Cognitive radio (CR) is one of the new long term developments taking place and radio receiver and

radio communications technology. After the Software Defined Radio (SDR) which is slowly becoming
more of a reality, cognitive radio (CR) and cognitive radio technology will be the next major step
forward enabling more effective radio communications systems to be developed.
The idea for cognitive radio has come out of the need to utilise the radio spectrum more efficiently,
and to be able to maintain the most efficient form of communication for the prevailing conditions. By
using the levels of processing that are available today, it is possible to develop a radio that is able to
look at the spectrum, detect which frequencies are clear, and then implement the best form of
communication for the required conditions. In this way cognitive radio technology is able to select the
frequency band, the type of modulation, and power levels most suited to the requirements, prevailing
conditions and the geographic regulatory requirements.

Cognitive radio definition

There are likely to be a variety of different views of what exactly what a cognitive radio may be.
Accordingly a definition of a cognitive radio may be of use in a number of instances.
A cognitive radio may be defined as a radio that is aware of its environment, and the internal state and
with a knowledge of these elements and any stored pre-defined objectives can make and implement
decisions about its behaviour.
In general the cognitive radio may be expected to look at parameters such as channel occupancy, free
channels, the type of data to be transmitted and the modulation types that may be used. It must also
look at the regulatory requirements. In some instances a knowledge of geography and this may alter
what it may be allowed to do.
In some instances it may be necessary to use a software defined radio, so that it can reconfigure itself
to meet the achieve the optimal transmission technology for a given set of parameters. Accordingly
Cognitive radio technology and software defined radio are often tightly linked.

Cognitive radio history

There have been many factors that have lead to the development of cognitive radio technology. One
of the major drivers has been the steady increase in the requirement for the radio spectrum along with
a drive for improved communications and speeds. In turn this has lead to initiatives to make more
effective use of the spectrum, often with an associated cost dependent upon the amount of spectrum
used. In addition to this there have been many instances where greater communications flexibility has
been required. Along the way, there have been several significant milestones along the road to
develop cognitive radio technology.
One example that exemplified the need for flexible communications occurred in the Netherlands in
2000 when a fireworks factory exploded killing 23 people, destroying much of the town and injuring
more than a thousand people. While dealing with this catastrophe, the emergency services (fire,

medical, police, etc) experienced real communications difficulties because they all had different
communications systems and were unable to communicate with the other services.
Another major emergency was the 9-11 terrorist attacks in the USA. Again communications difficulties
were experienced.
While often a variety of radios would be needed for intercommunications, this would not be viable for
small groups of people, and reconfigurable radios would have enabled far more effective
communications to be achieved.
With spectrum becoming a more scarce resource many radio regulatory bodies started to look at how
it might be more effectively used.
In the UK a report by Professor Cave was published in 2002 detailing the possibility of selling spectrum
dependent upon the bandwidth required. This cognitive radio technology would lend itself to this
approach of spectrum management as it would be able to utilise areas that were temporarily free and
thereby maximise the use of particular areas.
Similarly others had been working on the possibility of self configuring radios. In fact the term
"Cognitive Radio" was coined by Joseph Mitola while he was writing his doctoral thesis on the topic in
2002.

Intelligence and flexibility

Work is under way to determine the best methods of developing a radio communications system that
would be able to fulfil the requirements for a CR system. Although the level of processing required
may not be fully understood yet, it is clear that a significant level of processing will be needed. The
radio will need to determine the occupancy of the available spectrum, and then decide the best power
level, mode of transmission and other necessary characteristics. Additionally the radio will need to be
able to judge the level of interference it may cause to other users. This is an equally important
requirement for the radio communications system if it is to operate effectively and be allowed access
to bands that might otherwise be barred.

