of data used in the study
Wettability indicator
Number of
fields
Amott
USBM
Imbibition
Rel perm
NW Java
11
72
15
138
South Sumatera
23
53
Sunda
11
25
20
106
24
216
Sedimentary basin
Total
Tabel 4
Example of Amott wettability test showing a set of Baturaja limestones
with mixed wettability. The data set is from PD 1 well, South Sumatera Basin
Wettability Index
Sample
number
Permeability
(mD)
Porosity
(%)
W-wet
O-wet
'I
3.7
8.5
0.2500
0.3750
-0.1250
weak oil-wet
2.8
12.8
0.1163
0.4746
-0.3583
medium oil-wet
1.2
14.1
0.1579
0.4088
-0.2509
medium oil-wet
33
2.5
11.3
0.3810
0.0000
0.3810
medium water-wet
37
264
7.5
0.2083
0.0000
0.2083
medium water-wet
No specific criteria is given for interpretating the

techniques output, but the most common judgment
for establishing wettability type is through relative
comparison between rates and volumes (percent of
pore volume) of the imbibed water and oil. However,
in order to clearly quantify the wettability, criteria
Index in the form of difference in imbibed volume (
V ) between volumes of imbibed water ( Vw ) and

oil ( Vo ) is established. The value ranges are presented
in Table 2.
Water-oil relative permeability curves. One
of the most crucial influences of wettability upon
rock physical properties is its potential to shift the
water-oil relative permeability curves. Different
type or strength in wettability leads to different fluid
saturating path and characteristics within the tested
rock hence changing the effective permeability of
the fluids present. Shifts in relative permeability
Interpretation
curves certainly affect prediction of fluid movements

in reservoir with its direct relation to levels of oil
recovery. The influence of wettability on relative
permeability curves provides an opportunity to use
water-oil relative permeability curves for indicating
wettability type and strength.
As described in Widarsono (2010) wettability
changes the movement tendencies of oil and water.
In an oil-wet system early water breakthrough is
expected due to easier water movement compared
to oil. On the other hand, in a water-wet system
oil recovery is likely to be higher due to higher oil
mobility compared to water. As put by Archer and
Wall (1986), the two wettability systems may become
different even though the shape of curves remains the
same. Shift in intersect between the two curves can
therefore be used as indicator for rock wettability.
Water wet rocks tend to have intersects falling at
water saturation values lower than 50%, and the
109

BAMBANG WIDARSONO

reverse is true for oil-wet system. Gradual degrees

in wetting tendencies for both wettability systems
naturally fall between neutral and the two strong
wetting tendencies. For neutral or mix wettability
the term of mix wettability is usually used for
rocks that can be wetted by both oil and water but
show no strong preference towards either of the two
liquids the curve intersect is likely to be at water
saturation values of around 50%. To make analysis
easier, the seven categories used in Amott and USBM
is also used with water saturation ranges representing
the curve intersect as reference. The water saturation
ranges used are also presented in Table 2.

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 105 - 116
consisting of 106 Amott wettability test, 4 USBM

wettability test, 24 Direct Imbibitions test, and
216 water-oil relative permeability tests. The total
Baturaja limestones of 350 samples are made of 225
from Northwest Java Basin, 83 from South Sumatera
Basin, and 42 from Sunda Basin. Table 3 presents the
summary of the data inventory. All wells identities
presented in the text, tables, and figures are obscured
for proprietary reason.
All data was obtained in the form of unpublished
reports. Amott and Direct Imbibitions test results
are presented in tabular form whereas the USBM
and relative permeability data is in both tabular and
graphical forms. Table 4 shows an example of Amott
wettability test data (PD1 well, South Sumatera
Basin) which consists of rocks with opposite
wettability tendencies. Table 5 presents the only data
set (SB5 well, Sunda Basin) for USBM technique, of
IV. Laboratory Data

The wettability data for the study was obtained
from Lemigas Core Laboratory database. The data
was derived from laboratory testing on 350 samples
Tabel 5
Example of wettability test data obtained through the use of USBM technique.
The generally water-wet rocks are from SB 5 well, Sunda Basin
A1
log
A2
Sample No.
Permeability (mD)
Porosity (%)
Interpretation
30
959
30.7
0.2665
medium water wet
11
20
24.5
0.1447
weak water wet
14
750
27.3
-0.1183
weak oil wet
27
187
23.9
0.3921
medium water wet
Tabel 6
Example of of wettability test data obtained through the use of Direct Imbibition technique.
The The Baturaja limestones derived from RD-1 well, Northwest Java Basin, are generally water-wet
Sample
number
Permeability (mD) Porosity (%)
Water
Oil
'V
Interpretation
1.4
22
40.3
ND
40.3
medium water-wet
11
0.6
14
65.7
ND
65.7
strong water-wet
39
3.2
16
43.4
ND
43.4
medium water-wet
41
12
21
27.6
ND
27.6
medium water-wet
ND: not detected
110
Imbibed fluid (%PV)

BAMBANG WIDARSONO


VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 105 - 116
Tabel 7
Example of wettability indication from water-oil relative permeability data.
The data set is from T-24 well, Northwest Java Basin
Sample No.
Permeability (mD)
Porosity (%)
Sw @ Krw = Kro,
(%)
Interpretation
457
23.2
38
weak oil-wet
9A
47
14
44
weak oil-wet
16A
226
24.3
40
weak oil-wet
19
6.3
12.6
50
neutral/mix
which the resulting I values show inclination towards

water-wettability. For Direct Imbibitions test, Table
6 presents an example (RD-1 well, Northwest Java
Basin), which shows a preference towards waterwetness. Following the procedure in wettability tests,
all wettability tests were performed using un-cleaned
native cores, hence yielding unaltered wettability.
Unlike in the case of wettability tests, the samples
assigned to water-oil relative permeability test are
already cleansed based on consideration that any
salts and crude oil within the samples pore space
may disturb flow of liquids during tests. This may
alter the rocks original wettability, and therefore,
even though water-oil relative permeability data
provides indication over the rocks wettability but it
does not always reflect the original wettability. Table
7 provides a wettability summary of samples taken
from TB-24 well, Northwest Java Basin.
V. Data Analysis
For the analysis over the data one has to be aware
about some issues. Firstly, the quantity of samples
that underwent wettability tests is limited to 156 only,
leaving open a question over representative ness to
Baturaja Formation. Secondly, although wettability
test results are in form of values, interpretation over
it is usually made in qualitative manner. Therefore,
the criteria set presented in Table 2 should not be
taken as a rigid and absolute reference. Thirdly, mixwettability is taken as equal neutral wettability, in an
understanding that if neutral wettability is attributed
to rocks that do not absorb neither water nor oil
then the mix-wettability represent rocks that tend to
attract the two liquids in roughly similar quantity/
portion. The commonly used term of preferential
wettability for rocks that draw more of one liquid

than the other one is not used here. Fourthly, although

some rocks may to some extent succeed in preserving
their original permeability after core hot cleaning the
information regarding wettability given by water-oil
relative permeability has to be taken with caution and
not to be regarded as representing the rocks original
wettability.
Rock original wettability. The data provided
by the three wettability tests have shown that the
Baturaja limestone do not preferentially inclined
onto a specific wettability type. Results from the
three wettability tests have revealed a composition
of 41.8% water-wet, 40.3% oil-wet, and 17.9%
neutral/mix wettability. These percentages represent
56 water-wet, 54 oil-wet, and 24 neutral neutral/mix
wettability samples of the total 134 samples. Figure 1
presents the wettability composition in general.
Figure 2 depicts a more detailed wettability
grouping in accordance with the categorization
criteria presented in Table 2. The histogram in
Figure 2 promptly shows that the even wettability
tendency as exhibited on Figure 1 is not exactly
the case. Although it appears that weak waterwet group comes out as the group with the largest
number (42 samples) the oil-wet group is more evenly
distributed with medium oil-wet and strong oil-wet
groups having more significant weight than their
counterparts in the water-wet group. This creates
weak oil-wet group that sizes only about a half of
its water-wet counterpart. This skewed composition
towards oil wettability can be interpreted as a proof
that the Baturaja limestone is evenly distributed
quantitatively but more oil-wet qualitatively.
As described previously, the Baturaja Formation
is an extensive rock formation existing in an area
111

BAMBANG WIDARSONO

Figure 1
Wettability composition of the Baturaja Formations
limestone samples, which wettability test results
are used in this study. Water-, neutral-,
and oil-wettability make 41.8%, 17.9%,
and 40.3% of the total core
samples, respectively
Figure 2
A more detailed wettability composition of the
Baturaja Formations limestone samples.
Although weak water-wettability is the largest
single group the composition exhibits stronger
oil wettability tendency shown by the significant
presence of medium oil-wet
and strong oil-wet samples
112

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 105 - 116
Figure 3
Wettability composition of limestones taken from
Northwest Java Basin (92 samples). Water-wet
samples appear to be of majority (44.5%) but the
oil-wet group trails closely behind (37%). Like the
picture in general, the neutral/mix wettability
samples are the smallest in proportion (18.5%).
Figure 4
Wettability composition of limestones taken fro
South Sumatra Basin (28 samples).
Water-wet samples are apparently not as
numerous as the oil-wet samples
(35.7.5% and 46.5%, respectively), and the
neutral/mix wettability samples are typically
the smallest in proportion with 17.9%

BAMBANG WIDARSONO

that spans from eastern part of West Java to the

southern part of Central Sumatra. Although the
rocks of concern are mostly reef limestone in nature
differences may exist. Figures 3 through 5 show the
wettability distribution for the limestone from the
three sedimentary basins. Histogram on Figure 3
shows that the Baturaja limestone from the North
west Java Basin (92 samples) have 44.5% water-wet,
37% oil-wet, and 18.5% neutral/mix wettability. The
corresponding respective figures are 35.7%, 46.4%,
17.9% for Baturaja limestone in South Sumatera
Basin (28 samples) and 35.7%, 50%, 14.3% for the
Sunda Basins Baturaja limestone (14 samples).
From the wettability compositions shown on
Figures 3 through 5 one may promptly concludes that
Baturaja limestone from the Northwest Basin tends
to be more water-wet while the reverse is true for
limestone from the two other sedimentary basins. This
may be true quantitatively but considering the stark
similarity shown by the three sample populations
large but more or less even for water-wet and oil-wet
and small for neutral/mix wettability a more general
conclusion should prevail. This consideration may
channel the analysis into a more general conclusion
Figure 5
Wettability composition of limestones taken from
Sunda Basin (14 samples). Similar to the case
of South Sumatera samples the limestones
from the Sunda Basin despite small in number
tend to have more oil-wet samples (50%)
than water-wet (35.7%) and neutral/mix
wettability (14.3%) samples

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 105 - 116
that, despite differences that may exist due to local

factors, the limestone from the three sedimentary
basins show similar wettability compositions.
Detailed compositions for the three sets of samples
are also similar to the general composition shown
on Figure 2.
Wettability alteration, The influence of hot
cleaning of core samples prior to water-oil relative
permeability tests are obviously shown by the relative
permeability-derived wettability (Figure 6). Out of
the total samples of 216, 54.6% (118 samples) are of
neutral/mix wettability group. Although the samples
used in relative permeability tests are not the same
as the ones for wettability tests samples assigned
for wettability tests are usually taken at points a few
centimeters away from the samples assigned for
relative permeability tests the data can still speak
of wettability alteration. A more detailed view is
provided on Figure 7 in which all seven wettability
classes are exhibited. Out of the neutral/mix
wettability group the rest of the data appears to belong
to weak wettability groups both oil (46 samples)
and water (33 samples). The two combined with the
neutral/mix wettability group make up 91.2% of total
Figure 6
Composition of relative permeability-derived
wettability for all limestones used in the study
(216 samples). The data shows clear majority
for neutral/mix wettability group (54.6%)
compared to 22.7% each for the water-wet
and oil-wet groups.
113

BAMBANG WIDARSONO

Figure 7
The fully detailed composition of the relative
permeability-derived wettability (216 samples).
When the two groups of weak water-wet and weak
oil-wet are combined with the neutral/mix
wettability group they make up 91.2% of total.
Notice the absence of strong wettability samples
samples. When compared to the original wettability

depicted on Figure 2 a weakening in wettability
strength is apparent.
A further analysis was made to observe this
wettability alteration effect on the samples from the
three sedimentary basins. Figure 8 through 10 present
the information. There are differences in wettability
compositions for the three data sets but similar
trends are existent, all of which show that neutral/
mix wettability group makes up the bulk of the data.
A more detailed analysis involving all wettability
classes also exhibit similar compositions to the one
shown on Figure 7.
VI. Further discussion
From the results of wettability tests, it has been
shown that the Baturaja limestones are characterized
with equally strong wetting tendencies between
water wettability and oil wettability with each having
around forty percent in proportion. This fact is
certainly different from what is commonly believed
that carbonate rocks tend to be strongly inclined to oil
wettability. As put previously, Treiber et al (1972) and
Chillingarian and Yen (1986) found 80% or higher
114

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 105 - 116
Figure 8
Relative permeability-derived wettability for
samples taken from Northwest Java Basin (138
samples). 47.8% of the samples belong to neutral/
mix wettability group while the other two groups
have roughly equal portions (25.4% and 26.8% for
water-wet and oil-wet groups, respectively)
of carbonate samples they studied as being oil-wet.

