A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF INTERNATIONAL

EDUCATION SATISFACTION USING SERVQUAL

Rodney Arambewela

John Hall

University education, the world over, has undergone significant transformation

and reform with respect to higher education systems meeting the growing role of
information and communication revolution, and the demand for knowledge, which
represent the new challenges of globalisation. These challenges are seen as
threats as well as opportunities for higher education systems around the world.
The driving force of globalisation is competition and the international education
market has become fiercely competitive with different marketing strategies being
implemented by educational institutions to attract the growing number of students
seeking higher education. The objective of this paper is to examine the relationship
between the SERVQUAL constructs proposed by Parasuraman et al (1988 &
1985) and the country of origin and satisfaction among four cohorts of Asian
international postgraduate students studying in Australian universities. Country
of origin is recognized as an important predictor of satisfaction and choice in
the international education environment. The data used in this study is derived
from a mail survey conducted among international postgraduate students from
China, India, Indonesia and Thailand studying in five universities in Victoria,
Australia. An adapted version of the SERVQUAL instrument was used to collect
the data and was designed to measure the gap between student responses on
expectations and perceptions of the university as a study destination on a seven
point bi-polar scale. The responses were sought on 36 statements representing
aspects of the operations and services of the university under desired (ideal)
expectations of choice and post-choice perceptions. Scales were developed to
investigate the relationship between the SERVQUAL constructs of reliability,
responsiveness, assurance, empathy and tangibles and the country of origin and
were shown to be reliable. Using ANOVA and MANOVA techniques, the study
found significant differences between country of origin and the SERVQUAL
constructs and discusses strategic implications and opportunities for higher
educational institutions.

INTRODUCTION

niversity education, the world over, has under gone significant

transformation and reform with respect to higher education
systems meeting the growing role of information and
communication revolution, and the demand for knowledge, which
Journal of Services Research, Volume 6, Special Issue (July, 2006)
2006 by Institute for International Management and Technology. All Rights Reserved.

142 A Comparative Analysis

represent the new challenges of globalisation (Salmi, 2001; Marginson,
1998). These challenges are seen as threats as well as opportunities
for higher education systems around the world. Drucker (1997) has
boldly predicted the demise of traditional universities with the
growth of open and online universities. The extent to which these
new learning institutions would impact on campus based teaching
and learning is yet to be seen. This challenge, however, has produced
significant changes in the way that higher educational institutions
operate. These changes include the emergence of new types of
institutions, patterns of financing and governance, curriculum reforms,
and technological innovations (Salmi, 2001).
The driving force of globalisation is competition and the
international education market has become fiercely competitive with
different marketing strategies being implemented by educational
institutions to attract the growing number of students seeking higher
education. A study by International Development Programs (IDP)
Australia estimates that the global demand for international higher
education will grow fourfold to approximately 7.2 million students,
by 2025, representing a 5.8% compound growth rate between 20002025. According to this study, the major growth will come from the
Asia Pacific, accounting for a compound growth rate of 7.8% and
over 70% of the world demand. As regional blocks within Asia Pacific,
South Asia and East Asia are expected to record the highest growth
rates of 8.6% and 8.4% respectively during this period with China
and India emerging as two major sources of international students
(see Table 1). It is also predicted that a significant increase in foreign
student enrolments from new sources of origin such as Turkey,
Morocco and Iran will contribute to expand the international education
market not only in terms of absolute numbers but also in terms of
student diversity. In comparison, the demand from traditional countries
like Europe and the USA is expected to slow down over the years
(Bohm et al, 2002).

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143 Arambewela, Hall

Table 1: Global Demand for International Higher Education (000)
Region
Asia
East Asia
South East Asia
South Asia
Central Asia
Africa
Sub-Sahara
North Africa
Middle East
America
Europe
Oceania
World

2000
759
453
148
110
48
169
99
69
113
146
568
8
1763

2005
1141
698
185
191
67
219
127
92
143
167
636
9
2316

2010
1761
1059
265
349
88
283
168
115
182
194
719
10
3149

2015
2534
1565
356
501
112
362
222
140
229
225
804
12
4165

2020
3598
2319
467
676
136
464
295
168
286
260
879
13
5500

2025
5004
3389
586
869
161
561
371
189
327
287
963
13
7155

Growth (%)*
7.8
8.4
5.7
8.6
5.0
4.9
5.4
4.1
4.3
2.7
2.1
2.0
5.8

(* Represents Annual Compound Growth Rate 2000-2025)

Source: Bohm, Davis, Meares & Pearce (2002), IDP Australia.

