Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
1 History
Assorted discrete transistors. Packages in order from top to bottom: TO-3, TO-126, TO-92, SOT-23
2 IMPORTANCE
produced in 1955 by Chrysler and Philco, used these transistors in its circuitry and also they were the rst suitable
for high-speed computers.[19][20][21][22]
ery year,[29] the vast majority of transistors are now produced in integrated circuits (often shortened to IC, microchips or simply chips), along with diodes, resistors,
capacitors and other electronic components, to produce
complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up
to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of 2009, can use as many as 3 billion transistors (MOSFETs).[30] About 60 million transistors were
3.1
Transistor as a switch
3
its terminals to control a much larger signal at another
pair of terminals. This property is called gain. It can produce a stronger output signal, a voltage or current, which
is proportional to a weaker input signal; that is, it can act
as an amplier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used
to turn current on or o in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined
by other circuit elements.
There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter.
A small current at the base terminal (that is, owing between the base and the emitter) can control or switch a
much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a eld-eect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate
can control a current between source and drain.
The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will ow between emitter and
collector terminals depending on the current in the base.
Because internally the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops
between base and emitter while the base current exists.
The amount of this voltage depends on the material the
transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.
Transistor as a switch
IBE
Simplied operation
VCC
1k
+6V
ICE
VOUT
collector
VIN
base
emitter
In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the lightswitch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter
A simple circuit diagram to show the labels of a npn bipolar and collector currents rise exponentially. The collector
voltage drops because of reduced resistance from collectransistor.
tor to emitter. If the voltage dierence between the colThe essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its lector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector
ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of current would be limited only by the load resistance (light
bulb) and the supply voltage. This is called saturation be- transmission, and signal processing. The rst discretecause current is owing from collector to emitter freely. transistor audio ampliers barely supplied a few hunWhen saturated, the switch is said to be on.[32]
dred milliwatts, but power and audio delity gradually
Providing sucient base drive current is a key problem in increased as better transistors became available and amthe use of bipolar transistors as switches. The transistor plier architecture evolved.
provides current gain, allowing a relatively large current Modern transistor audio ampliers of up to a few hundred
in the collector to be switched by a much smaller cur- watts are common and relatively inexpensive.
rent into the base terminal. The ratio of these currents
varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for a
particular type, varies depending on the collector current.
4 Comparison with vacuum tubes
In the example light-switch circuit shown, the resistor is
chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the tranPrior to the development of transistors, vacuum (elecsistor will be saturated.
tron) tubes (or in the UK thermionic valves or just
In any switching circuit, values of input voltage would be valves) were the main active components in electronic
chosen such that the output is either completely o,[33] or equipment.
completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and
this type of operation is common in digital circuits where
only on and o values are relevant.
4.1 Advantages
3.2
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications are
Transistor as an amplier
V+
R1
Vin
Cin
RC
C
Vout
Cout
RE
R2
Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic devices.
CE
5.1
BJTs have three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductoran emitter, a base, and a collector. They are useful in ampliers because the currents
at the emitter and collector are controllable by a relatively small base current.[37] In an npn transistor operating in the active region, the emitterbase junction
is forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the
junction), and electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diuse into the reverse-biased (electrons and
holes are formed at, and move away from the junction)
basecollector junction and be swept into the collector;
perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine
in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base
current. By controlling the number of electrons that can
leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled.[37] Collector current is approximately (common-emitter current gain) times the base
current. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal
transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for
high-power applications.
TYPES
collector current is approximately times the photocur- channel is turned on or o with zero gate-to-source voltrent. Devices designed for this purpose have a transparent age. For enhancement mode, the channel is o at zero
window in the package and are called phototransistors.
bias, and a gate potential can enhance the conduction.