The Baturaja limestones certainly behave differently
in a sense that a significant portion of them tend to
be water wet, and when combined with some of the
neutral or mixed in wettability the oil-wet limestone
in the formation are obviously not the majority
(40.3%, Figure 1). However, when the water-wet
and oil-wet tendencies are of concern detailed
classification presented on Figure 2 obviously shows
that qualitatively the Baturaja limestone is still
inclined towards oil wettability rather than water
wettability. For the oil wet group 55.6% belongs to
medium oil-wet and strong oil-wet groups whereas
only 25% belonging to the corresponding groups in
the water-wet group. This cannot, nevertheless, be
taken as a strong preference towards oil wettability.
Widarsono (2010) reported that from the 139
sandstone samples he obtained from various fields
in western Indonesia 48.2% are water-wet, 30.2%
oil-wet, and 21.6% neutral. This finding was also
reported as in common with results from past
reported studies on sandstones from other parts of the
world. Nonetheless, when this finding is compared
to the results for Baturaja limestone a semblance

BAMBANG WIDARSONO

of similarity in composition is observed. It is not

yet obvious that other limestone from other rock
formation will behave likewise but this evidence
has shown that wetting tendencies of both limestone
and sandstone may behave similarly. As put by Tiab
and Donaldson (2004), all petroleum reservoirs are
thought of having water-wet tendency originally,
but different processes and interactions along their
existence had resulted in the present-day rock
wettability.
Different wettability compositions exhibited by
results from the three wettability tests and water-oil
relative permeability test have prompted the fact
that wettability alteration indeed takes place during
core preparation. This is particularly critical when
hot cleansing is involved in core preparation. It is
admitted that hot cleansing is an effective way to
remove salts and oil residue in the pore space in order
to avoid any potential disturbance to the planned tests.
Despite the test practicality validity of test results
may be put into question. Therefore, as also stated in
Widarsono (2010), methods such as cold cleansing
or core ageing for cores that have undergone hot
cleansing are advised to be adopted as substitute of
the commonly practiced hot cleaning.
Figure 9
Relative permeability-derived wettability
for samples taken from South Sumatra Basin
(53 samples). The neutral/mix wettability group
makes 71.7% of total leaving the water-wet and
oil-wet groups with 18.9% and 9.4%, respectively

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 105 - 116
VII. Conclusions
A set of conclusions have been obtained from the
study, which are:
- The Baturaja limestone shows in general no
preference to wettability, some exhibit preference
to oil wettability but a respectable proportion of
roughly similar to them tend to be water wet. This
defies the common assumption that carbonate
rocks are oil wet in nature.
- No evidence is known whether other carbonate
rocks behave in the same way as the Baturaja
limestone do but the wide extension of the
Baturaja Formation itself, along with their varied
genetics circumstances imply that the occurrence
shown by the associated limestone may also apply
to other limestone.
- In a way similar to the case of sandstones, the
Baturaja limestone also shows some tendency
towards neutral/mix wettability even though at
proportion lesser than the tendencies towards
either oil wet oil water wet.
- A more detailed study on the Baturaja limestone
exhibits that they are quantitatively more inclined
towards oil wettability relative to towards water
Figure 10
Relative permeability-derived wettability for
samples taken from Sunda Basin (25 samples).
Despite the limited quantity a similar composition
to the general composition prevails in which 56%
belongs to neutral/mix wettability group, 16% to
water-wet group, and 28% to oil-wet group
115

BAMBANG WIDARSONO

wettability. However, that does not mean that the

Baturaja limestone is oil wet in nature.
- The finding of wettability alteration in the Baturaja
limestone has led to a suggestion that the commonly practiced hot cleansing practice for core
preparation has to be abandoned, even though it
is still a part of a recommended practice. Core
cold cleansing method and core ageing in native
crude for cores that have undergone hot cleansing
are strongly advised.
VIII. Acknowledgment
The author wishes to express his gratitude to
Lemigas Core Laboratory for providing all of the
required main data, Mr. Heru Atmoko as Lemigas
SCAL chief for other valuable information, and Ms
Junita T. Musu for providing some of the necessary geological information regarding the Baturaja
Formation.
References
1. Amott, E. (1959). Observation Relating to the
Wettability of Porous Rock. Trans. AIME, Vol.
216, pp. 156 162.
2. Archer, J.S. and Wall, C.G. (1986). Petroleum
Engineering: Principles and Practice. Graham
& Trotman Ltd, Sterling House, 66 Wilton Road,
London SW1V 1DE, UK, p.362.
3. Bushnell, D.C. and Tenmansja, A.D. (1986).
A Model for Hydrocarbon Accumulation
Sunda Basin, West Java Sea. Proceeding,
Indonesian Petroleum Association (IPA) 15th
Annual Convention and Exhibition, October,
Jakarta Indonesia, pp. 47 75.
4. Chilingarian,G.V. and Yen, T.F. (1983). Some
notes on wettability and relative permeabilities of
carbonate rocks. Energy Sources, Vol. 7, No. 1,
pp. 67 75.
5. Darman, H. and Sidi, F.H. (2000). An Outline
of the Geology of Indonesia. Indonesian
Association of Geologists (IAGI) special edition,
p. 192.
6. Donaldson, E.C., Lorenz, P.B., and Thomas,
R.D. (1969). Wettability Determination and its
Effect on Recovery Efficiency. Soc. Petrol. Eng.
J., Vol. 9, No. 1, March, pp. 13 20.
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7. Ginger, D. and Fielding, K. (2005). The

Petroleum Systems and Future Potential of The
South Sumatra Basin. Paper IPA05-G-039
Proceedings, Indonesian Petroleum Association
(IPA) 30th Annual Convention and Exhibition,
August, Jakarta Indonesia, pp. 67 89.
8. Hadi, T. and Simbolon, B. (1976). The
Carbonate Rocks of the Batu Raja in its Type
Locality, Batu Raja, South Sumatra. Proceedings,
Indonesian Petroleum Association (IPA) Carbonate
Symposium, pp. 67 78.
9. Hutchinson, C.S. (1996). South-East Asian
Oil, Gas, Coal, and Mineral Deposits. Oxford
Monographs on Geology and Geophysics,
Clarendon Press, p. 265.
10. Mennella, A., Morrow, N.R. and Xie, X. (1995).
Application of the Dynamic Wilhelmy Plate to
Identification of Slippage at A Liquid-liquid-solid
Three Phase Line of Contact. JPSE, vol. 13,
Nov., pp. 179 192.
11. P ertamina (1996). Petroleum Geology of
Indonesian Basins: Principles, Methods, and
Applications. Volume III: West Java Basin,
Pertamina BPPKA.
12. T iab, D. and Donaldson, E.C. (2004).
Petrophysics: Theory and practice of measuring
reservoir rock and fluid transport properties.
Gulf Professional Publishing, 200 Wheeler Road,
Burlington, MA 01803, USA, p. 889.
13. Treiber, L.E., Archer, D., and Owens, W.W.
(1972). A Laboratory Evaluation of the
Wettability of Fifty Oil Producing Reservoirs.
Soc. Petrol. Eng. J., Vol. 12, No. 6, December,
pp. 531 540.
14. Widarsono, B. (2010). An Investigation Over
Rock Wettability and Its Alteration on Some
Indonesian Sandstones. Lemigas Scientific
Contributions to Petroleum Science & Technology,
Vol. 33, No. 3, December, pp. 165 179.
15. Wight, A. and Hardian, D. (1982). Importance
of Diagenesis in Carbonate Exploration and
Production, Lower Baturaja Carbonates, Krisna
Field, Java Sea. Proceeding, Indonesian Petroleum
Association (IPA) 11th Annual Convention and
Exhibition, June, Jakarta Indonesia, pp. 211
235.
RISKS ANALYSIS OF CARBON DIOXIDE STORAGE IN

GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS
Lusyana1) and M. Dwi Atmanto1)
1)
First Registered on May 19th 2011; Received after Corection on August 4th 2011
ABSTRACT
Concerning to global climate change, Indonesia has committed to reduce CO2 emissions.
The CO2 injection and storage in underground geologic formations is one practical method for
reducing large volumes of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. However, the risks associated with
the geological storage of CO2 are a key factor affecting the implementation of Carbon Capture
and Storage (CCS). A better understanding and quantification of these risks is required to ensure
risks associated with CO2 storage in underground formations meets acceptable safety standards.
In this paper, the risks are quantified and justified by using Subjective Risk Assessment method.
The results show that the risks are low through medium for three types of geological formations
i.e. depleted oil and gas reservoirs, unmineable coal seams, and deep saline reservoirs.
Keywords: CO2 storage, geological reservoirs, risks analysis
I. INTRODUCTION
Concern about global climate change due to
anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
has grown significantly over the last decade. Fossil
fuels combustion is accounted for the increasing
of greenhouse gas (which are dominated by CO2)
concentration in the atmosphere. To overcome this
problem, many countries in the world including
Indonesia has committed to reduce CO2 emissions.
However, as a developing country Indonesia still
relies largely on fossil fuels to provide energy
demand. Moreover, coal is projected to grow at the
fastest rate of 4.7 percent per year, followed by oil
and natural gas at 2.8 percent, hydro at 2.6 percent
and renewables at 1.3 percent1 as described on Figure
1 below.
As a result of an increasing energy demand, total
CO2 emissions from the energy sector are projected
to increase from 292 million tonnes of CO2 in 2002
to 746 million tonnes of CO2 in 20301. The source
of CO2 emissions are evenly distributed among the
industry, transport and electricity sectors, with each
taking about one-third of total CO2 emissions.

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is seen as

most promising option for CO2 abatement because
large amounts of carbon dioxide emitted from
power generations or industries are potentially to
be captured and sequestered underground. Thus if
CCS were deployed straight away it could contribute
significantly to achieving emission reduction
targets.
However, a key factor affecting the implementation
of CCS are the risks associated with underground CO2
Figure 1
Primary energy demand
117
RISKS ANALYSIS OF CARBON DIOXIDE STORAGE

lusyana anD m. DWI aTMANTO

storage. Risk assessment is a first step in a strategy to

set up management and control measures to minimise
the risks. For this reason, the objective of this study
is to identify and quantify potential risks associated
with long-term storage of CO2 in geological formations, where risk denotes a combination of the probability of an event happening and the consequences
of the event.
II. GEOLOGICAL FORMATION TYPES
After CO2 capture process, CO2 needs to be stored
therefore it will not be emitted into the atmosphere.
In general, geological reservoirs must fulfil these
requirements for site selection: (1) adequate capacity
and injectivity (2) adequate porosity and permeability
(3) satisfactory sealing caprocks to keep CO2 in the
storage and avoid CO2 escapes (4) sufficiently stable
geologic environment. According to these requirements, there are three types geological formations
which are being considered suitable for CO2 storage.
Those are depleted oil and gas reservoirs, unmineable
coal seams and deep saline aquifers.
A. Depleted Oil and Gas Reservoirs
Depleted reservoirs consist of rocks with sufficient high porosities to held oil and/or gas in their
pore spaces in significant quantities. The caprock, the
part of the formation that formed a seal to trap oil

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 117 - 126
and gas, prevented the original hydrocarbon resource

from escaping. The fact that depleted oil and gas
fields demonstrating their ability to keep gases and
liquids for millions of years leads to the assumption
that the gas injected can certainly be retained in these
structures over long timescales without loss.
Until now Indonesia does not have CO2 storage
project in depleted oil and gas fields eventhough
there are thousands of depleted wells which might
be considered for CO2 geological storage2 as shown
on Figure 3.
Figure 2
CO2 emissions by sector
Figure 3
Location of depleted oil wells in Indonesia
118


Advantages3
Depleted oil and gas reservoirs are considered
prime candidates for CO 2 storage for several
reasons:
- oil and gas originally trapped did not escape for
millions of years, demonstrating the structural
integrity of the reservoir,
- extensive studies for oil and gas typically have
characterized the geology of the reservoir,
- computer models have often been developed
to understand how hydrocarbons move in the
reservoir, and the models could be applied to
predicting how CO2 could move,
- infrastructure and wells from oil and gas extraction
may be in place and might be used for handling
CO2 storage.
Disadvantages4
- field might not facilitate supercritical injection,
- very low pressures in field can pose stability
problems,
- operational HSE exposure may be higher due to
layout of old facilities.
B. Unmineable Coal Seams
Another potential site for CO 2 storage is
unmineable coal seams. Some coal resources are

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 117 - 126
unmineable because economically infeasible due

to: beds are not thick enough, too deep, too unsafe
to mine; too high in sulphur or mineral matter, or be
too low in heat value.
Based on the data from Directorate General
of Mineral Coal and Geothermal, Indonesia has
abundant coal seam reserves and around 49 percent
coal quality is low rank coals or low in heat value. It
means some coal field potential to be applied for CO2
storage. Figure 4 shows the coal basins distribution
in Indonesia5.
To make the sequestration process more
economically attractive, this technique would allow
not only storage of CO2, but also methane recovery
(ECBMR Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery).
This is possible because coal surface has a preferred
affinity for adsorption of CO2 than for methane with
a ratio of 2:1.
However, not all types of coal beds are suitable
for CBM extraction. Sites for CO2 storage in coal
beds and CBM recovery should6:
- possess adequate permeability of at least 15 mD
(this relates to injectivity),
- posses minimal faulted and/or folded,
- be homogeneous and confined,
Figure 4
Coal basins in Indonesia
119



VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 117 - 126
- have low water saturation,

- have concentrated coal deposits (fewer, thick
seams).
Advantages
CO2 in coal seams should be relatively stable
as long as the seam is otherwise undisturbed. The
methane in coal seams has been kept in place for
perhaps millions of years, and there is no reason that
CO2 cannot be sequestered for at least thousands of
years.
Disadvantages
Technical challenges for CO2 storage in coal
seams include the ability to inject the CO2 due to
the typically low permeability characteristics of the
coal cleat system (especially with increasing depth
and coal maturity) and the economic viability due
to the large number of wells that may need to be
drilled. More addition, unmineable coal seams have
the smallest potential capacity for storing CO2 globally compared to oil and gas fields or deep saline
formations.
C. Deep Saline Aquifers
This option potentially has the largest storage
capacities compare to the other formations. Saline
formations are deep sedimentary rocks filled with
brines containing high concentration of dissolved
salts, which makes them unsuitable for potable water
or agricultural use7. A portion of the injected CO2 will
dissolve in the saline water and slowly react with the
formation to produce mineral carbonates, trapping
the CO2. Although saline aquifers do not have proven
tightness, the Sleipner Project in the North Sea is
the best available example of a CO2 storage project
in a saline formation.
Advantages4
- operational Health, Safety and Environmental
risk lower, with no simultaneous operations (no
production),
- containment risk low,
- few puncture points (old wells) in the caprock
- tectonically less stressed than for depleted fields
(fewer faults aquifers not typically in anticline
structure),
- chemical reactivity may lead to increase or
decrease in capacity or injectivity,
120
Figure 5
ECBM process
- vast aquifer size makes it easier to locate areas

at the right depth to sustain supercritical state of
CO2,
- no additional costs to assess integrity of old
wellls.
Disadvantages4
- data density lower may require a higher number
of appraisal wells compared with depleted field
option,
- lateral migration of CO2 plume more uncertain
due to few structural closures in aquifer settings
- 3D seismic less likely to be available, therefore
higher appraisal costs,
- lower injection rates to start with, due to
comparatively higher pressures,
- more prone to digenesis. Aquifers typically do not
have a proven ability to contain large amounts of
gases and have not been studied so extensively as
hydrocarbon structures,
- the estimates of potential storage volume are
lower to what extent the aquifer pore volume
can be filled with CO2.
III. METHODOLOGY
Currently, there is no standardized method or
set of methods for evaluating risks of CO2 longterm storage in geological reservoirs because it is a
new field. By using the definition of risk which is a
combination of the probability and the severity of the
consequence8, the following methodology was used
to define the magnitude of risk:



VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 117 - 126
- Identify hazards or events that may occur. Hazard

is a potential to threaten human life, health or the
environment.
- Estimate probability of this event occurring.
- Estimate potential consequences from the
release.
- Determine risk level.
Figure 6 shows the detail flowchart of risk
analysis.
For this study, a semi-quantitative analysis
based on historical data was used to develop a risk
matrix that determines the risk to the surrounding
community. Indices of probability (i.e., frequent,
possible, rare, etc.) and consequences (catastrophic,
critical, moderate, etc.) were combined to develop
a risk matrix (Tables 1 through 3). As presented in
the risk level, Table 4, risk levels of 10 and above
are considered a high risk category, levels of 4
and above present medium risk levels, levels of 1

through 3 present a risk that is low with controls or
mitigation.
Figure 6
Risk analysis flowchart
Table 1
Probability index9
Range
Probability
Description
Very Frequent
Likely to occur (e.g., probability > 0.1)
Frequent
Probably will occur (e.g., 0.1 > probability > 0.01)
Possible
May occur (e.g., 0.01 > probability > 0.001)
Rare
Unlikely to occur (e.g., 0.001 > probability > 0.000001)
Extremely Rare
Improbable (e.g., 0.000001 > probability)
Table 2
Consequence index9
Range Consequences
Catastrophic
Critical
Moderate
Negligible
Description
May cause death, permanently disabling injury, large destruction
to systems, facilities, and environment
May cause severe injury or illness, major property damage to
systems, facilities, and environment
May cause minor injury or occupational illness; minor property
damage to systems, facilities, and environment
Would not adversely affect personal safety or health; damage to
systems, facilities, and environment
121



VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 117 - 126
Table 3
Risk matrix
Very
Frequent
Extremely
Rare
Rare
Possible Frequent
Negligible
Critical
10
Moderate
12
15
Catastrophic
12
16
20
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this part the potential risks are identified and
quantified for each geological formation. To quantify
the risk, Tables 1 through 4 will be used and the
justification will be carried out by using Subjective
Risk Assessment method. This method is usually
used when the personnel who justify the risk has
incomplete knowledge, therefore opinion, intuition,
and other non-quantifiable resources are used10.
Table 4
Risk level
Range
Risk
10 20
High
49
Medium
13
Low
A. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs

1. CO2 leakage
Eventhough depleted oil and gas fields

obviously to be safe sinks for CO2 sequestration,
there is a risk that CO2 escapes from the
reservoir through or along wells or by means
of caprock failure. Leakage along or through
wells, faults and fractures are generally
considered to be the most important leakage
pathways. CO2 leakage through the caprock
is less controllable and more dependent upon
geological characteristics than CO2 migration
through or along wells. This makes it more
difficult to quantify the probability it may
occur and the possible health, safety and
environmental consequences11.
2. Groundwater contamination
No known contamination of groundwater
has occurred from injection of CO2. However,
unintended leakage of CO2, either from wells or
along faults and fractures, could impact groundwater
122
quality. Increases in dissolved CO2 concentration that

might occur if CO2 migrates from a storage reservoir
to the surface would alter groundwater chemistry,
potentially affecting shallow groundwater used for
potable water and industrial and agricultural needs.
Dissolved CO2 forms carbonic acid, altering the
pH of the solution and potentially causing indirect
effects, including mobilization of metals, sulphate, or
chloride, and possibly giving the water an odd odor,
color, or taste. In the worst case, by-products of CO2
migration into groundwater resources might reach
dangerous levels, excluding the use of groundwater
for drinking or irrigation11.
3. Soil acidification
Similar to the other harms discussed, the

risk of soil acidification is very dependent on
the specific scenario at the geological storage
site. However, it is similarly dependent on an
enabling leak in order for any soil acidification
to take place. Thus the likelihood of occurrence



VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 117 - 126
is similarly low, and the impact is also low since
reactions that could occur during CO 2

injection into coal seams and their impact on
the integrity of the coal seams require further
research. One of these reaction is swelling of
the coal matrix when injecting CO2, which
may cause a reduction in the permeability.
Swelling might also induce stresses on the
overlying and underlying rock strata in non
ideal coal seams which could cause faulting
and possible migration pathways out of the
coal seam11.
the greatest impact will be the loss of vegetation

to a localized area11.
4. Induced seismicity
Geologic carbon sequestration requires injecting
large quantities of fluid supercritical CO2 under
high pressure. The resulting stresses can fracture
the surrounding rock. Highly porous rock is less
likely to fracture than is low-porosity rock, since
porous rock will allow more fluid migration and
thus relieve some pressure. Other factors affecting
the probability of fracturing are the injection rate
and the strength of the rock most seismic events
triggered by deep well injection are too small to
be noticed. The problem of seismicity might be
more serious when CO2 is injected into a reservoir
in tectonically active regions, which can be found
in e.g. Japan and California11.
All of identified hazards above are quantified by
using Tables 1 through 3 to get the risk level.
2. Loss of water quantity
Based on available data from multiple

basins, less than 1% of domestic water wells
surrounding producing CBM wells are at
risk of experiencing declines in water yield.
Except for those wells completed within or
immediately adjacent to the producing CBM
horizon, perceived declines in water yield is
likely to be due to fouling of the near wellbore environment. Less than 1% of affected
wells are likely to experience real declines
in aquifer levels9. The percentage of wells
that may be susceptible to damage from
CBM operations must be estimated based on
available water well completion records.
B. Unmineable coal seams

1. CO2 leakage
CO2 is more easily adsorbed to coal than

methane. It is argued that if coal seams have
held methane for millions of years, it will
probably retain CO2 for another thousand of
years as well, provided that CO2 sequestered
at formation pressure. When operating at
overpressure, the risk of CO2 leakage is
higher.
There are still several aspects to be studied
on the interaction between CO2 and coal
seam. Especially the chemical and physical
3. Water contamination
More than 50% of domestic water wells

surrounding producing CBM wells are likely
to experience water quality problems during
the life cycle of a CBM development project. For
example among the nearly 100 domestic water
Table 5
Risk of depeleted oil and gas reservoir
Hazard
Probability Consequence
Risk
Level
CO2 Leakage
Medium
Groundwater Contamination
Low
Soil Acidification
Low
Induced Seismicity
Low
123



VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 117 - 126
Table 6
Risk of unmineable coal seams
Hazard
Probability
Consequence
Risk
Level
CO2 Leakage
Low
Loss of water quantity
Low
Water contamination
Medium
Methane seeps
Low
wells sampled during 2001 by the COGCC in the

Raton Basin, 45% were found to contain elevated
concentrations of at least one or more common
dissolved constituents (e.g. sulfate, nitrate, total
iron and manganese, total dissolved solids) that
exceed primary drinking water standards9. In
the Colorado portion of the San Juan Basin,
the majority of water wells drilled into bedrock
aquifers exceed primary drinking water standards
for Fluoride. These are largely in areas unimpacted
by CBM development.
More addition, one of the characteristics of CH4
is more mobile than supercritical CO2. Since the

global warming potential (GWP) of methane is
circa 23 times that of CO2, CH4 leakage is an
important factor to be assessed in order to verify
the effectiveness as greenhouse gas mitigation
option.
using Tables 1 through 3 to get the risk level.
C. Deep saline aquifers
4. Methane seeps
1. CO2 leakage
Events that trigger seeps change their spatial
Exploration and production wells which

have been drilled through some deep saline
aquifers might created potential leakage
pathways. For risk assessment input, leakage
from a typical deep saline aquifer has been
modelled to estimate leakage rates from
wellhead and cap rock failure. The result is
the leakage through a failed cap rock causes
the highest risk to all environmental media.
The calculated flux from a continuous fracture
aperture of 2000 microns corresponds to a
leakage rate of 0.1% the total volume stored
per year. Leakage rates through permeable
zone in the cap rock are estimated at 0.05%
of the total volume stored per year11. Although
the spatial frequency of cap rock failures is
estimated low, the consequences of such event
are larger.
and temporal expression, and are also periodic.

Impending earthquakes, changes in barometric
pressure, long term changes in local precipitation
rates, and variable rates of pressure buildup and
release (natural valving) in the pore systems that
accommodate methane all affect the timing and
location of seeps. The origin of methane in such
seeps is also varied and includes thermogenic,
biogenic, and abiogenic sources. Seeping methane
physically displaces normal oxygen levels in soil,
thereby killing vegetation, or thwarting its growth.
Along the Fruitland outcrop belt, for example,
evidence of historic crown deaths among old
Ponderosa pines is only visible along the outcrop.
Active gas seeps can also noticeably alter
the vegetative landscape by creating linear

patches of dead vegetation, usually parallel to
outcrop bedding and major fractures. Springs
influenced by seeps commonly leave large
patches of insoluble iron and manganese
oxide deposits on the surface9.
124
2. Water contamination
In many cases, dissolution of CO2 into water is
desirable, and some sequestration projects de-



VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 117 - 126
liberately inject CO2 into deep saline reservoirs.

The CO2 saturated brine is expected to become
denser than the surrounding unsaturated brine and
will therefore sink, reducing the risk of upward
migration. Although often desirable, dissolution
of CO2 into water can also be problematic. The
water will be acidified, which may allow it to
degrade geologic formations which may toxic
compounds that leach out. Water saturated with
CO2 is also not useful as drinking water. Over
time, water contaminated with toxins or with
CO2 could migrate and contaminate groundwater
aquifers or other resources7.
3. Terrestrial impact
Stored CO2 and any accompanying substances,

may affect the flora and fauna with which
it comes into contact. Impacts might be
expected on microbes in the deep subsurface
and on plants and animals in shallower soils
and at the surface. However, the probability
of leakage is low and there is no evidence
of any terrestrial impact from current CO2
storage projects7. Nevertheless, it is important
to understand the hazards should exposures
occur.
4. Induced seismicity
Underground injection of CO2 or other fluids

into porous rock at pressures substantially
higher than formation pressures can induce
fracturing and movement along faults.
Induced fracturing and fault activation
may pose two kinds of risks. First, brittle
failure and associated microseismicity

induced by over pressuring can create or
enhance fracture permeability, thus providing
pathways for unwanted CO 2 migration.
Second, fault activation can, in principle,
induce earthquakes large enough to cause
damage. Deep-well injection of waste fluids
may induce earthquakes with moderate
local magnitudes. Seismicity induced by
fluid injection is usually assumed to result
from increased pore-fluid pressure in the
hypocentral region of the seismic event. CO2
storage in an aquifer will induce a temporary
pressure increase in the reservoir, because the
space to store CO2 only becomes available as
a result of compression of the fluids and rock
in the reservoir, or displacement of formation
water into adjacent formations or to the
surface7.
5. Brine displacement
The injection of CO2 in aquifers might cause

displacement of saline groundwater (brine).
Brines displaced from deep formations by
injected CO 2 can potentially migrate or
leak through fractures or defective wells to
shallow aquifers and contaminate shallower
drinking water formations by increasing their
salinity. In the worst case, infiltration of saline
water into groundwater or into the shallow
subsurface could impact wildlife habitat,
restrict or eliminate agricultural use of land
and pollute surface waters11.
Table 7
Risk of deep saline aquifers
Hazard
Probability
Consequence
Risk
Level
CO2 Leakage
Low
Water contamination
Low
Terrestrial impact
Low
Induced seismicity
Medium
Brine displacement
Low
125



using table 1 through 3 to get the risk level
V. CONCLUSIONS
Geological storage of CO2 may provide a solution
to the problem of reducing anthropogenic emissions
of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. The type of
geological formation in which CO2 is sequestered is
an important factor for leakage. Depleted oil and gas
fields are generally considered to be safe reservoirs
for CO2 sequestration. Coal seams generally have
held coal bed methane for million of years and,
moreover, CO2 is adsorbed more easily than methane,
so the risk is expected to be low. Deep saline aquifers
need to be studied in more detail considering the seal
integrity has not been proven.
Overall, risk analysis which is conducted for
three types of geological formations gives a result
that the risk is low through medium. It is an indication
that CO2 can be safely injected and stored at well
characterized and properly managed sites.
VI. RECOMMENDATIONS
Although there is no high risk of stored CO2 has
been observed in any of the current projects in the
world but it still needs careful storage site selection
followed by characterization of the selected site in
terms of geology, hydrogeology, geochemistry and
geomechanics (structural geology and deformation
in response to stress changes) if CCS project will be
applied in Indonesia.
REFERENCES
1. APEC Energy Demand and Supply Outlook,
2006.
126

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 117 - 126
2. Bachu, Stefan, 2007, Carbon Dioxide Storage

Capacity in Uneconomic Coal Beds in Alberta,
Canada : Methodology, Potential and Site Identification, Elsevier, p.374-385.
3. Buletin BP Migas, 2008, Vol 44.
4. Damen, Kay, 2006, Health, Safety and Environmental Risks of Underground CO2 Storage
Overview of Mechanism and Current Knowledge, Climatic Change, p. 289-318.
5. Folger, Peter, 2009, Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS), Congressional Research
Service.
6. Indonesia CCS Study Working Group, 2009,
Understanding Carbon Capture and Storage
Potential in Indonesia, Jakarta.
7. INSB Class, 2010, Guide for Risk Assessment.
8. Jeffrey Mulyono, 2009, Indonesian Japan Coal
Policy Dialogue and Coal Seminar, Tokyo.
9. Muhlbauer, W. Kent, 1996, Pipeline Risk
Management.
10. Solomon, Semere, 2007, Carbon Dioxide Storage: Geological Security and Environmental
Issues Case Study on the Sleipner Gas Field
in Norway, Bellona Report.
11. Viellenave, James H, et al, Environmental Risk
Assessment Methods Useful for Coal Bed Methane Development, IPEC Special Symposium :
Environmental Issues in the Production of Coal
Bed Methane.
POLYMER PROPERTIES DETERMINATION