From a global perspective, Australia is a small player with around 9%

share of the international student market where USA and UK dominate
with nearly 80% market. However, the growth of the international
education market for Australia has been significant since 1986, the
year in which the Federal Government opened Australias education
system to full-fee paying overseas students. For example during 1998
and 1999, the overall growth was over 15% compared to 2% in USA,
2.6% in the UK, 8% in Canada and 8.2% in New Zealand (AEI, 2000).
Export of educational services, therefore, is not only a growing
export industry for Australia but also a highly potential source of
revenue for the countrys economy. The latest estimate has valued the
Australian education exports at $5.7 billion per annum representing an
increase of approximately 18% over 2002 (Nelson, 2004). Studies have
revealed that apart from the pecuniary benefits there are non pecuniary
benefits flowing from the industry including economic and social
impacts on the Australian economy (Arambewela and Zuhair, 2002,
Dixon et al (1998), Peter, 1997, MacKay and Lewis (1995).
Another aspect of the market expansion is the significant growth
in the post-graduate sector, though the undergraduate programs still
dominate. Currently international postgraduate students account for
25% of all foreign students in higher education and the numbers are
expected to grow significantly with the growth in demand in countries
such as China and India (Bohm et al, 2002: AEI, 2000).
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144 A Comparative Analysis

Driven by the attractiveness of the international education market in
terms of pecuniary and non pecuniary benefits to the respective institutions
and the country, higher educational institutions, like many other organisations
are concerned with market share, productivity, return on investment and
the quality of services offered to their customers (LeBlanc & Nha, 1997).
Service quality, in this context, is acknowledged as a key performance
measure for excellence in education and a major strategic variable for
universities as service providers to increase market share (Donaldson and
Runciman, 1995), with enduring effects on the institution and the students
it serves. Student satisfaction is the barometer of service quality in education
and it has attracted greater attention of the higher educational institutions
in their pursuit of competitive advantage. The challenge for the institutions
would be to understand and to address the key sources of student satisfaction
in their service delivery initiatives. By addressing relevant service quality
elements important to international students universities are able to improve
student satisfaction, a key factor contributing to benefits such as student
retention, positive word of mouth communication, and competitive
advantage (Townley, 2001; McDougall and Levesque, 2000; Guolla, 1999).
The objective of this paper is to examine the relationship between the
SERVQUAL constructs proposed by Parasuraman et al (1988,1985, 1991,
and 1994) and the country of origin and satisfaction among four cohorts of
Asian international postgraduate students from China, India, Indonesia
and Thailand studying in Australian universities. Country of origin is
recognized as an important predictor of satisfaction and choice in the
international education environment. The impact of country of origin has
been documented in many studies (IDP,1995; Blight, 1995; Duan, 1997;
Lawley, 1998).
The student groups selected for this study are from countries that
represent 61% of all Asian postgraduate students studying in Australia and
have shown a potential for further growth (Bohm et al, 2002, AEI, 2000).
The theoretical foundation is drawn from Olivers (1980, 1996)
expectancy-disconfirmation Paradigm and the SERVQUAL expectationsperceptions measurement approach (Parasuraman et al, 1988, 1991 and
1994), and the paper analyses the relative satisfaction among different
student groups. The analysis examines the relationship between the key
service quality constructs and student satisfaction scores to establish the
importance of these constructs in explaining students satisfaction.
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145 Arambewela, Hall

The analysis is also based on the service-recipient paradigm which
acknowledges the principle that education is a service that is experienced
by students and other stakeholders of educational institutions who form
judgments about service delivery performance in terms of its quality, and
consistency, which are basic properties of a service. It supports the notion
that students as the recipients or customers of the service would expect
educational institutions to satisfy their needs (Havarnek and Brodwin, 1998).
This paper considers both paradigms to be complementary to each other in
expressing the need for universities to be highly student focused in their
service delivery.
LITERATURE REVIEW
In the current context of services marketing, customer satisfaction is
considered as a major outcome of marketing activity and serves to link
processes, culminating in purchase and consumption with post-purchase
phenomena such as attitudinal change, customer retention, repeat purchase,
brand loyalty, positive word-of-mouth communication (WOM) and
complaining behaviour (Harvis et al, 2000; Athiyaman, 2000; Guolla, 1999;
Churchill and Suprenant, 1982). A logical extension of the study of services
marketing is the evaluation of service quality and its impact on the exchange
of services.
The expectancy-disconfirmation model or its variants remain one of
the most widely discussed and tested approaches in measuring customer
satisfaction (Arambewela, 2003; Bolton et al, 1999; Spreng et al, 1996;
Oliver 1996; Parasuraman et al, 1994 and 1985; Tse et al, 1990; Oliver,
1980). The model suggests that customer satisfaction is related to the size
and direction of disconfirmation, which is defined as the difference between
an individuals pre-purchase (pre-choice) expectations (or some other
comparison standard) and post-purchase (post-choice) performance of the
product as perceived by the customer (Tse et al, 1990).
The measurement of service quality has attracted a significant interest
among marketing practitioners and researches over the past two decades
(Furrer, et al, 2000). In their pioneering study on service quality,
Parasuraman et al (1985) developed the instrument SERVQUAL to measure
service quality. The construct of service quality is defined in terms of
perceived quality - a customers judgement about the entitys overall
excellence or superiority - an attitude that comes from a comparison of
expectations and perceived performance (Llosa et al, 1998).
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146 A Comparative Analysis