Cognitive radio architecture

In addition to the level of processing required for cognitive radio, the RF sections will need to be
particularly flexible. Not only may they need to swap frequency bands, possibly moving between
portions of the radio communications spectrum that are widely different in frequency, but they may
also need to change between transmission modes that could occupy different bandwidths.
To achieve the required level of performance will need a very flexible front end. Traditional front end
technology cannot handle these requirements because they are generally band limited, both for the
form of modulation used and the frequency band in which they operate. Even so called wide band
receivers have limitations and generally operate by switching front ends as required. Accordingly, the
required level of performance can only be achieved by converting to and from the signal as close to

the antenna as possible. In this way no analogue signal processing will be needed, all the processing
being handled by the digital signal processing.
The conversion to and from the digital format is handled by digital to analogue converters (DACs) and
analogue to digital converters (ADCs). To achieve the performance required for a cognitive radio, not
only must the DACs and ADCs have an enormous dynamic range, and be able to operate over a very
wide range, extending up to many GHz, but in the case of the transmitter they must be able to handle
significant levels of power.
Currently these requirements are beyond the limits of the technology available. Thus the full vision for
cognitive radio cannot yet be met.
Nevertheless in the future the required DAC and ADC technology will undoubtedly become available,
thereby making cognitive radio a reality.

Cognitive radio examples

While a considerable degree of research has been undertaken and a number of limited trials of
cognitive radio technology have taken place, one of the first examples of a widely manufactured and
distributed cognitive radio system is to be found in the cellular telecommunications arena. Here the
idea of femtocell base stations has been developed to allow users to have achieve far better 3G
coverage within their homes. Using the ADSL backhaul to link into the network, the new femtocells
are effectively a form of cellular access point.
To operate correctly these femtocells must not cause interference to the main network, nor to any
adjacent femtocells. To achieve this, cognitive radio technology has been used. By using cognitive
radio, the femtocells are able to monitor their environment, select which geographic area they are in
to ensure they comply with regulatory standards, and then choose a suitable channel frequency.

Acceptance
With wire-less and radio communications becoming far more widely used, and the current levels of
growth looking to increase, ideas such as cognitive radio will become more important. Some areas of
the spectrum are very heavily used while others are relatively free.
Additionally the ability to change modes, frequencies and power levels will not only make
communication possible for the cognitive radio system itself, but should also reduce the overall levels
of interference to other users.
This is because the most spectrum or interference efficient modes can be chosen by the cognitive
radio system.
In view of the possibility of CR radio communications systems utilising the spectrum more efficiently
some regulatory bodies such as the FCC in the USA and Ofcom in the UK are looking favourably at
the idea of cognitive radio. When the idea becomes a reality it would enable greater efficient use of
the radio spectrum, which is not an infinite resource as it once was considered. Accordingly the way

may be opened from this viewpoint to assist the development of cognitive radio communications
technology.
Cognitive radio is a powerful concept on its own. However under some circumstances it is possible to
build a network of radios - nodes by linking several cognitive radio nodes. In this way several elements
of the performance can be considerably enhanced.
In many instances a single cognitive radio will communicate with several non-cognitive radio stations
as in the case of a femtocell which requires cognitive functionality to set itself up, and then
communicate with non-cognitive cell-phones. In other cases, several cognitive radios will be able to
form a network and act as an overall cognitive radio network. This scenario has many advantages in
terms of improving the performance of the overall network well beyond that of the individual elements.

Cognitive radio network advantages

The use of a cognitive radio network provides a number of advantages when compared to cognitive
radios operating purely autonomously:

Improved spectrum sensing: By using cognitive radio networks, it is possible to gain

significant advantages in terms of spectrum sensing. [see later pages in this tutorial].

Improved coverage: By setting up cognitive radio network, it is possible to relay data from
one node to the next. In this way power levels can be reduced and performance maintained.

With Cognitive Radio being used in a number of applications, the area of spectrum sensing has
become increasingly important. As Cognitive Radio technology is being used to provide a method of
using the spectrum more efficiently, spectrum sensing is key to this application.
The ability of Cognitive Radio systems to access spare sections of the radio spectrum, and to keep
monitoring the spectrum to ensure that the Cognitive Radio system does not cause any undue
interference relies totally on the spectrum sensing elements of the system.
For the overall system to operate effectively and to provide the required improvement in spectrum
efficiency, the Cognitive Radio spectrum sensing system must be able to effectively detect any other
transmissions, identify what they are and inform the central processing unit within the Cognitive Radio
so that the required action can be taken.