FOR DESIGNING CHEMICAL FLOODING
Sugihardjo

Sugihardjo@lemigas.esdm.go.id
First Registered on May 19th 2011; Received after Corection on August 4th 2011
ABSTRACT
Waterflooding became the standard practice in many reservoirs formation in petroleum
industries, the strengths and weaknesses of the methods were quite well established. In particular,
the inefficiency of the waterflood oil displacement mechanism as a result of either an unfavorable
mobility ratio or heterogeneity was largely identified. Therefore, chemicals injections as the
improvement displacement processes had been proposed to support petroleum industries to recover
the production of oil. Chemical injection normally consists of alkaline, surfactant, and polymer
(ASP). They could be injected as standalone fluid or mixture of fluids; it depends upon the injection
fluid design appropriate for particular field. Polymer solution could be prepared for mixtures of
injection fluid and or as chase fluid injection which is injected behind surfactant or ASP. The main
function of polymer solution primarily is to viscosity the injection water as a mobility control. This
work is proposed to determine the important polymer properties which are suitable for mobility
control in such EOR plan in the particular field. This field is sandstone reservoir with oil gravity
of 23 to 26oAPI and viscosity of 3cp at 90oC. Two kinds of polymers have been chosen such as:
HPAM-1 and HPAM-2 and subject to be tested for the properties characteristic. Intensive works
have been done to evaluate the bulk polymer properties at laboratory scale which include rheology,
filtration, thermal stability, retention/adsorption, and injectivity or permeability reduction tests.
The results indicated that HPAM-1 polymer is suitable for injection fluid design for Zone-B while
HPAM-2 for Zone-A.
Key Words: polyacrylamide (PAM), partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM), mobility control
I. INTRODUCTION
After implementing water injection, even though
under the most favorable conditions, some 30 to 50%
of the oil remains trapped in the pores of rock within
the regions that have been efficiently swept by a
waterflood. The oil is basically trapped by mechanism
of capillary forces along the reservoir pores.
Chemical injections basically have been proved
as the enhanced oil recovery processes at laboratory
scale. This technology includes alkaline, surfactant,
and polymer flooding. They can be injected into oil
reservoir as an individual chemical or mixture of
chemicals. The design of chemical injection will

depend on the field screening result. They could be

categorized as alkaline, surfactant, polymer flood
for individual chemical injection; and AS (alkalinesurfactant mixture), SP (surfactant-polymer mixture),
and ASP (alkaline-surfactant-polymer mixture)
injections as chemicals mixtures injection.
Surfactant injection mainly contributes in the
microscopic displacement where the separated
trapped oil is displaced into the form of oil bank.
To improve displacement sweep efficiency in
macroscopic term is not only reducing the interfacial
tension between displaced and displacing phases
necessary but also improving the mobility ratio. In
127

SUGIHARDJO
order to improve the mobility ratio, a viscous chase

fluid should be added behind the surfactant solution.
Polymer is normally used to improve the mobility
ratio in tertiary displacement process in oil reservoir
rocks.
II. MOBILITY CONTROL
Addition of a polymer to water reduces its
mobility in porous medium can be done in two
ways: i. by increasing the viscosity of the injection
water, and ii. by altering the effective permeability
of the rock. Fractional theory of Buckly Leverate
sweep efficiency indicates that by increasing the
polymer viscosity as displacing fluid and reducing
the permeability to water phase therefore the mobility
ratio (M) will be reduced below unity. There is little
point in considering polymer in this situation during
water flood, and it is only when M> 5 that polymer
would be seriously considered.
Poor sweep of waterflood arises principally
from unfavorable mobility ratio and heterogeneity
occurring in the reservoir. Those problems normally
result in early water breakthrough and poor sweep
efficiency. Improving the mobility below unity is the
case to increase sweep efficiency, and typically M of
around 0.1 to 0.3 commonly improves vertical sweep
efficiency in heterogeneous reservoirs.3
A polymer solution moves in a more uniform
manner, while flow still tends to be greatest in
high permeability zones and along the shortest
path between the injection and production wells.
It is generally accepted that polymer solution do
not significantly affect final, endpoint, residual oil
saturation except surfactant solution is added in the
injection and therefore the capillary number could
increase several order of magnitude.1
III. POLYMER CHARACTERISTICS
Polymer solutions commonly show pseudo
plastic, non-Newtonian behavior in capillary flow.
The viscosity tends to reduce as shear rate increases.
The flowing polymer is subjected to a range of shear
rate as it passes through successive pores and pore
throats. The average shear rate will depend upon
the pore size distribution and the tortuosity of the
medium, as well as the gross parameters such as
Darcy velocity, permeability, and porosity. Increasing
shear rate near well bore at high injection rate
128

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 127 - 137
should take into account that the polymer is still in

the range of viscoelastic form and therefore it could
be reversible and return into original viscosity after
passing through the well bore at high rate.
There are several types of non-Newtonian flow
behavior, characterized by the way a fluids viscosity
changes in response to variations in shear rate. The
most common types of non Newtonian fluids include
pseudoplastic, dilatants, and plastic.
Pseudoplastic is a type of fluid that displays a
decreasing viscosity with an increasing shear rate.
Probably the most common of non Newtonian fluids
are pseudoplastic, and called shear thinning. On the
other hand dilatant fluid increases the viscosity with
an increase in shear rate. Dilatancy is also referred
to as shear thickening flow behavior. Furthermore,
plastic is the type of fluids that behave as a solid under
static condition. A certain amount of stress must be
applied to the fluid before any flow is induced; this
stress is called the yield stress.
IV. POLYMER TYPES
At present two main types of polymer are used in
enhanced oil recovery, bio-polymer such as Xanthan,
and synthetic polymers such as Polyacrylamides.
Xanthans is a polysaccharide, a bio-polymer. It
is produced by microbial action of Xanthomonas
Campestris on a substrate of carbohydrate media,
with a protein supplement and an inorganic source
nitrogen. The biopolymer is an extracellular slime
which forms on the surface of the cells. Xanthan gum
is well known to have excellent performance in high
salinity brine, relatively insensitive to temperature
and pH. This is because in the simple model, Xanthan
has been considered to be a rigid rood. The strong
pseudoplastic behavior is also expected for long rod
like molecules. A wide range of molecular weight
(MW) has been reported for Xanthan varying from
about 2 to 50 x 106. The molecular weight is very
important as the parameter for EOR project as well
as the molecular weight distribution (MWD).
On the other hand Polyacrylamide (PAM) or
Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM) is
obtained by hydrolyzing polyacrylamide with sodium
of potassium hydroxide. The degree of hydrolysis
ranges from 0% to 35% for the polymers currently
used in EOR. Indeed, to this day over 90% of field
applications have used HPAM.3

SUGIHARDJO

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 127 - 137
V. RESERVOIRS CANDIDATE
HPAM is a synthetic straight-chain polymer

of acrylamide monomers, some of which have
been hydrolyzed. The degree of hydrolyzed may
be important in certain physical properties such
as polymer adsorption, shear stability and thermal
stability. However, even though commercial polymers
are supplied with a state degree of hydrolysis, it
is well known that at elevated temperatures the
hydrolysis of amide will continue.
The HPAM molecule is a flexible chain structure
sometimes known as a random coil in polymer
chemistry. Therefore this type of polymer may be
more sensitive to salt or hardness than those of
Xanthan. Using current technology for manufacturing
polyacrylamide, very high molecular weight species
can be produced. Polyacrylamide used in EOR
applications may typically have weight averaged
molecular weights in the range 2 to 10 x 106.
Although the majority of polymers used in
EOR projects are dry powder polymers, there are
field specific conditions that may dictate the use of
emulsion polymers. Chemical injections conducted
from offshore platform for example, are a case where
emulsion polymer can be more appropriate. Some
companies offers emulsion polymers in either 30%
or 50% active system.
Based on industrial standard a candidate reservoir

for chemical injection, especially for chemical
flooding, has been determined in very detail by
Taber.4 on the EORs screening criteria, see Table
1.
Based on the criteria on Table 1 the candidate
fields should fulfill those criteria for chemical
flooding. The oil is produced from Talang Akar
Formation which consists of sandy conglomeratic,
coarse sand, and interbedded shale-clay-fine sand.
Ultimate recovery for this field is still very low
approximately 28.36% and water cut at this time is
around 96%.
Reservoir permeability, rock composition, oil
viscosity, and water chemistry are important factors
to select the optimum molecular weight polymer
for particular field. Sampling of core, formation
waters and oil have been done for this reservoir. Oil
characteristic is identified by gravity of around 23
to 26oAPI and viscosity of 3cp at 90oC. Moreover
the core and formation water had been analyzed
and the results are presented in Table 2 and Table 3
respectively.
VI. POLYMER SELECTION
For initial test as candidate chemical for injection,
polymer should have a property as shown in Table 4,
Table 1
Summary of Screening Criteria for Chemical Injection1
Table 2
X-Ray Diffraction Abnalysis of Two Reservoirs
No Zones
SMEC- ILLITE Kaolinite Chlorite Calcite Dolomite Siderite Quartz K Felds Pyryte
TITE (%) (%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
Clay Carbonate Total

(%)
(%)
(%)
tr
tr
99
100%
tr
97
98%
129

SUGIHARDJO
the detail of the physico-chemistry property of the

polymer selection criteria. Nine (9) items listed in
Table 4 should be fulfilled before selected for further
intensive laboratory tests.4 Two kinds of HPAM are
chosen for this project such as HPAM-1 and HPAM-2
that fulfill Table 4 criteria. Both polymers are heat
tolerance and salt resistance polymer. HPAM-1 is an
ionic polyacrylamide having Mw around 25 x 106,
while HPAM-2 is an anionic polyacrylamide with
very high MW.
After polymer passes through the screening
criteria in Table 4, to optimize the polymer properties
for designing chemical flooding such as: polymer,
surfactant-polymer, SP (surfactant-polymer mixture),
and ASP (alkaline-surfactant-polymer mixture)
injections, it is necessary to do an intensive laboratory
works to determine the important parameters for
selecting an appropriate polymer for chemical
flooding. This papers will discuss intensively bulk
polymer properties at laboratory scale which include
rheology, filtration, thermal stability, retention/
adsorption, and injectivity or permeability reduction
tests. Figure 1 shows the workflow of the polymer
selection.
All laboratory tests must be performed under
un-aerobic condition, unless oxygen scavenged
necessary to be added in the solution during lab
test. It needs to be confirmed that the field produced
water has dissolved oxygen below 2 ppb. If dissolved
oxygen is present in the makeup water, gas stripping
is usually the most practical and least risky way to

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 127 - 137
remove it. Use of chemical oxygen scavengers and

anti-oxidant packages is usually expensive and risky.
Dissolved iron is often not of concern if dissolved
oxygen is not present.
A. Polymer Solution Preparation
With dry powder polymer, the brine is stirred
using a magnetic stirrer at a high enough intensity
to make a strong vortex. The powder is introduced
slowly into the side of the vortex to avoid formation
of fisheyes and microgel which can be formed if the
powder is not wetted evenly. The solution is stirred
then slowly for approximately 90 minutes to ensure
Table 3
Water Analysis of the Formation Waters
Table 4
Chemical Properties of Polymer
Item
No.
Appearance/Type of polyacrylamide
Molecular weight
Solubility
Viscosity at 1000 mg/l and produced water
Residual Monomer Content
Hydrolysis Degree
Water-insoluble
Solid Content
Particle Size of Powder
Criteria
Solid Granule or
Solution
130
Unit
18-25 million
hr
2.0
mPa.s
>7
wt%
0.05
mol%
15
wt%
0.1
89
0.15
mm
1.00
mm

SUGIHARDJO

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 127 - 137
Figure 1
Workflow of Polymer Screening
Table 5
Thermal Stability of 500 ppm Polymer after 3 Months Ageing at 90oC
Polymer
Formation
Water
Zone-A
HPAM-1
Zone-B
Zone-A
HPAM-2
Zone-B
Ageing
Viscosity (cp)
25oC
70oC
90oC
Before
3.90
2.25
1.70
After
3.90
1.90
2.07
Before
8.22
4.95
4.12
After
8.33
4.83
4.03
Before
9.18
5.30
3.40
After
9.42
4.65
3.30
Before
3.50
1.77
1.68
After
3.50
1.92
1.57
Change %
21.76
-2.18
-2.94
-6.55
131

SUGIHARDJO

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 127 - 137
Table 6
Static Adsorption Test
Formation Water
Core
Polymer
Zone-A
Zone-A
HPAM-2 500ppm
Adsorption
Pgr/gr
250
Zone-B
Zone-B
HPAM-1 500ppm
240
complete dissolution. The time for polymer mixing

varies and depends on the type of polymers; some
polymers need 2 days for the mixing.
Basically the stock polymer solution is made up
as a mother solution with a concentration of 5000
ppm by weight for both HPAM-1 and HPAM-2 using
formation waters. These solutions, then, are poured
into dark (brown) bottles and saved in a dark place
as well. These stock solutions are diluted with the
formation waters to get target solutions for analysis
such as: 500, 1000, and 1500 ppm each use for the
day.
132
1699.625
1599.0072
Table 7
Permeability Reduction Evaluation
Core
Zone-A
Zone-B
B. Rheology Test
Polymer rheology normally measures relationships
between viscosity and shear rate. Polymer solution
generally indicates shear thinning. The viscosity of
polymer solution is related to the size and extension
of the polymer molecule in that particular solution;
large polymer species are generally associated with
higher solution viscosities.
Viscosity polymer can be made using a low shear
viscometer such as a Brookfield LVT with UL adaptor.
Three polymer solutions i.e. 500, 1000, 1500 ppm
each for HPAM-1 are mixed with formation water of
Zone-A and Zone-B reservoirs, while HPAM-2 with
formation water of Zone-A and Zone-B reservoirs
as well. The measurement results are presented in
Figure 2 to Figure 13 for three different temperatures
i.e. 25, 70, and 90oC. From these figures decisions
can be drawn that Zone-A reservoir is appropriate to
use 500 ppm of HPAM-2 with viscosity of about 3.4
cp at 132 sec-1 shear rate at reservoir temperature of
90oC, while Zone-B reservoir will use 500 ppm of
HPAM-1 with viscosity of 4.12 cp at 132 sec-1 shear
rate and reservoir temperature.
The selection of the polymers and its
concentrations are based on the measured viscosity,
Adsorption lb/AF
Permeability
(mD)
PRF (%)
Kw-initial
585.69
100.00
Kp
154.56
73.61
Kw-final
322.31
44.97
Kw-initial
84.08
100.00
Kp
24.17
71.25
Kw-final
54.86
34.75
the viscosity must be at least similar or above the

viscosity of displaced oil to create more favorable
displacement efficiency.
C. Filtration Ratio
To ensure whether a polymer solution is free from
aggregates or solid due to precipitation, coagulation,
and degradation it may be screened on sand faces
during injection and plugging formulation. Filtration
tests were done only for the selected solution such
as 500ppm HPAM-1 and HPAM-2. To reduce
uncertainty, firstly the formation waters of Zone-A
and Zone-B must be screened. About 500cc of
the solution are pumped through a 5 micron filter
membrane with a different pressure of 2 bars. The
flow rate is measured vs. time, and it should remain
nearly constant during the test indicating it is free of
aggregates.
Filtration Ration (FR) is defined as the time for
th
300 ml minus the time for the 200th ml divided
by the time for the 200th ml minus the time for the
100th ml and the equation is formulated as follow:
FR
t300 ml t200 ml
T200 ml t100 ml
...... (1)