Since its introduction, SERVQUAL has been widely acclaimed as a
major contribution to academic and particularly marketing research literature
(Furrer et al, 2000). SERVQUAL was originally used to assess customer
perceptions of service quality in service and retailing organisations
(Parasuraman et al, 1988). It was presented as a synthetic scale with a
correct level of reliability and validity useful in many service situations.
SERVQUAL is comprised of two matched scales of 22 items, each
describing expectations for a particular service category and then perceptions
of a particular service provider (Bearden and Netemeyer, 1999). The
expectations are not viewed as predictions (what is likely to happen), but
as desires or wants of consumers (what should happen). Both sets of items
are operationalised using a 7-point bi-polar scale labelled, Strongly Agree
(7) to Strongly Disagree (1). Nearly half of the items are worded negatively
with negative wording indicated by (-). The scale produced scores, for the
total scale and each factor, ranging between minus 6 and plus 7, where the
positive scores are reflected as perceptions exceeding expectations. The
quality of service is assessed through this SERVQUAL score, called the
gap score computed by taking the difference for 1 to 7 scales and then
averaged over the number of items either in the total scale or for each
subscale (Bearden and Netemeyer, 1999). According to the authors, the
service quality is then the difference between customers perceptions and
expectations (P-E) and is given by the following equation.

Q=

1 22
( Pi Ei)
22 i =l

Where:
Q = Perceived service quality
Pi = Performance level perceived on attribute i for the delivered service,
and
Ei = Expected performance level on attribute i for the service generally. 22
represent the number of questions used.
Parasuraman et al (1988, 1991 and 1994) identified five dimensions of
service quality. They are tangibility, reliability, responsiveness, assurance
and empathy. Tangibility refers to the appearance of physical facilities,
equipment, personnel, and communication materials; reliability to the ability
to perform the promised service accurately and dependably; responsiveness
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147 Arambewela, Hall

to willingness to assist customers and provide prompt service; assurance
to the knowledge and courtesy of employees and their ability to convey
trust and confidence; and empathy to the caring; and individualised attention
given to customers. The authors assert that the SERVQUAL dimensions
can be adapted to different service settings, depending on the nature of
inquiry. The practical application of the measurement approach has been
identified as one of the major strengths of SERVQUAL over other measures.
The other strengths of SERVQUAL have been identified as:
l the reliability and validity of the scale in comparing customers expectations and perceptions over time;
l the ability to compare own SERVQUAL scores against competitors;
l the relative importance of the five dimensions in influencing service
quality perceptions;
l the potential use of measure in segmenting customers into several
perceived quality segments (eg. High, Medium and Low, and the
ability to analyse on the basis of (a) demographic (b) psychographic,
and (c) other profiles; and
l the practical implications for companies to improve the global
perception of its service quality (Furrer et al, 2000; Llosa et al, 1998).
The growing popularity of the SERVQUAL instrument among
marketing practitioners and researchers is seen by the diversity of its
application in research pursuits ranging from competitor analysis,
segmentation, to customer profiling and covering the services, and
manufacturing industries (Furrer et al, 2000). The major applications,
however, were in the service industry. Table 2 shows the leading
research using the SERVQUAL instrument, and the areas of its
application.