For the depletion mode, the channel is on at zero bias, and
a gate potential (of the opposite polarity) can deplete
the channel, reducing conduction. For either mode, a
5.2 Field-eect transistor (FET)
more positive gate voltage corresponds to a higher current
Main articles: Field-eect transistor, MOSFET and for n-channel devices and a lower current for p-channel
devices. Nearly all JFETs are depletion-mode because
JFET
the diode junctions would forward bias and conduct if
they were enhancement-mode devices; most IGFETs are
The eld-eect transistor, sometimes called a unipolar
enhancement-mode types.
transistor, uses either electrons (in n-channel FET) or
holes (in p-channel FET) for conduction. The four terminals of the FET are named source, gate, drain, and body
5.3 Usage of bipolar and eld-eect tran(substrate). On most FETs, the body is connected to the
sistors
source inside the package, and this will be assumed for
the following description.
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the most comIn a FET, the drain-to-source current ows via a conduct- monly used transistor in the 1960s and 70s. Even after
ing channel that connects the source region to the drain re- MOSFETs became widely available, the BJT remained
gion. The conductivity is varied by the electric eld that the transistor of choice for many analog circuits such as
is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate ampliers because of their greater linearity and ease of
and source terminals; hence the current owing between manufacture. In integrated circuits, the desirable propthe drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied erties of MOSFETs allowed them to capture nearly all
between the gate and source. As the gatesource volt- market share for digital circuits. Discrete MOSFETs can
age (Vgs) is increased, the drainsource current (Ids) in- be applied in transistor applications, including analog circreases exponentially for Vgs below threshold, and then at cuits, voltage regulators, ampliers, power transmitters
a roughly quadratic rate ( Ids (Vgs VT )2 ) (where VT and motor drivers.
is the threshold voltage at which drain current begins)[38]
in the "space-charge-limited" region above threshold. A
quadratic behavior is not observed in modern devices, for 5.4 Other transistor types
example, at the 65 nm technology node.[39]
For low noise at narrow bandwidth the higher input resistance of the FET is advantageous.
FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET)
and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more
commonly known as a metaloxidesemiconductor FET
(MOSFET), reecting its original construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a pn
diode with the channel which lies between the source and
drain. Functionally, this makes the n-channel JFET the
solid-state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which,
similarly, forms a diode between its grid and cathode.
Also, both devices operate in the depletion mode, they
both have a high input impedance, and they both conduct
current under the control of an input voltage.
Transistor symbol drawn on Portuguese pavement in the
University of Aveiro.
5.4
Schottky transistor
Avalanche transistor
Darlington transistors are two BJTs connected
together to provide a high current gain equal
to the product of the current gains of the two
transistors.
Insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) use
a medium-power IGFET, similarly connected
to a power BJT, to give a high input
impedance. Power diodes are often connected
between certain terminals depending on specic use. IGBTs are particularly suitable for
heavy-duty industrial applications. The Asea
Brown Boveri (ABB) 5SNA2400E170100 illustrates just how far power semiconductor technology has advanced.[40] Intended for
three-phase power supplies, this device houses
three npn IGBTs in a case measuring 38 by
140 by 190 mm and weighing 1.5 kg. Each
IGBT is rated at 1,700 volts and can handle
2,400 amperes.
Photo transistor
Multiple-emitter transistor, used in transistor
transistor logic
Multiple-base transistor, used to amplify verylow-level signals in noisy environments such as
the pickup of a record player or radio front
ends. Eectively, it is a very large number
of transistors in parallel where, at the output,
the signal is added constructively, but random
noise is added only stochastically.[41]
Field-eect transistor
Carbon nanotube eld-eect transistor (CNFET), where the channel material is replaced
by a carbon nanotube.
JFET, where the gate is insulated by a reversebiased pn junction
MESFET, similar to JFET with a Schottky
junction instead of a pn junction
High-electron-mobility
(HEMT, HFET, MODFET)
transistor
Ballistic transistor
Floating-gate transistor, for non-volatile storage.
FETs used to sense environment
Ion-sensitive eld eect transistor (IFSET), to measure ion concentrations in
solution.