SUGIHARDJO

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 127 - 137
The results of filtration test of those two polymer

solutions are presented in Figure 14. Using the above
equation of filtration ratio, both of 500ppm HPAM-1
and HPAM-2 solutions yield FR of about the same
numbers of 1.035 proving that those solutions are
free from aggregates. The value of FR for passing
the selection criteria is about 1.2. FR below 1.2 is the
range of a good category polymer for EOR project.
D. Thermal Stability
Basically the resident time for a chemical stay in
the reservoir is approximately between 6 months to 2
years, depending on the distance between injector and
producer wells, and reservoir permeability. Because
of the time span and temperature any polymers may
experience degradation, break the chemical bond
(thermal decomposition), and change their properties. In addition, the level of the salinity and pH of
the reservoir brine also affect the polymer stability.
In order to evaluate the capability of a chemical to
withstand in high pressure and temperature environment, it is necessary to test the chemical properties
stability under reservoir conditions. However, to
minimize the time consuming, normally thermal
stability is performed at elevated temperature as long
as 3 until 6 months.
Thermal stability of polymer solution should be
done under unaerobic condition; Figure 15 shows the
diagram of thermal stability test ampoule at unaerobic condition. A special procedure allows vacuum
degassing down to 10-20 parts per billion of oxygen.
Prior polymer solutions should be deoxygenating
with nitrogen flow for 20 minutes, and then load the
sample solution into the ampoule bottles in glove box,
quickly seal the glass ampoule mouth and store in the
oven at reservoir temperature such as: 90oC.
The result of thermal stability test is presented in
Table 5. Thermal stability is expressed as percent of
the viscosity retained after a chosen period of high
temperature exposure. Viscosity may be measured at
reservoir temperature after and before ageing in the
reservoir condition. Table 5 indicates that the viscosity reduction of the selected polymer is only 2.18
and 2.94%. These numbers identify that those two
polymers are appropriate for EOR proposal each for
Zone-A and Zone-B. Passing grade for the thermal
stability is normally 20% of viscosity reduction after
thermal test.

Figure 2
Rheology of 500ppm HPAM-1 in Zone-A FW
Figure 3
Figure 4
133

SUGIHARDJO
134

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 127 - 137
Figure 5
Figure 8
Rheology of 500ppm HPAM-1 in Zone-B FW
Figure 6
Figure 9
Figure 7
Figure 10

SUGIHARDJO
E. Retention
This work is actually to determine the amount
of polymer lost during flow in porous media or
reservoir rock. Four methods are normally suggested
to measure the magnitude of polymer lost on to rock
surfaces; they are large slug method, multiple slug
retention method, recirculation method, and static
method. The first three methods are also called
dynamic methods.
Retention of polymer on to surfaces of rock is
mainly influenced by rock wettability. In addition,
the type and size of polymer molecules, polymer
concentration, and rock characteristics may also
contribute into the adsorption rate. Therefore,
preserved native core is suggested for adsorption
experiment. In case only available unpreserved
core, a clean and dry core should be restored to field
condition to obtaining representative results.
Polymer adsorption is normally assumed
irreversible with polymer concentration and
reversible with salinity concentration. A Langmuirtype isotherm model is used to describe the polymer
adsorption onto the rock surface.2 Polymer molecules
adsorb onto the rock surface as a monolayer with
the thickness equal to the diameter of the polymer
molecule. Once the monolayer saturation level
is reached, no more adsorption will occur. The
adsorption of polymer on the surface of rock normally
can be written as g/g. Frequently, in flow through
porous media, retention is quoted in mass of polymer
per unit volume of rock (m). The most common field
unit for this is lb/acre-foot (lb/AF) and written down
as follow:
Figure 11

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 127 - 137
m = x 2.7194 R lb/AF
...... (2)
m : polymer adsorption per unit volume of rock
lb/AF
x : polymer adsorption g/g
R : bulk rock density g/cm3
In this experiment the static method is proposed
due to easier and more practical. Static adsorption
tests can provide a preliminary screening of polymers.
The tests are fairly simple and inexpensive compared
to procedures involving flow in cores. The result of
the static adsorption tests of both HPAM on reservoir
rocks are presented in Table 6. Adsorption polymers
on to rock are about 240 and 250 gr/gr rock. These
numbers are considered high, therefore a dynamic
adsorption is suggested to be performed to get a more
realistic number.
The dynamic retention includes not only
adsorption but also determine other polymer lost
processes due to3:
- Polymer adsorption
- Mechanical entrapment
- Hydrodynamic retention
F. Injectivity Test
Injectivity test actually measures the capability of
polymer solution to flow through the reservoir rock
at approximately constant rate during the injection
period. The term of injectivity is sometime used
at the same meaning with permeability reduction,
permeability reduction factor (PRF), resistance
factor (RF), and residual resistance factor (RRF).
All of those terms relate with permeability reduction
measurement during polymer injection.
Figure 12
135

SUGIHARDJO
Even though the high polymer viscosity could

improve the mobility ratio in some extent it may
create permeability impairment. Some of the
adsorption polymer on to rock surfaces is irreversible;
therefore it could reduce permeability permanently.
The ratio between the mobility of water to that of
polymer solution is defined as resistance factor,
while the ratio of the water before and after polymer
flooding is called residual resistance factor.
In this experiment, the permeability reduction
factor is the only parameter measured to observe the
polymer injectivity. Three kinds of permeability have
been computed, i.e during initial waterflood, injected
polymer, and chase water injection. Table 7 shows
the results of PRF indicating that those two polymer
solutions significantly change the permeability in
between 71 and 74% reduction during polymer
flooding, and then retains the permeability impartment
of 35 to 45% as the permanent permeability reduction.
These phenomena are normally occurrence during
polymer flooding, the magnitude of permeability
reduction depends on the type and size of polymer
molecules, polymer concentration, and rock
characteristics i.e. permeability, porosity, and rock
minerals composition.

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 127 - 137
Figure 13
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Polymer as mobility control in any EOR project
should fulfill the selection criteria and passing the
screening tests which include rheology, filtration,
thermal stability, retention/adsorption, and injectivity
or permeability reduction tests. The assessment
of polymer HPAM-1 and HPAM-2 candidates for
Zone-A and Zone-B are done and some of conclusions
can be withdrawn as follows:
Figure 14
Filtration Tests Result
1. Zone-A reservoir is appropriate to use 500ppm of

HPAM-2 with viscosity of about 3.4 cp at reservoir
temperature of 90oC, while Zone-B reservoir will
use 500ppm of HPAM-1 with viscosity of 4.12 cp
at reservoir temperature.
2. Filtration ratio both of 500ppm HPAM-1 and
HPAM-2 solutions yield FR of about the same
numbers of 1.035 is the range of good category
polymers for EOR project.
3. Thermal stability expressed as viscosity reduction
reveals that the viscosity reduction of both
polymers are only 2.18 and 2.94%. These numbers
identify that those two polymers are appropriate
for EOR proposal.
136
Figure 15
Vacuum Manifold Arrangement for Thermal
Stability Preparation
4. Adsorption of polymers on to rock are about

240 and 250 gr/gr rock. These numbers are
considered high, therefore a dynamic adsorption
is suggested to be performed to get a more realistic
number.

SUGIHARDJO
5. PRF indicates that those two polymer solution

significantly change the permeability in between
71 and 74% reduction during polymer flooding,
and then retain the permeability impartment of 35
to 45% as the permanent permeability reduction.
These phenomena are normally occurrence during
polymer flooding.
6. In general HPAM-1 and HPAM-2 fulfill the criteria for injection fluid at Zone-B and Zone-A
reservoirs respectively.
REFERENCES
1. Green, D.W., Willhite, G.P., 1998, Enhanced
Oil Recovery, SPE Texbook Series Volume

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 127 - 137
6, Henry L. Doherty Memorial Fund of AIME

Society of Petroleum Engineers Richardsons, TX
USA.
2. Hirasaki, G., Pope, G., 1974, Analysis of factors
influencing mobility and adsorption in the flow of
polymer solution through porous media , Soc.
Pet. Eng. J., 14, 337346.
3. Sorbie, K.S.D., 1991, Polymer Improved Oil
Recovery, Blackie Glasgow and London.
4. Taber, J.J., Martin, F.D., Seright, R.S., 1997,
EOR Screening Criteria Revisited-Part 1
and Part 2: Introduction to Screening Criteria
and Enhanced Recovery Field Projects, SPE
Reservoir Engineering, August.
137
138
The Importance of Litho-facies Distinction

in Determining the Most Representative
Cementation Factors for Well-log
Evaluation: An Old Issue
Persistently Neglected
Bambang Widarsono

First Registered on September 22nd 2011; Received after Corection on September 26th 2011
Abstract
Cementation factor is a parameter always required in any conventional open-hole log analysis
leading to determination of water saturation. Considering the central of water saturation in the
estimation of hydrocarbon in place and reserves, any error in the use of the parameter may prove
fatal. A common practice in the oil industry is that acquisition of laboratory-derived cementation
factor has never been given a proper attention. It occurs very often that too few samples hardly
represent the rocks of reservoir of concern are assigned for laboratory test. The practical use of
the parameter in the log analysis also often draw question, in which un-representative cementation
factor is arbitrarily used due to lack of the data. The effect of this practice has long been known
but is often neglected with all of its consequences up to present day. This study tries to revive
the awareness through presenting a fact that cementation factor may vary due to differences in
litho-facies characteristics. Formation resistivity factor data from forty-seven limestone coreplug samples were taken from a West Java (WJ) field. Visual description over the samples has
shown that they belong to several litho-facies types. Results of the study have mainly proved that
different litho-facies type may have significantly different cementation factors. An averaging effect
is also obvious when data from all samples are processed collectively. The effect of improper use
of cementation factor is shown through the application of three water saturation models through
which erroneous water saturation estimates are produced. The finding of the study is again hoped
to reinforce the awareness of the use of proper and representative cementation factor.
Keywords: cementation factor, improper use, erroneous water saturation, better practice
I. Introduction
Cementation factor (m) is a parameter that reflects
the tendency of how brine-containing pore network in
sedimentary rocks influences resistivity magnitudes
of the rock bulk itself, under an assumption that the
solid parts of the rock are completely electrically nonconductive. It reflects the tortuosity (i.e. twisted-ness)
of the pore network in a sense that the more tortuous
the network the more restriction given to electrical
current that flows through it and therefore the less
contribution provided by the brine in the pore on

the total rock resistivity, and vice versa. The more

permeable a sedimentary rock the less tortuous its
pore network and the less cemented it is usually, this
provides the name for the parameter. Cementation
factor ranges from 1 1.3 for unconsolidated sands
to 2 2.2 for hard sandstones and limestones (Pirson,
1958). Variation in values between the two extremes
marks the hardness degree of rocks, the harder the
rocks the higher the values.
In the field of formation evaluation and reservoir
characterization the cementation factor is regarded as
139
THE IMPORTANCE OF LITHO-FACIES DISTINCTION

BAMBANG WIDARSONO
a sufficiently important parameter. Up to present day

efforts for determining water saturation still mainly
rely on the use of water saturation models such as
Archie (Archie, 1942) and other Archie-based models
(e.g. deWitte, 1950; Poupon et al, 1954; Hossin,
1960; Waxman and Smits, 1968; and Fertl, 1975), all
of which require cementation factor as one of their
input variables. As shown by the following Archie
water saturation (Sw) model of
n
Sw =
a Rw
m Rt
......... (1)
with n, a, Rt, f, and Rw are respectively saturation

exponent, tortuosity coefficient, formation resistivity,
porosity, and formation water resistivity, erroneous
use of m values may results in biased values of water
saturation. Inaccurate water saturation values will
inevitably result in unreliable estimates of oil or gas
initial in place (IOIP/IGIP).
Common day-to-day practice in well-log analysis
is that cementation factor is derived from laboratory
core resistivity measurements on limited number of
core samples ranging as wide as possible in porosity
values, often encompassing the whole rock facies
in the rock formation. The reason for the limited
sample number sent to laboratory is usually related
to budget limitation and lack of concern over the
importance of the cementation factor data itself. To
authors knowledge almost all laboratory testing for
cementation factor at all commercial laboratories
including LEMIGAS are made in this fashion under
the pretext mentioned above. The resulting hazard is
indeed obvious; oversimplified and un-representative
cementation factor with biased water saturation
estimates. It is the objective of this paper to show the
risk through presenting a real case study.
The case study used in this work is a set of
limestone rock samples taken from a producing West
Java field (WJ field). The primary reason behind the
use is the complexity of the Baturaja reef buildup
and platform that make the fields reservoirs and
the relatively large number of samples sent to the
laboratory. All data is obtained from LEMIGAS Core
Laboratory Database with disguised true identity.
Using the data, facies-related variation in cementation
and its effect to water saturation estimation is studied,
140