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148 A Comparative Analysis

Table 2: Major Applications of SERVQUAL
Areas of application
Banking

Authors
Lassar et al, 2000; Marshall and Smith, 1999; Angur
et al, 1999
Brokerage services
Lin and Wei, 1999
Building maintenance
Siu et al, 2001
Higher education
Engelland et al 2001 and 2000; Comm et al, 2000;
Houston and Rees 1999; Kwan and Ng, 1999;
Hampton, 1993; Davis and Allen, 1990.
Information services
Jiang et al, 2000; Van, D. et al, 1999; Kettinger and
Lee, 1999
Local authority services
Wisniewski, 2001; McFadyen et al, 2001; Donnelly
and Shiu, 1999).
Market research
Donnely et al, 2000
Medical and health care Dean, 1999; Curry et al, 1999; Llosa et al, 1998;
services
OConnor and Bowers, 1990.
Restaurant service
Heung et al, 2000
Retailing
Metha et al, 2000a, 2000b
Shipping
Durvasula et al, 1999
Travel services
Kayanama and Black, 2000

Despite its popularity, SERVQUAL is criticised on its operational and

measurement problems. These include the use of P-E difference score
as a measurement of perceived quality as opposed to performance based
measure (Cronin and Taylor, 1994; Carman, 1990), the type of
expectations eg. desired or adequate, which would provide different
satisfaction responses (Swan and Tranwick, 1981), the link between
satisfaction and service quality (Cronin and Taylor, 1994; Teas, 1993)
and the number and nature of the dimensions being inappropriate for
some service industries such as product services and pure services
(Llosa et al, 1998).
However, Parasuraman et al, in 1994, responded to these criticisms by
introducing some adjustments to the scale and its operation. On the issue
of a performance based measure in preference to the disconfirmation based
measure, argued that although the practice of measuring only perceptions
to determine service quality is widespread, such a practice does not
necessarily support the superiority of a performance based measure. This
is because measurements that incorporate customer expectations provide
richer information and have more diagnostic value. Conceding that there is
confusion with regard to the causal relationship between customer
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149 Arambewela, Hall

satisfaction and service quality, Parasuraman et al (1994), acknowledge
that recent research evidence support the view that service quality is an
antecedent of customer satisfaction. Further, in regard to this type of
comparison standard for measuring service quality, it is argued that the
issue of comparison norms and their interpretation still remains unresolved
and is being examined by many researchers.
The instrument used in the present study is an adaptation of SERVQUAL
with refinements addressing the criticisms in the literature.
While the growing interest in student satisfaction research by higher
educational institutions have contributed positively to satisfaction
research in services, the work on post-choice satisfaction in international
education and particularly on international postgraduate students is
limited. (Arambewela, 2003, Townley, 2001, Geall, 2000) Most of the
past studies have focused on undergraduate students or individual
programs (DETYA 2000, and 1999; Kwan and NG,1999; Tomovick et al,
1996; Halstead et al, 1994, and Burke 1986). The research on postgraduate
students is also narrow in scope confined to specific issues and providing
very little insight into comparative analysis of the post-choice decision
making behaviour of students from different countries of origin
(Arambewela, 2003). Another reason for focusing on the overseas
postgraduate students is the continuous growth in enrolment of
international students into postgraduate programs as compared to
domestic students (Arambewela, 2003, AEI, 2000).
METHODOLOGY
The data used in this study is derived from a mail survey conducted among
international postgraduate students from China, India, Indonesia and Thailand
studying in five universities in Victoria. An adapted version of the
SERVQUAL instrument was used to collect the data and was designed to
measure the gap between student responses on expectations and perceptions
of the university as a study destination on a seven point bi-polar scale. The
responses were sought on 36 statements representing aspects of the operations
and services of the university under desired (ideal) expectations of choice
and post-choice perceptions. The desired expectations are considered to
have a better explanatory power than the predictive expectations used by
many researchers (Spreng et al, 1996). The variables associated with these
statements were constructed with input from previous studies and focus
Journal of Services Research, Volume 6, Special Issue (July, 2006)