Cognitive Radio Spectrum Sensing basics

In many areas cognitive radio systems coexist with other radio systems, using the same spectrum but
without causing undue interference. When sensing the spectrum occupancy, the cognitive radio
system must accommodate a variety of considerations:

Continuous spectrum sensing:

It is necessary for the cognitive radio system to
continuously sense the spectrum occupancy. Typically a cognitive radio system will utilise the
spectrum on a non-interference basis to the primary user. Accordingly it is necessary for the
Cognitive radio system to continuously sense the spectrum in case the primary user returns.

Monitor for alternative empty spectrum: In case the primary user returns to the spectrum
being used, the cognitive radio system must have alternative spectrum available to which it
can switch should the need arise.

Monitor type of transmission: It is necessary for the cognitive radio to sense the type of
transmission being received. The cognitive radio system should be able to determine the type
of transmission used by the primary user so that spurious transmissions and interference are
ignored as well as transmissions made by the cognitive radio system itself.

Types of cognitive radio spectrum sensing

There are a number of ways in which cognitive radios are able to perform spectrum sensing. The ways
in which cognitive radio spectrum sensing can be performed falls into one of two categories:

Non-cooperative spectrum sensing:

This form of spectrum sensing, occurs when a
cognitive radio acts on its own. The cognitive radio will configure itself according to the signals
it can detect and the information with which it is pre-loaded.

Cooperative spectrum sensing : Within a cooperative cognitive radio spectrum sensing

system, sensing will be undertaken by a number of different radios within a cognitive radio
network. Typically a central station will receive reports of signals from a variety of radios in the
network
and
adjust
the
overall
cognitive
radio
network
to
suit.
Cognitive radio cooperation reduces problems of interference where a single cognitive radio
cannot hear a primary user because of issues such as shading from the primary user, but a
second primary user acting as a receiver may be able to hear both the primary user and the
signal from the cognitive radio system.

Cognitive radio spectrum sensing methodologies

There are a number of attributes that must be incorporated into any cognitive radio spectrum sensing
scheme. These ensure that the spectrum sensing is undertaken to meet the requirements for the
particular applications. The methodology and attributes assigned to the spectrum sensing ensure that
the cognitive radio system is able to avoid interference to other users while maintaining its own
performance.

Spectrum sensing bandwidth: There are a number of issues associated with the spectrum
sensing bandwidth. The first is effectively the number of channels on which the system will
sense whether they are occupied. By sensing channels apart from the one currently in use,
the system will be able to build up a picture of alternative channels that can be used should
the current one become occupied. Secondly the actual reception bandwidth needs to be
determined. A narrow bandwidth will reduce the system noise floor and thereby improve the
sensitivity, but it must also have a sufficiently wide bandwidth to detect the likely transmissions
on the channel.

Transmission type sensing: The system must be capable of identifying the transmission of
the primary user for the channel. It must also identify transmissions of other units in the same
system as itself. It should also be able to identify other types of transmission that may be
spurious signals, etc.

Spectrum sensing accuracy: The cognitive radio spectrum sensing mechanism must be
able to detect any other signal levels accurately so that the number of false alarms is
minimised.

Spectrum sensing timing windows: It is necessary that the cognitive radio spectrum
sensing methodology allows time slots when it does not transmit to enable the system to detect
other signals. These must be accommodated within the frame format for the overall system.

Spectrum sensing instabilities

When developing a methodology it is necessary to ensure that the overall system remains stable.
There are instances where levels of occupancy increase where cognitive radio systems will continually
move from one channel to another. This considerably reduces the efficiency and at the worst case
could almost render the system inoperable.
To illustrate the types of scenario that could be encountered, consider the case where channel
occupancy is high and a limited number of channels are allocated or are available. The first cognitive
radio system may have settled on a channel, but then detects another user so it moves to the next
channel. This second channel may have been in use by another user which detects the new channel
occupancy and moves. This could continue until the final user then moves into the first channel and
the whole procedure repeats.
While it is possible that events may not occur in exactly this fashion, these types of scenario will occur
and the cognitive radio spectrum sensing algorithms must be designed to take account of these forms
of scenario, and ensure the optimum usage of the available spectrum.
Also with cognitive radio usage increasing, there will be an increase in signal frequency agility and
signals will often appear on new frequencies. Accordingly this must be built into the decision algorithms
to ensure that CR systems only move when it is necessary.
Cognitive radio spectrum sensing is one of the key algorithms associated with the whole field of
cognitive radio. As experience grows, the cognitive radio spectrum sensing techniques will be refined

and they will be designed to accommodate the increasing use of the spectrum as well as any malicious
attacks that could be presented to CR systems.