EOSFET,
electrolyte-oxidesemiconductor eld-eect transistor
(Neurochip)
DNAFET, deoxyribonucleic acid eldeect transistor
Tunnel eld-eect transistor. TFETs switch by
modulating quantum tunnelling through a barrier.
Diusion transistor, formed by diusing dopants
into semiconductor substrate; can be both BJT and
FET
Unijunction transistors can be used as simple pulse
generators. They comprise a main body of either Ptype or N-type semiconductor with ohmic contacts
at each end (terminals Base1 and Base2). A junction
with the opposite semiconductor type is formed at
a point along the length of the body for the third
terminal (Emitter).
Single-electron transistors (SET) consist of a gate island between two tunneling junctions. The tunneling current is controlled by a voltage applied to the
gate through a capacitor.[42]
Nanouidic transistor, controls the movement
of ions through sub-microscopic, water-lled
channels.[43]
Multigate devices
Tetrode transistor
Pentode transistor
Trigate transistors (Prototype by Intel)
Dual-gate FETs have a single channel with
two gates in cascode; a conguration optimized for high-frequency ampliers, mixers,
and oscillators.
Junctionless nanowire transistor (JNT), uses a simple nanowire of silicon surrounded by an electrically
isolated wedding ring that acts to gate the ow of
electrons through the wire.
Vacuum-channel transistor: In 2012, NASA and the
National Nanofab Center in South Korea were reported to have built a prototype vacuum-channel
transistor in only 150 nanometers in size, can be
manufactured cheaply using standard silicon semiconductor processing, can operate at high speeds
even in hostile environments, and could consume
just as much power as a standard transistor.[44]
Organic electrochemical transistor
7 CONSTRUCTION
6.1
6.2
6.3
7 Construction
7.1 Semiconductor material
The rst BJTs were made from germanium (Ge). Silicon
(Si) types currently predominate but certain advanced
microwave and high-performance versions now employ
the compound semiconductor material gallium arsenide
(GaAs) and the semiconductor alloy silicon germanium
(SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and
Si) is described as elemental.
6.4
Proprietary
7.2
Packaging
9
AlSi junction refers to the high-speed (aluminum
silicon) metalsemiconductor barrier diode, commonly
known as a Schottky diode. This is included in the table because some silicon power IGFETs have a parasitic
reverse Schottky diode formed between the source and
drain as part of the fabrication process. This diode can
be a nuisance, but sometimes it is used in the circuit.
7.2 Packaging
See also: Semiconductor package and Chip carrier
Discrete transistors are individually packaged transis-
The density of mobile carriers in the channel of a MOSFET is a function of the electric eld forming the channel and of various other phenomena such as the impurity
level in the channel. Some impurities, called dopants, are
introduced deliberately in making a MOSFET, to control
the MOSFET electrical behavior.
The electron mobility and hole mobility columns show the
average speed that electrons and holes diuse through the
semiconductor material with an electric eld of 1 volt per
meter applied across the material. In general, the higher
the electron mobility the faster the transistor can operate.
The table indicates that Ge is a better material than Si in Assorted discrete transistors
this respect. However, Ge has four major shortcomings
tors. Transistors come in many dierent semiconductor
compared to silicon and gallium arsenide:
packages (see image). The two main categories are
through-hole (or leaded), and surface-mount, also known
Its maximum temperature is limited;
as surface-mount device (SMD). The ball grid array
(BGA) is the latest surface-mount package (currently only
it has relatively high leakage current;
for large integrated circuits). It has solder balls on the
underside in place of leads. Because they are smaller and
it cannot withstand high voltages;
have shorter interconnections, SMDs have better highfrequency characteristics but lower power rating.
it is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits.
Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic, or
plastic. The package often dictates the power rating and
Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar n frequency characteristics. Power transistors have larger
packages that can be clamped to heat sinks for enhanced
pn transistor tends to be swifter than an equivalent p
cooling.