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 139 - 148
through which a more positive attitude towards the

importance of cementation factor is appreciated.
II. Cementation factor: A brief
review
Cementation factor is a parameter that represents
the twistedted-ness of any rerservoir rocks of concern.
For sandstones the grain sands are compacted and
cemented in manners differently from one rock to
another. Grain sands that are made of quartz and
other minerals are compacted, cemented, and lithified
to make reservoir rocks. Cementation may take the
form silica (e.g. quartz growth or clay cementation)
or carbonate (e.g. calcite) grain cementation. The
more cementation that may take place the more
hardness the rock resulting on the high cementation
factor values of around two. On the contrary, the less
cemented sandstones the lower values of the factor
of values less than two. Pirson (1958) observed that
soft sandstones (i.e. loose sandstones) tend to have
cementation factor values of 1 1.3 whereas hard
sandstones have the corresponding values of two
or higher.
For limestone reservoir rocks cementation factors
are not governed by grain shape, sorting, packing,
cementation, and compaction, but rather on the
nature of the pore system, whether fractured, vuggy,
or connected vuggy system. Despite the difference,
relation between the pore passage twisted-ness
and electrical current is no different from that for
sandstones hence same concept of cementation factor
also applies (Archie, 1952). However, more variation
in values is certainly to be expected since it is known
that limestone porosity is in general more complex
than that of sandstones. Cementation factors of
limestones ranges from low values (around 1.3) for
fractured limestones up to 2.8 for hard and compact
oolitic limestones (Hellander, 1983).
From his laboratory experiment on some
sandstone samples Archie derived a relation between
formation resistivity factor (FR) and porosity (f) in
the form of
FR =
1

m
......... (2)
or in the form of Generalized Humble formula,

BAMBANG WIDARSONO
a
FR = m
......... (3)
with a and m are the tortuosity exponent and

cementation factor, respectively. Rearranging the
Equation (3) in logarithmic manner, the relation
becomes
Log (FR ) = mLog ( )+ Log (a )

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 139 - 148
......... (4)
with m as the slope of the resulting FR versus porosity

straight line. As early as in 1942 different m values
have been observed to represent different type of
rocks when plots are made with the use of a = 1
(1942). This knowledge is well preserved up to the
present day but it is usually applied to accommodate
potentially different m values of different reservoirs,
rock formations, or fields but rarely of different litho
facies within a rock formation. This study emphasizes
in observing of m variation in this smaller scale.
III. An overview on WJ field
The West Java (WJ) field is located in the
Northwest Java Basin. This extensively large
sedimentary basin extends from the Asri Basin in
offshore Southeast Sumatera to the east covering the
Ardjuna Basin in the offshore Northwest Java and the
onshore Jatibarang Basin. The field is located in the
Jatibarang Basin. Stratigraphycally, the field consists
of Jatibarang, Talang Akar, Baturaja, Cibulakan,
Parigi, and Cisubuh Formations. However, the

fields hydrocarbon is mostly accumulated in
the Upper Baturaja Formations reservoirs. The
reservoirs are mostly reef buildup that developed
in the Early Miocene. Permeability and porosity
for the reservoirs best part were developed through
dissolution by meteoric water during sea level low
stands. Thickness can reach up to 50 m with porosity
and permeability reaching values higher than 30%
and 1,000 mD, respectively. The samples assigned
to laboratory tests and are used in this study were
obtained from this part of rock formation.
IV. Laboratory data
In obtaining the formation resistivity factor, the
samples were immersed and vacuumed in synthetic
brine that simulates the real formation brine. As the
samples were fully saturated with brine electrical
conductivity (CO) of the samples were measured. The
formation resistivity factor, FR, was then calculated
using
FR =
RO

RW
......... (5)
of which the RO and RW are sample resistivity at 100%

brine saturated (RO = 1/CO) and brine resistivity,
respectively. Using the relation presented in Equation
(3), cementation factor can be obtained through
Table 1
Basic data and cementation factors of samples taken from eleven wells of WJ field.
Well
Sample
number
WJ-05
1889.0 1895.3
boundstone packstone
WJ-06
1786.3 1791.7
packstone
WJ-07
1938.3 1943.7
packstone
WJ-08
2024 2026
packstone grainstone
WJ-10
2072.7 2078
packstone grainstone
WJ-13
1796.4 1803.1
wackestone
WJ-14
1802.6 1809
WJ-18
2185.3 2189.6
WJ-24
1812 1819
grainstone packstone
WJ-31
1834.9 1837.3
wackestone packstone
WJ-33
1903 1911.5
grainstone packestone
Total
47
Depth (mss)
Permeability
(mD)
12.9 39.6
12 392
1.8704
13 27
1.4 458
1.7005
8 15
0.44 20
1.7047
15 - 17
13 35
1.7188
13.5 20
1.8 6.3
1.7812
6.5 20.9
0.23 24.8
1.6021
boundstone packstone
11.9 23.6
2.5 158
1.8285
packstone wackestone
10.4 23.7
2.2 42
1.7357
1.5 23.5
4 759
1.7998
11 15
2.4 8.3
1.6946
4.4 24.4
1.1 375
1.7271
Lithology
Porosity (%)
141

BAMBANG WIDARSONO
plotting formation resistivity factor versus porosity

measured in laboratory on log-log graph resulting in
a straight line with m as its slope.
As previously stated, the WJ field is chosen due
to the complexity of its reservoir limestones and
the relatively vast amount of cementation factor
data taken. Table 1 presents basic data of the forty
seven (47) samples taken from eleven wells in the
WJ field. Lithologically, the samples range from
wackestone to boundstone according to Dunham
classification that are usually considered as of poor
to good reservoir rock quality. The samples from the
eleven wells are ready to show that heterogeneity is
the characteristics of the WJ field limestones. For
instance, packstone samples of WJ 07 well have
similar properties to wackestone samples of WJ
13 well, even though it is true that wells having
boundstone and/or grainstone samples are usually
characterized with higher porosity and permeability
values.
The results from individual wells are usually
presented in an individual manner. Each well has its
own cementation factor, as is presented in Table 1.
Figures 1 and 2 are two examples presenting plots
for WJ 06 and WJ 14 samples with cementation
factors of 1.7005 and 1.8285, respectively. The
Figure 1
Formation resistivity factor versus porosity
plot of WJ 06 wells samples drawn
to a =1 resulting in cementation factor of 1.7005
142

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 139 - 148
two cementation factors are certainly aggregated

values of whatever litho-facies present in the two
wells. The two cementation factors may be taken as
representative for the rock columns in the wells
and therefore valid for any well-log analysis in the
two wells but they are not necessarily representative
for the individual rock type in the well. The next
section investigates this aspect further.
V. Analysis of data
Cementation factor is usually presented in wellbasis manner due to the fact that core analysis is
usually made on well basis. This practice also comes
from a consideration that the resulted cementation
factor has to be regarded as directly representative
and therefore usable for any well-log analysis made
on the wells log data. On the other hand, whenever
required a single cementation factor value can also be
generated using all data from all wells regardless of
rock facies types. Figure 3 shows the plot that yields
cementation factor value of 1.7692. This cementation
factor value can be regarded as an averaged value
encompassing all presence of heterogeneity and
differences.
Following the classification established by
Dunham (1962) and Embry and Klovan (1971) (Table
Figure 2
plot of WJ 14 wells samples drawn
to a =1 resulting in cementation factor of 1.8285

BAMBANG WIDARSONO

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 139 - 148
Table 2
Modified Dunham classification (from Embry and Klovan, 1972)
Allochthonous Limestone
Original components not organically bound
during decomposition
Greater than 10% > 2 mm
components
Less than 10% > 2 mm components

No lime
mud
Contains lime mud (< 0.03 mm)

Mud supported
Less than 10% grains
( >0.03 mm < 2 mm)
Mud stone
Greater than
10% grains
Wackestone
Autochthonous Limestone Original

components organically bound during
deposition
Grain-supported
By organisms
By
By organisms
that build a
organisms
that act as
Supported by
rigid
that encrust
baffles
grain
framework
and
bind
Matrix
components
supported
coarsers than
2 mm
Boundstone
Packstone
Grainstone Floatstone
Rudstone
Framestone
Bindstone
Bafflestone
Table 3
Litho facies description of WJ fields limestones. The basic assumption is that reservoir
rock quality to range from wackestone as the poorest to boundstone as the best. Also notice that
lower quality rocks of wackestone and packstone are associated with micro stylolite
and micro fractures leading to lower cementation factor values
Lithology class
Description
Boundstone
up to 7 mm vugs, micro x-lin, intra-particle porosity
Grainstone
grain-sprtd, vugs, aragonite, bioturb, med-coarse grain
Packstone
pp-mott vugs, mud/grain sprtd, bioturb, micro styl
23
pp-mott vugs, mud sprtd, shale lam, micro styl, nat fract
Wackestone
2), the 47 samples are grouped resulting in classes as

presented in Table 3. The FR versus porosity plots for
the four groups are presented on Figures 4 through 7.
Cementation factors for the wackestone, packstone,
grainstone, and boundstone groups are 1.5628,
1.7376, 1.7327, and 1.9345, respectively.
The relatively low m value of the wackestone
group is actually unlikely provided the poor rock
quality usually associated with it. The presence of
micro stylolite and fine natural fractures (Table 3)
can probably be considered as responsible for the low
m value. For packstone and grainstone groups the m
values are sensible and similarity in m values between
the two facies groups are likely to come from the
fact that both packstones and grainstones are grain
Sample
number
dominated by nature (Table 2). For boundstones, the

relatively high value of cementation factor points out
the influence of vuggy pore system that offer tortuous
pore paths.
When compared with the cementation factors of
the four litho-facies groups the overall cementation
factor of 1.7692 appear to lie right in the middle
suggesting the effect of averaging. This is also true
when the overall value is compared to the well-based
cementation factors (Table 1) that range within
1.6021 1.8704. Implicitly nonetheless, the narrower
range of the well-based cementation factor compared
to the facies-based cementation factor range suggests
that the well-based cementation factors themselves
are essentially also averaged values already.
143

BAMBANG WIDARSONO
Figure 3
plot for all samples drawn to a =1 resulting
in cementation factor of 1.7692. All potential
differences due to any sources of heterogeneity
are averaged nevertheless
V. Variation in m with Water

Saturation Estimates
a 1 Vsh
Rw

u
m
I Rt Rsh 1 Vsh
........ (6)
with Vsh and Rsh are shale contents and shale true
resistivity, respectively. The third water saturation
model is the one established by Hossin (1960)
Sw
144
2
a 1 V sh

Rw
I m Rt Rc

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 139 - 148
Figure 4
plot for wackestone samples drawn
to a =1 resulting in cementation factor of 1.5628.
The relatively low m value is probably due to
presence of micro stylolites and fine fractures
with dispersed clay resistivity (Rc) represented by
Variation of cementation factor results in

variation in the estimated water saturation. Error in
establishing the representative cementation results
in unreliable water saturation estimates. To observe
the effect of this a test is made using three water
saturation models. The first is the Archie model, as
described by Equation (1). The second is the Poupon
et al (Poupon et al, 1954) model of
Sw
. ........ (7)
Rc = 0.4 x Rsh. The choice over the two shaly sand

models is completely arbitrary and is exclusively
meant to serve the observation.
For the observation, a set of assumption is made
to include
Water resistivity (Rw) = 0.1 Ohm-m at reservoir
condition,
Tortuosity factor (a) = 1,
Shale resistivity
= 1 Ohm-m,
Shale contents
= 10%, and
Saturation exponent (n) = 2
For the observation, two porosity values are
chosen, 10% to represent low porosity and 25%
to represent moderate to high porosity. Figures 8
through 13 exhibit the plots. For the porosity of
10% plots for the three water saturation models
(Figures 8 through 10) clearly show variation in water
saturation estimates with variation in cementation
factors. The four curves on each figure represents
cementation factors of 1.5628 (wackestone), 1.7327
(packstone/grainstone), 1.7692 (overall data), and

BAMBANG WIDARSONO
Figure 5
plot for packstone samples drawn
The effect of micro-stylolite presence appears
to be less profound than in the case
of wackestone samples

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 139 - 148
Figure 7
plot for boundstone samples drawn
The relatively high cementation factor
value is likely to be caused by the tortuous
vuggy pore system
Figure 8
Estimated water saturation from the
use of Archie model (porosity = 10%).
Potential error due to the use of wrong
cementation factor is obvious as clearly shown
by the m = 1.5628 and m = 1.9345 curves.
Figure 6
plot for grainstone samples drawn
Similar cementation factor value to packstone
group is probably due to their common
grain-supported type of limestones
1.9345 (boundstone). Variation in water saturation is

noticeable at lower resistivity values. For instance,
at resistivity value of 8 Ohm-m the water saturation
estimated using Archie model (Figure 8) are 67% and
100% for wackestone and boundstone, respectively.
145

BAMBANG WIDARSONO
For Poupon et al and Hossin models the case are

also true but becomes narrower at higher resistivity
values than the case of Archie model due to the effect
of shale correction.
For high porosity case (porosity = 25%) water
saturation gap is also visible (Figures 11 through
13) even though narrower than the case of low
porosity. This can be taken as a proof that the effect of
cementation factor becomes less pronounced for rocks
with high porosity. This is due to the increasingly
larger contribution of porosity compared to the
cementation factor itself in the denominator of
formation resistivity factor (FR) in Equations (2)
and (3). This occurrence suggests that choice of the
right cementation factor is even more crucial in the
146

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 139 - 148
Figure 11
Estimated water saturation from the use
of Archie model (porosity = 25%).
The difference in water saturation at this
relatively high porosity is apparently less
compared to the case of low porosity
Figure 9
use of Poupon et al model (porosity = 10%).
The gap in water saturation estimates becomes
narrower at higher resistivity values
Figure 12
use of Poupon et al model (porosity = 25%).
Similar to the case of Archie model the water
saturation gap is also noticeable even though
it is not as wide as in the case of low porosity
Figure 10
of Hossin model (porosity = 10%).
The difference in water saturation estimates
is as large as in the case of Archie model
but is reduced at higher resistivity values
Figure 13
of Hossin model (porosity = 25%).
Compared to Poupon et al model the water
saturation gap is still present at higher
resistivity values

BAMBANG WIDARSONO
case of reservoirs with poor rock quality. Careless

choice for the already marginal reservoirs may result
in overlooked or bypassed zones.
VI. Further discussion
The test and litho-facies based analysis on
samples from the same limestone rocks of WJ field
have shown that litho-facies grouping is actually
specific and ignoring it tends to ends up in unrealistic
water saturation estimates. Cementation factor
that belongs to wackestone group but is applied to
boundstone group certainly lead to error in water
saturation estimates. As high as 70% error in water
saturation estimate may result when the practice is
pursued. If this is applied to calculation of original
hydrocarbon in place, a similar error may take place
and decision over plan of development of a field can
be seriously biased. A serious selection over the most
representative cementation factor for a sound and
reliable well-log analysis is needed.
From the laboratory point of view, suggestions
have to be underlined that sample grouping to be
made first so that cementation factors to be yielded
meet the litho-facies grouping of the field. Based
on this reservoir rock grouping the formation
resistivity factor test on the grouped samples is made.
Careful and selective use of cementation factors
for the appropriate reservoir rocks can be applied,
accordingly. In return, reliable and representative
estimates of hydrocarbon in place can be produced.
VII. Conclusions
From the study a set of conclusions have been
established:
- A careful reservoir rock grouping has resulted
in different cementation factors as shown
by the formation resistivity factor test in the
laboratory.
- Application of averaged cementation factor for
field-wide well-log evaluation tends to produce
either underestimated or overestimated water
saturation values.
- Application of cementation factor obtained from
poor quality reservoir rocks on good quality
reservoir rocks tends to yield pesimistic water
saturation values. This leads to existence of
overlooked or bypassed zones over the already
marginal fields.


VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 139 - 148
- The effect of wrong choice of cementation factor

has similar effect on both clean and shaly reservoir
rocks.
- Wrong choice of cementation factor has more
effect on rocks with low porosity. This is due
to the relatively low contribution of porosity on
the formation resistivity factor relative to the
contribution of the cementation factor itself. This
has an effect of too high water saturation estimates
for the already marginal reservoir rocks.
- The effect of wrong choice in cementation
factor decreases with higher resistivity values.
Nevertheless, this potential effect has to be
balanced with awareness over the tendency of
worsening water saturation estimates in the case
of tight reservoirs normally associated with high
formation resistivity values.
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to thank LEMIGAS Core
Laboratory for allowing the use of all data required
by this study.
References
1. Archie, G.E. (1942). The Electrical Resistivity
Log as an Aid in Determining Some Reservoir
Characteristics. Trans. AIME.
2. Archie, G.E. (1952). Classification of Carbonate
Reservoir Rocks and Perophysical Considerations.
Bulletin of te American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 278 298.
3. deWitte, L. (1950). Relations between Resistivities
and Fluid Contents of Porous Rocks. Oil and Gas
Journal, August 24.
4. Dunham, R. J. (1962), Classification of carbonate
rocks according to depositional texture. In: Ham,
W. E. (ed.), Classification of carbonate rocks:
American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Memoir, p. 108-121.
5. Embry, A.F., and Klovan, J.E. (1971), A Late
Devonian reef tract on Northeastern Banks Island,
NWT: Canadian Petroleum Geology Bulletin, v.
19, p. 730-781.
6. Fertl, W.H. (1975). Shaly Sand Analysis in
Development Wells. Transaction, Society of Well
Log Analysts.
147

BAMBANG WIDARSONO
7. Hellander, D.P. (1983). Fundamentals of

Formation Evaluation. OGCI Inc., 4554 South
Harvard Avenue, Tulsa Oklahoma 74135, p.
331.
8. Hossin, A. (1960). Calcul des Saturation Eneau
par la Methode Cu Ciment Argileux (Formule
dArchie Generalisse). Bulletin, AFTP.
9. Pirson, S.J. (1958). Oil Reservoir Engineering.
2 nd edition, McGraw-hill Boo Co. Inc. New
York.
148

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 139 - 148
10. Poupon, A., Loy, M.E. & Tixier, M.P. (1954). A

Contribution to Electric Interpretation in Shaly
Sands. Journal of Petroleum Technology, August,
pp: 29 34.
11. Waxman, M.H. & Smits, L.J.M. (1968).
Electrical Conductivity in Oil-bearing Shaly
Sands. Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal,
June.
RANKING OF INDONESIA SEDIMENTARY

BASIN AND STORAGE CAPACITY ESTIMATES FOR CO2
GEOLOGICAL STORAGE
Utomo P. Iskandar1), Sudarman Sofyan2), and Usman3)
Candidate Researcher , Earth Investigator2), Researcher3) at LEMIGAS R & D Centre for Oil and Gas Technology
email:utomo@lemigas.esdm.go.id
First Registered on September 26th 2011; Received after Corection on September 28th 2011
1)
Abstract
The various possible strategies to combat global warming are explored within a wideranging of efforts. Practical solutions will need to stop or even reverse the build-up of CO2 in the
environment by using existing technology that has not been integrated, carbon dioxide capture
and storage (CCS) (Hansson, 2008). The main objectives of this study are to develop criteria for
sedimentary basins ranking system in terms of their suitability for CO2 storage and estimate the
storage capacity available. We adapt the method developed by Bachu (2003) to the Indonesia
geological characteristics. Once the criteria has been developed and the basins ranked based on
their suitability, oil and gas fields located within these basins were estimated their potential storage
capacity using the methodology developed by Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum (CSLF).
From 60 identified sedimentary basins, Kutei, Tarakan and South Sumatera basins are
respectively positioned in top three of the ranking system. Well known geological structure,
adequate data, relatively stable geological structure and established infrastructures are
the main factors make these basins have higher suitability. Estimation result showed from
48 fields that are considered depleted from their Np/Ult ratio (hydrocarbon cumulative
production over ultimate recovery), Riau and South Sumatera region have large storage
capacities which are around 229 and 144 MtCO2 respectively. The ranking of Indonesia
sedimentary basins can then be used in making decisions for the large-scale implementation
of CCS Project. The potential storage capacity might increase as data more available. The
estimates resulted from this study is not a conclusive estimation where degree of geological
and economic uncertainty associated with a capacity estimate is still high. However, from
this estimation shows that Indonesia has huge potential of CO2 storage in depleted oil
and gas reservoirs
Keywords: Ranking of sedimentary basin, basin suitability, CO2 geological storage, storage
capacity estimates
I. INTRODUCTION
The evergrowing need for energy to drive economic growth in both developed and developing
countries, coupled to an overwhelming dependence
on fossil fuels, has led to rising atmospheric levels of
CO2 and to climate change. In the meanwhile CO2 is
the unavoidable product of fossil fuel consumption.
Therefore, the use of fossil fuels collides directly

with global environmental concerns. Unfortunately,

fossil fuels are difficult to replace, but stabilising
the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide
requires a nearly complete transition to a carbonneutral economy (Hester et al., 2010). The various
possible strategies to combat global warming are
explored within a wide-ranging. Some of practical
solutions to utilise the worlds huge remaining fossil149

UTOMO P. ISKANDAR, ET AL.
fuel resources without adding an unmanageable

burden of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere by using
existing technology that has not been integrated,
carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) (Hansson,
2008).
In Indonesia excellent opportunities exist in
deploying this low carbon technology because of
the availability of sedimentary basins that contain
geological media such as oil and gas reservoirs
and CO2 captured ready from gas processing plant.
The opportunities may take advantage of the fact
that in time part of the existing gas infrastructure
may become available for transport of the captured
CO2 and capacity of geological media as more fields
are depleted. However, the suitability of existing
sedimentary basins and the capacity of the geological
formation have not been assessed and estimated yet.
The main objectives of this study are to develop
criteria for sedimentary basins ranking system
in terms of their suitability for CO2 storage and
estimate the storage capacity available. We adapt the
method developed by Bachu (2003) to the Indonesia
geological characteristics. Once the criteria has
been developed and the basins ranked based on
their suitability, oil and gas fields located within
these basins were estimated their potential storage
capacity using the methodology developed by Carbon
Sequestration Leadership Forum (CSLF).
II. DEVELOPMENT CRITERIA OF
SCREENING AND RANKING
A regional study of crustal type and present
tectonic setting has identified 60 Tertiary sedimentary
basins in Indonesia. In the west mostly developed in
the Tertiary Period, while in the eastern Indonesia
initiated earlier since Mesozoic or event Palaeozoic
era. However, they are variously suited for CO2
storage. The first step in the process of site selection
for CO 2 storage is the basin-scale suitability
assessment. Therefore to assess the suitability of
the basins we modified and adapted the method
developed by Bachu (2003) in which he used for
Canada sedimentary basins to specifically Indonesia
sedimentary basins. The suitability criteria developed
and applied to the Indonesia Sedimentary Basin can
be expanded to include other factors that can be
assessed in a qualitative manner. A set of 10 criteria,
with several classes each, has been adapted for the
assessment and ranking of sedimentary basins in
150

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 149 - 156
terms of their suitability for CO2 storage.

Most of the categories were qualitatively
and uniformly applied across the basin. The
criteria development of Indonesian basins relate
to hydrogeology, coal and CBM, salts and etc. are
excluded due to the information used is either not
available or it requires significant effort and resources
for processing. Most of the data are commonly
readily available from national or state geological
survey organisations such as regional maps or
published maps cover the whole Indonesia regions
as follows:
- Indonesian tectonic and structural map published
by BPMIGAS and several Universities Consortium
(Aug, 2008)
- Western Indonesia chronostratigraphic tertiary
correlation diagram,
- Stratigraphic summary of eastern Indonesia,
- Status of Indonesia sedimentary basin (Dec,
2006),
- Regional heatflow map of Indonesia,
- Sesimic data and drilling record,
- Earthquake zone map of Indonesia,
- Sedimentary basin classification based on tectonic
plate framework (Koesoemadinata, 1978),
- Total sediment thickness map (Pertamina and
UNOCAL, 1997),
- Indonesia oil and gas reserves database maintained
by LEMIGAS (LEMIGAS, 2009),
- Leads and prospect maps,
- List of depleted oil and gas fields (LEMIGAS,
2009).
Table 1 is a modified version of the basin-scale
criteria for CO2 storage developed by Bachu (2003)
that have been specifically adapted to Indonesian
sedimentary basins. For each criterion, the classes
are arranged from least favourable to most favourable
from left to right across the table increasing CO2
storage potential.
Onshore & offshore: Sedimentary basins location
affects much the accessibility of storage sites. It
also provides an important economic consideration,
and creates public perception and land use issues
of preferential for CO2 storage. This criterion is
defined from sedimentary basin map of Indonesia
that showing the location of the basins. Geothermal:


VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 149 - 156
Table 1
Criteria for assessing Indonesia sedimentary basins for CO2 storage
Category of each class on criterion for geothermal

regime is based on heatflow map. This criterion
reflects the storage volume where as the density
of CO2 is higher in colder basins than in warmer
basins, allowing more CO2 to be contained within the
same unit volume of rock. Maturity: The maturity
indicates the availability and intensity of data in the
region such as seismic and drilling. The development
of 4 classes of this criterion is according to seismic
data distribution, drilling records and basin status.
Geology: This criterion is based on faults and
fractures intensity and distribution of Indonesia
structural map. The regions with such characteristics
may raise the issue of safety which will lead to a
potential and risk for either catastrophic escape or
significant continuous leakage of CO2 to the surface
(Bachu, 2003). Tectonic setting: Basins located in
tectonically active areas are the least favourable
because they are prone to large earthquakes and have
a potential risk for leakage. This criterion is defined
in accordance with crustal type and relative plate
motion of basin classification.
Depth: Depth is one of the most important elements
in determining injected CO2 phase behaviour and
variation of CO2 properties in underground. We
used total sediment thickness map. Basin size:

reflects the overall storage volume achievable, as

the larger the basin the greater the likelihood of
having laterally extensive reservoir and seal pairs,
possibly in multiple stratigraphic intervals, and
therefore the greater the likelihood of injectable pore
volume (CO2CRC, 2010). Hydrocarbon potential:
This criterion provides potential application of oil
and gas reservoirs of being used as CO2 geological
formation as they have already pore volume and seal
pairs. To define each classes of hydrocarbon potential
we used reserves and resources data. Accessibility:
Accessibility reflects the variability in conditions in
terms of getting the captured anthropogenic CO2 from
source to the point of storage site and ease of future
developments (Bachu, 2003 and CO2CRC, 2010).
Infrastructure: Existing infrastructure potentially
to be reused is one of the semi-soft criteria in
determining the start up of CO2 storage project.
III. RANKING OF SEDIMENTARY BASINS
We divided into 5 steps systematically to rank
identified sedimentary basin using the method
developed by Bachu as summrazied briefly in the
figure below:
1. For each criterion has its own score reflecting the
basin suitability (table 1). Using the formula as
151


VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 149 - 156
Figure 1
Steps for ranking sedimentary basin
Table 2
Scores and weight assigned to the criteria and classes
SCORE
NO
152
Criteria
Class
J=1
J=2
J=3
J=4
J=5
Weight
On/ Offshore
10
0,15
Geothermal
0,13
Maturity
0,11
Geology
0,11
Tectonic Setting
10
13
15
0,09
Depth (meter)
0,09
Size
0,08
HC Potential
13
21
0,08
Accessibility
10
0,08
10
Infrastructures
10
0,08


VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 149 - 156
depicted on the first step figure above, individual

score from each criterion is calculated. In essence,
the formula normalizes the criteria that have different degree of importance into dimensionless
variable.
score and weighting factor are defined subjectively but they are controlled with the given data
and arrived at according to common sense and
based on sound engineering judgment. This is
not a surprise, as there will always be gray areas
where we have to interpret the data for criteria
developement, and make educated definition for
each score and weigth.
2. Step 2 comprises determining the weighting factor that has been defined as follows:

The weights for the criteria were re-assigned to

meet the condition in Indonesia and to reflect
local circumstances and priorities. Although
3. Next is employing the equation on the step 3

above where we have to calculate general score
from each criterion.
Table 3
List of ranking sedimentary basin in terms of basin suitability
IND BASIN
Rank
Final Score
IND BASIN
Rank
Final Score
KUTEI
0.9128
31
LARIANG
0.4644
TARAKAN
0.7773
32
SPERMONDE
0.4576
SOUTH SUMATERA
0.7579
33
BANGGAI
0.4305
SERAM
0.7347
34
TUKANG BESI
0.4276
NORTH WEST JAVA
0.7259
35
SAHUL
0.4262
BARITO
0.7221
36
SOUTH HALMAHERA
0.4252
CENTRAL SUMATERA
0.7150
37
GORONTALO
0.4245
NORTH SUMATERA
0.7019
38
SOUTH BALI-LOMBOK
0.3979
SALAWATI
0.6904
39
MINAHASA
0.3929
10
NORTH EAST JAVA
0.6830
40
MISSOL
0.3839
11
BINTUNI
0.6650
41
BILLITON
0.3821
12
BENGKULU
0.6655
42
BIAK
0.3655
13
WEST NATUNA
0.6432
43
SOUTH JAVA
0.3599
14
BONE
0.6095
44
SALABANGKA
0.3515
15
MELAWI
0.6039
45
WAROPEN
0.3515
16
PEMBUANG
0.5905
46
NORTH HALMAHERA
0.3315
17
PATI
0.5876
47
WEBER
0.3265
18
NORTH EAST JAVA SEA
0.5854
48
TANIMBAR
0.3129
19
TIMOR
0.5731
49
SOUTH SERAM
0.3129
20
AKIMEUGAH
0.5717
50
JAYAPURA
0.3129
21
KETUNGAU
0.5339
51
SOUTH SULA
0.3065
22
SULA
0.5176
52
NORTH OBI
0.3065
23
ASEM-ASEM
0.5139
53
SOUTH OBI
0.3065
24
SOUTH MAKASSAR
0.5128
54
WEST WEBER
0.2865
25
BUTON
0.5065
55
WEST BURU
0.2865
26
SUNDA
0.4985
56
EAST HALMAHERA
0.2615
27
WAIPOGA
0.4980
57
FLORES
0.2532
28
ARU
0.4905
58
SAVU
0.2268
29
EAST NATUNA
0.4718
59
MANUI
0.1980
30
SIBOLGA
0.4705
60
BURU
0.1765
153

4. The fourth step is tabulating general score from

the whole criteria before summing up the total
score. At this point, the total score of basin
suitability has been resulted.
3. In the end, in order to see which basin position
on the top ten rank, we have to sort descending
based on the total score.
IV. STORAGE CAPACITY ESTIMATION
METHODOLOGY
After having ranking the sedimentary basins
subsequent assessment is the estimate of potential
CO2 storage capacity of depleted oil and gas fields
located within these sedimentary basins. We defined
depleted oil and gas fields which have Np/Ult ratio
(hydrocarbon cumulative production over ultimate
recovery) more than or equal 55%. Screening
result from our databases showed there are 142
depleted oil and gas fields are considered depleted.
Data availability is a major constraint in estimating
CO2 storage capacity in such scale of assessment.
Therefore, only 66 fields from 142 fields had
complete data to be estimated.
Oil and gas fields are comprised of certain
number of reservoirs that are considered as a single
discrete, hence estimating CO2 storage capacity in the
scale of field is possible by summing the individual
reservoirs. We used the methodology for estimating
storage capacity in depleted oil and gas reservoirs
that initially developed by CSLF but then simplified
by Poulsen et al. The formula (Eq. 1) assumes
that volume previously occupied by the produced
hydrocarbons becomes, by and large, available for
CO2 storage. It also represents the scale of calculation
which is theoretical storage capacity or maximum
upper limit to a capacity estimate.
MCO2t = CO2r [R f A h (1 S w) Viw
+ V pw]
.
.... (1)
Poulsen et. al, 2009 (Eq. 2) in his report Geological
Assessment for CO2 Storage in the Bohai Basin, East
China, basically eliminates some variables by not
taking into account fraction of injected gas, volumes
of injected and produced water. This assumes that the
reservoir is not flooded during secondary and tertiary
oil recovery (pressure-depleted fields).
MCO2
154
U CO r u UR u Seff
2
... (2)

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 149 - 156
V. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

By compiling data on the criteria above and
totaling the score of each basins, different basins
can be compared, contrasted and ranked for their
suitability for CO2 storage. The results show not
all sedimentary basins are equally suitable for CO2
storage, only Kutei, Tarakan and South Sumatera
basins listed on the top three rank among the others.
Table 3 below shows the ranking of identified 60
sedimentary basins in terms of their suitability for
CO2 storage:
It indicates that these basins have high suitability
for CO2 storage where most of them are comprised of
well characterized reservoirs that lead to higher data
intensity. The second is they are located in relatively
stable geological activity, although we realize that
there is seismic activity occurs in South Sumatera,
but the distribution of earthquake hypocenter is
deep (>150 km), if any, only present very scattered.
Existing infrastructure that are already built in place,
the ease for future development particularly of getting
CO2 captured to storage sites and having adequate
depth are also the main factors why these basins are
favorable. This ranking can be then used in making
decisions for the large-scale implementation of CCS
Project.
The initial estimates (Figure 2) show Riau and
South Sumatera are considered have large storage
capacities which are around 229 and 144 million ton
of CO2 respectively. Below is the result of storage
capacity estimation from depleted oil and gas fields in
Indonesia by using the methodology that developed
by Poulsen et al.:
This is not apart from the fact that many oil
and gas fields were discovered in these regions and
hydrocarbon extraction has been going on since
a century ago. Moreover, Riau region is located
in extensive Central Sumatera Basins and South
Sumatera region has basin that extends to the north
of Lampung region. Extensive petroleum activities
in East Kalimantan have provided potential depleted
hydrocarbon reservoirs in where this region has
CO2 storage capacity almost 130 MtCO2. In the
meanwhile, storage capacity in Java Island is circa
105 MtCO2 in total.
The distribution of CO2 storage capacity map
above reflects theoretical maximum storage capacity


VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 149 - 156
Figure 2
Map of storage capacity distribution of depleted oil and gas reservoirs
in Indonesia overlaid with top 10 rank basins
that based on data availability during the assessment.

The potential storage capacity might increase as data
more available. The estimates resulted from this
study is not conclusive where degree of geological
and economic uncertainty associated with a capacity
estimate is still high. However, from this estimation
shows that Indonesia has huge potential of CO2
storage in depleted oil and gas reservoirs.
VI. CONCLUSION
- From 60 identified sedimentary basins, Kutei,
Tarakan and South Sumatera basins are
respectively positioned in top three of the
ranking system. Well known geological structure,
adequate data, relatively stable geological
structure and established infrastructures are the
main factors make these basins have higher
suitability.
- The ranking results can be then used in making
decisions for future large-scale implementation
of CCS Project

- The estimates showed depleted oil and gas

fields in Indonesia have enormous potential for
CO2 storage. At the moment, the largest storage
capacity located in Riau region and followed by
South Sumatra with capacity 229 and 144 million
ton of CO2 respectively.
- The storage capacity resulted from this study is
not a conclusive estimation. The potential storage
capacity might increase as more data are available
and potentially change current rank of largest
storage capacity in each region.
Nomenclature
CO2r = CO2 density at reservoir conditions (best
estimate)
URp = proven ultimate recoverable oil or gas
Seff = storage efficiency factor
Fi,j
= criteria-i and classes-j
Fi,1 = criteria -1 with classes-1
Fi,n = criteria -i and classes-n;
155

n
w
R
P
Rf
Bf
= the amount of class (3, 4, or 5)

= weight
= general score
= individual score
= recovery factor
= the formation volume factor that brings
the oil volume from standard conditions
to in-situ conditions
Viw
= volumes of injected water (applicable in
the case of oil reservoirs)
Vpw = volumes of produced water (applicable in
the case of oil reservoirs)
A, h, = reservoir area, thickness, and porosity
Sw
= water saturation
References
1. Bachu, S., Bonijoly, D., Bradshaw, J., Burruss, R., Christensen, N.P. Holloway, S., and
Mathiassen, O.M., 2007, Estimation of CO2
storage capacity in Geological Media Phase 2,
Washington: Carbon Sequestration Leadership
Forum.
2. Bachu, S., 2003, Screening and ranking of
sedimentary basins for sequestration of CO2 in
geological media in response to climate change,
Environmental Geology.
3. CO2CRC, 2008, Storage Capacity Estimation,
Site Selection and Characterisation for CO2
Storage Projects, Cooperative Research Centre for
Greenhouse Gas Technologies, Canberra. CO2CRC
Report No. RPT08-1001.
4. DOE, 2008, Carbon Sequestration Atlas II of
The United States and Canada, US Department
of Energy Office of Fossil Energy and National
Energy Technology Laboratory.
5. Gibson-Poole, C M, 2008, Site Characterisation
for Geological Storage of Carbon Dioxide:
Examples of Potential Sites from Northwest
156

VOL. 34. NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2011 : 149 - 156
Australia. Thesis (PhD), the University of

Adelaide.
6. Hansson, A., 2008, The return of coal: carbon
dioxide capture and storage in science and
politics. Linko ping Studies in Arts and Science
436.
7. Hester, R. E. and Harrison, R. M., 2010, Issues
In Environmental Science and Technology Vol 29:
Carbon Capture Sequestration and Storage.RSC
Publishing. The Royal Society of Chemistry.
8. Koesoemadinata, 1978, Sedimentary
basin classification based on tectonic plate
framework.
9. LEMIGAS, 2009, Indonesia oil and gas reserves
database.
10. Pertamina and UNOCAL, 1997, Total sediment
thickness map.
11. Poulsen, N., 2009, Geological assessment for
CO2 storage in the Bohai Basin, East China,
COACH Project, Geological Survey of Denmark
and Greenland (GEUS).
12. Span, R. and Wagner, W., 1996, A New Equation
of State for Carbon Dioxide covering the Fluid
Region from the Triple-point Temperature to 1100
K at Pressures up to 800 MPa, J. Phys. Chem. Ref.
Data, Vol. 25, No. 6, pp. 1509~1596.
13. Stevens, S H, Kuuskra, V A and Gale, J. 2001,
Sequestration of CO2 in depleted oil and gas
fields: global capacity, costs and barriers. In:
D J Williams, R A Durie, P McMullan, C A J
Paulson & A Y Smith (eds.) Greenhouse Gas
Control Technologies: Proceedings of the Fifth
International Conference on Greenhouse Gas
Control Technologies, 13-16 August 2000, Cairns,
Australia. CSIRO Publishing, pp. 278-283.
14. Van der Meer, L.G.H., and Egberts, P.J.P.,
2008, A General Method for Calculating
Subsurface CO2 Storage Capacity. Offshore
Technology Conference.
SUBJECT INDEX
B
Baturaja Formation 105, 106, 111, 115, 116
Palynological zonation 95, 96, 99, 103
better practice 139
polyacrylamide (PAM) 127, 128
basin suitability 149, 151, 153
partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM)

b127, 128, 137
C
CO2 storage 117, 119, 120, 125, 126
cementation factor 139, 140, 141, 142, 143,

144, 145, 146, 147
risks analysis 117
CO2 geological storage 149
Retention/adsorption 127, 130
Rheology 127, 130, 132

Ranking of sedimentary basin 149
East Java Sea 95
erroneous water saturation 139
storage capacity estimates 149
Filtration 127, 130, 132, 133, 136
Thermal stability 127, 129
geological reservoirs 117, 118, 120
Oligocene 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 103
Injection 127, 130, 135, 136
wettability 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111,

113, 114, 115, 116
improper use 139

L
limestone 105, 106, 107, 111, 113, 114,
115, 116
wettability variation 105

wettability alteration 105,, 113, 114, 115,
116
M
mobility control 127, 128, 136, 137
157
158
159

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Cover

Tools Name : Constant temperature bath/viscosimeter

Volume 34, No. 2, September 2011

: Dra. Yanni Kussuryani, M.Si. (Chemist)

: Ir. Daru Siswanto (Chemical Engineering)

Ass. Managing Editor : Drs. Heribertus Joko Kristadi, M.Si. (Geophysic)

1. Prof, Dr. Maizar Rahman (Chemical Engineering)

: 1. Dr. Ir. Usman, M.Eng. (Petroleum Engineering)

2. Ir. Sugeng Riyono, M.Phil. (Chemical Engineering)

4. Abdul Haris, S.Si., M.Si. (Chemistry and Environment)

1. Prof. Dr. Ir. Septoratno Siregar (Petroleum Engineering)

Volume 34, Number 2, September 2011

OLIGOCENE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION SCHEME

Rock Wettability Characteristics of Some Indonesian

RISKS ANALYSIS OF CARBON DIOXIDE STORAGE IN GEOLOGICAL

POLYMER PROPERTIES DETERMINATION FOR DESIGNING

The Importance of Litho-facies Distinction in Determining

RANKING OF INDONESIA SEDIMENTARY BASIN AND STORAGE

Jakarta, September 2011

elements. The above palynological zonation suggests

Bambang Widarsono (Researcher at LEMIGAS R

Systematic biostratigraphic analyses have been

Keywords: Oligocene, Palynological zonation, East

limestone are indeed more inclined to oil wettability

Keywords: wettability, limestone, Baturaja

Bambang Widarsono (1)Researcher at LEMIGAS R

Cementation factor is a parameter always required

The various possible strategies to combat global

Kutei, Tarakan and South Sumatera basins are

OLIGOCENE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION SCHEME

is NW of Madura (Figure 1), the Kujung Formation

OLIGOCENE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION SCHEME

well in this area, and so the succession has

SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS

followed by the alkali treatment using 10% KOH

OLIGOCENE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION SCHEME

III. STRATIGRAPHY OF THE STUDY AREA

SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS

deposited over pre-Tertiary basement during

OLIGOCENE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION SCHEME

SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS

transgressive sediment as indicated by the occurrence

and I. Kujung unit III is the oldest (Late Oligocene)

OLIGOCENE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION SCHEME

Ngrayong Sand (Formation) conformably occurred

SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS

species appears much lower stratigraphically in Well

This zone is difficult to define, and is based

Nannofossil recovery from both sections

This zone is characterized by the regular

SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS

OLIGOCENE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION SCHEME

SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS

OLIGOCENE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION SCHEME

SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS

OLIGOCENE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION SCHEME

OLIGOCENE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION SCHEME

Gramineae pollen and Echiperiporites schoutenioides

SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS

zone OL-4 is marked by abundant Dacrydium and

OLIGOCENE PALYNOLOGICAL ZONATION SCHEME

8. Martini, E., 1971. Standard Tertiary and

SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS

10. Morley, R.J., 2000, Origin and Evolution of