Cognitive radio cooperative spectrum sensing techniques have been developed considerably as a
variety of cognitive radio network systems technologies have increased. While non-cooperative
spectrum sensing is applicable for many applications, it has a number of drawbacks for many
applications.
In cognitive radio applications where a cognitive radio network is present, cooperative spectrum
sensing is not only advantageous, it becomes essential if the network as a whole is to avoid
interference with any primary users.

What is cooperative spectrum sensing

Cognitive radio cooperative spectrum sensing occurs when a group or network of cognitive radios
share the sense information they gain. This provides a better picture of the spectrum usage over the
area where the cognitive radios are located.
There are broadly two approaches to cooperative spectrum sensing:

Centralised approach: In this approach to cognitive radio cooperative spectrum sensing,

there is a master node within the network that collects the sensing information from all the
sense nodes or radios within the network. It then analyses the information and determines the
frequencies that can and cannot be used.
The cognitive radio central node or controller can also organise the various sensor nodes to
undertake different measurements at different times. In this way it is possible to undertake a
number of different sense actions at the same time. For example, some nodes may be
instructed to detect on channel signal levels, while others may be instructed to measure levels
on adjacent channels to determine suitable alternatives in case a channel change is required.

Distributed approach:
Using the distributed approach for cognitive radio cooperative
spectrum sensing, no one node takes control. Instead communication exists between the
different nodes and they are able to share sense information. However this approach requires
for the individual radios to have a much higher level of autonomy, and possibly setting
themselves up as an ad-hoc network.

Advantages of cooperative spectrum sensing

While cognitive radio cooperative spectrum sensing is obviously more complicated than a single noncooperative system, it has many advantages that outweigh the added complexity. Naturally

cooperative spectrum sensing is not applicable in all applications, but where it is applicable,
considerable improvements in system performance can be gained.

Hidden node problem is significantly reduced: One of the chief problems with noncooperative spectrum sensing is that even though the cognitive radio may not be able to detect
a primary user transmitter, it may still interfere with receivers who may be able to detect both
the primary user and also the cognitive radio system transmissions. By using a cooperative
sensing system, it is possible to reduce the possibility of this happening because a greater
number of receivers will be able to build up a might more accurate picture of the transmissions
in the area.

Increase in agility: An increase in the number of spectrum sensing nodes by cooperation

enables the sensing to be more accurate and better options for channel moves to be
processed, thereby providing an increase in agility.

Reduced false alarms: By having multiple nodes performing the spectrum sensing, channel
signal detection is more accurate and this reduces the number of false alarms.

More accurate signal detection: Cooperative spectrum sensing provides for more accurate
signal detection and a greater reliability of the overall system.

There are many advantages to incorporating a cooperative spectrum sensing system within a cognitive
radio network wherever possible.

System requirements for CR cooperative spectrum

sensing
The use of cognitive radio cooperative spectrum sensing provides many advantages, but to provide
this ability there are a number of requirements that need to be provided. While these may be seen as
an overhead and in some instances a disadvantage, the advantages often outweigh the
disadvantages.

Control channel: In order for the different elements within the cognitive radio cooperative
spectrum sensing network to communicate, a control channel is required. This will take up a
proportion of the overall system bandwidth.

System synchronisation: It is normally necessary to provide synchronisation between all

the nodes within the cognitive radio cooperative spectrum sensing network. This is to keep the
channel free from transmissions from the cognitive network while sensing is under way. In
some instances adaptive scheduling of the sense period may prove beneficial. In this way the
dead time arising from sense periods can be minimised within the need to ensuring the sensing
is undertaken sufficiently well. Accurate spectrum sensing requires a longer period of time than
a rough sense to see if a strong signal has returned. By adapting the sense periods, channel
throughput can be maximised, although there is a greater need to maintain synchronisation
under these circumstances.

Suitable geographical spread of cooperating nodes: In order to gain the optimum sensing
from the cooperating nodes within the cognitive network, it is necessary to obtain the best
geographical spread. In this way the hidden node syndrome can be minimised, and the most
accurate spectrum sensing can be gained.