Additionally, most power transistors have the
np transistor. GaAs has the highest electron mobility of
collector or drain physically connected to the metal enthe three semiconductors. It is for this reason that GaAs
is used in high-frequency applications. A relatively re- closure. At the other extreme, some surface-mount microwave transistors are as small as grains of sand.
cent FET development, the high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT), has a heterostructure (junction between Often a given transistor type is available in several packdierent semiconductor materials) of aluminium gal- ages. Transistor packages are mainly standardized, but
lium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which the assignment of a transistors functions to the terminals
has twice the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier is not: other transistor types can assign other functions
junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, to the packages terminals. Even for the same transisHEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequen- tor type the terminal assignment can vary (normally indicies around 12 GHz. HEMTs based on gallium nitride cated by a sux letter to the part number, q.e. BC212L
and aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN/GaN HEMTs) and BC212K).
provide a still higher electron mobility and are being de- Nowadays most transistors come in a wide range of SMT
veloped for various applications.
packages, in comparison the list of available through-hole
Max. junction temperature values represent a cross
section taken from various manufacturers data sheets.
This temperature should not be exceeded or the transistor
may be damaged.
10
10
Flexible transistors
Researchers have made several kinds of exible transistors, including organic eld-eect transistors.[52][53][54]
Flexible transistors are useful in some kinds of exible
displays and other exible electronics.
See also
Band gap
Digital electronics
Moores law
Semiconductor device modeling
Transistor count
Transistor model
Transresistance
Very-large-scale integration
REFERENCES
10 References
[1] "Milestones:Invention of the First Transistor at Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1947. IEEE Global History
Network. IEEE. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
[2] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956. Nobelprize.org. Nobel
Media AB. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
[3] Vardalas, John, Twists and Turns in the Development of
the Transistor IEEE-USA Todays Engineer, May 2003.
[4] Lilienfeld, Julius Edgar, Method and apparatus for controlling electric current U.S. Patent 1,745,175 January
28, 1930 (led in Canada 1925-10-22, in US 1926-1008).
[5] Method And Apparatus For Controlling Electric Currents. United States Patent and Trademark Oce.
11
[12] David Bodanis (2005). Electric Universe. Crown Publishers, New York. ISBN 0-7394-5670-9.
[38] Horowitz, Paul; Wineld Hill (1989). The Art of Electronics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 115. ISBN
0-521-37095-7.
[21] Philco TechRep Division Bulletin, MayJune 1955, Volume 5 Number 3, page 28
[22] Saul Rosen (Jun 1991). PHILCO: Some Recollections
of the PHILCO TRANSAC S-2000 (Computer Science
Technical Reports / Purdue e-Pubs) (CSD-TR-91-051).
Purdue University. Here: page 2
[23] IEEE Spectrum, The Lost History of the Transistor, Author: Michael Riordan, May 2004, pp 48-49
|
url=http://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/devices/
the-lost-history-of-the-transistor
[24] J. Chelikowski, Introduction: Silicon in all its Forms,
Silicon: evolution and future of a technology (Editors: P.
Siert, E. F. Krimmel), p.1, Springer, 2004 ISBN 3-54040546-1.
[25] Grant McFarland, Microprocessor design: a practical
guide from design planning to manufacturing, p.10,
McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006 ISBN 0-07-145951-0.
[26] W. Heywang, K. H. Zaininger, Silicon: The Semiconductor Material, Silicon: evolution and future of a
technology (Editors: P. Siert, E. F. Krimmel), p.36,
Springer, 2004 ISBN 3-540-40546-1.
[27] Robert W. Price (2004). Roadmap to Entrepreneurial Success. AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn. p. 42. ISBN
978-0-8144-7190-6.
[28] "Milestones:Invention of the First Transistor at Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1947. IEEE Global History
Network. IEEE. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
[29] FETs/MOSFETs: Smaller apps push up surface-mount
supply
12
12
[52] Jhonathan P. Rojas, Galo A. Torres Sevilla, and Muhammad M. Hussain. Can We Build a Truly High Performance Computer Which is Flexible and Transparent?".
[53] Kan Zhang, Jung-Hun Seo1, Weidong Zhou and Zhenqiang Ma. Fast exible electronics using transferrable
silicon nanomembranes. 2012.
[54] Lisa Zyga. Carbon nanotube transistors could lead to inexpensive, exible electronics. 2011.
11
Further reading
EXTERNAL LINKS
Amos S W & James M R (1999). Principles of Transistor Circuits. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0Pinouts
7506-4427-3.
12
External links
13
13
13.1
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13.2
Images
File:BJT_NPN_symbol.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/BJT_NPN_symbol.svg
License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
The source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text'
href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FBJT_NPN_
symbol.svg,<span>,&,</span>,ss=1#source'>valid</a>. Original artist: Omegatron
File:BJT_PNP_symbol.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/BJT_PNP_symbol.svg
License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
The source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text'
href='//validator.w3.org/check?uri=https%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSpecial%3AFilepath%2FBJT_PNP_
symbol.svg,<span>,&,</span>,ss=1#source'>valid</a>. Original artist: Omegatron
File:Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Bardeen_Shockley_
Brattain_1948.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: eBay item Original artist: AT&T; photographer: Jack St. (last part of name not
stamped well enough to read), New York, New York.
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Darlington_transistor_MJ1000.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Darlington_transistor_
MJ1000.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: thomy_pc Original artist: thomy_pc
File:IGFET_N-Ch_Dep_Labelled.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/IGFET_N-Ch_Dep_Labelled.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: From Scratch in Inkcape 0.43 Original artist: jjbeard
File:IGFET_N-Ch_Enh_Labelled.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/IGFET_N-Ch_Enh_Labelled.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:IGFET_N-Ch_Enh_Labelled_simplified.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/IGFET_N-Ch_
Enh_Labelled_simplified.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Based on Image:IGFET N-Ch Enh Labelled.svg Original artist:
Omegatron
File:IGFET_P-Ch_Dep_Labelled.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/IGFET_P-Ch_Dep_Labelled.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: From Scratch in Inkcape 0.43 Original artist: jjbeard
File:IGFET_P-Ch_Enh_Labelled.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/IGFET_P-Ch_Enh_Labelled.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: From Scratch in Inkcape 0.43 Original artist: jjbeard
File:IGFET_P-Ch_Enh_Labelled_simplified.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/IGFET_P-Ch_
Enh_Labelled_simplified.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Based on Image:IGFET P-Ch Enh Labelled.svg, Original artist:
User:Omegatron
File:JFET_N-Channel_Labelled.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/JFET_N-Channel_Labelled.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: From Scratch in Inkcape 0.43 Original artist: jjbeard
File:JFET_P-Channel_Labelled.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/JFET_P-Channel_Labelled.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: From Scratch in Inkcape 0.43 Original artist: jjbeard
File:NPN_common_emitter_AC.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/NPN_common_emitter_AC.svg
License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zedh
File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png License: LGPL
Contributors: http://icon-king.com Original artist: David Vignoni / ICON KING
File:Philco_Surface_Barrier_transistor=1953.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Philco_Surface_
Barrier_transistor%3D1953.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Historianbu
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Transbauformen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Transbauformen.jpg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ulfbastel
File:Transistor_Simple_Circuit_Diagram_with_NPN_Labels.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/
Transistor_Simple_Circuit_Diagram_with_NPN_Labels.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: I created a postscript le, and converted it to SVG using the pstoedit program. Original artist: Michael9422
File:Transistor_as_switch.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Transistor_as_switch.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: FDominec
File:Transistor_on_portuguese_pavement.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Transistor_on_
portuguese_pavement.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Joao.pimentel.ferreira
File:Transistorer_(croped).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Transistorer_%28cropped%29.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Transisto at English Wikipedia
File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
13.3
13.3
Content license
Content license
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