150 A Comparative Analysis

group interviews. The methods adopted to determine the importance of the
country of origin, were means score analysis, MANOVA and ANOVA.
The sampling was aimed at reaching every international postgraduate
student belonging to the four nationality groups in the universities surveyed.
The questionnaires were administered through the International offices of
the respective universities and mailed out to students using their own student
databases. Of the 573 useable responses received, the sample for this study
was reduced to an approximate uniform sample size from each country and
each university, employing a systematic random sampling approach, which
produced 371 respondents. This was to ensure equality of variance across
the student groups for the same variables and reliability and validity of
predictions (Hair et al, 1995).
The variables used in the instrument were tested for inter-item
reliability and consistency of the questionnaire using Cronbach alpha.
ANOVA is a statistical technique used to determine, on the basis of
one dependent measure, whether samples are from populations with
equal means (Hair et al. 1995). It is used to assess group differences on
a single metric dependent variable. In this study, ANOVA was employed
to estimate the variance between the dependent variable, behavioral
outcome and the independent groups of variables that make up each
of the MONOVA constructs.
Four ANOVA models were used in the analysis, as given below.
Model 1: Satisfaction = f (Reliability)
Model 2: Satisfaction = f (Responsiveness).
Model 3: Satisfaction = f (Assurance)
Model 4: Satisfaction = f (Empathy)
Model 5: Satisfaction = f (Tangibles)
The models test the differences in satisfaction relating to the specific
variables that make up different SERVQUAL constructs. Table 3 shows
the five constructs and the associated variables.
MANOVA
MANOVA is used to assess the group differences across multiple metric
dependant variables simultaneously. In this case each of the SERVQUAL
constructs was tested separately with regard to country of origin.

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151 Arambewela, Hall

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As shown in Table 3 below, all SERVQUAL variables and constructs
showed very high reliability with co-efficients greater than 0.8. The overall
significance of the correlation matrix was significant with a p-value of <
0.01.
The analysis showed that there is a significant difference between
countries of origin on all of the SERVQUAL constructs as indicated by
MANOVA results. ANOVA test of differences confirmed that all of the
particular variables that make up each of the constructs were also
significantly different on the country of origin measure (See Table 3).
Table 3: Reliability of Constructs, MANOVA and ANOVA
SERVQUAL Constructs and Variables
Reliability
Reliability
.8876
Efficient enrolment processing system
Fees that offer good value for money
High standard teaching with quality lecturers
High standard of lecture material
Appropriate and manageable class sizes
Student accommodation at a reasonable cost
Adequate information available to students via internet
Adequate information available to students compared
to other universities
Responsiveness
.8591
Efficient system to assist with student visas
Competitive fees compared to other universities
Good access to lecturers
Valuable feedback from lecturers
Good access to computer labs
Process to deal with complaints about inadequacy of services
Assurance
.8877
High image and prestige as a university within
Australia
High image and prestige internationally as a university
High image and prestige as a university in the home country
Appropriate academic courses and content recognised
in home country
Appropriate academic courses with completion times suited
student needs
Academic courses and training relevant to future job
and career prospects
International student orientation programs as part of student
support
Empathy
.8851
Good present of students from own country
Friendly environment with access to many
opportunities for interaction with other student groups
Academic courses and content appropriate to student needs and
aspirations
Flexible timetables
Overseas agents and consultants who provide
appropriate information and guidance
Adequate information and guidance through
Australian embassies and other official agents
Counselling services as part of student support
Other social activities as part of student support
Close working relationship between students and international
student advisers to ensure appropriate solution to student
problems
Tangibles
.8432
Modern and adequate library facilities
Good operating hours for library access
Modern and adequate computer facilities
Student accommodation of a good standard
Campus well located with easy access

Manova
.01

Anova
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01

.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.05
.01
.01
.01
.01

Journal of Services Research, Volume 6, Special Issue (July, 2006)

152 A Comparative Analysis

When considering the relative importance of the SERVQUAL constructs
to the students from China, India, Indonesia and Thailand, it was evident
that all constructs were important to all student groups. This was based on
the means score analyses of student expectations on variables forming
each construct. It was however clear that in terms of the degree of
importance, students from India appeared to place greater importance on
these constructs than other students, while students from China showed a
relatively lower degree of importance. Of all SERVQUAL dimensions,
students found the tangibles construct as having the greatest impact on
their overall satisfaction while they considered the empathy construct to
have the least influence on satisfaction. Past research has emphasised the
importance of tangibles in the assessment of academic quality, as university
facilities provide long and lasting impressions about the quality of the
institution (Tomovick et al, 1996). In another study, Wakefield and Blodgett
(1996) found that inadequate facilities such as library and computer labs
contribute to student dissatisfaction, given that students spend a considerable
proportion of their time using these facilities. This was supported by Smith,
Morey, and Teece (2002). The major concern of students was that
universities have not improved or updated these facilities in conjunction
with the increase in student numbers enrolled in universities. The negative
student evaluations of such services have a bearing on the perceived quality
of the overall university experience, which should be of concern to university
management. Given that prospective international students may not have
the opportunity to visit the campus before enrolment, universities should
endeavour to emphasise positive aspects and appealing physical facilities
through promotional material including university websites.
Table 4: Reliability Construct, and Variables: Country Comparison
Variables
China India
Efficient enrolment processing system
5.5
6.5
Fees that offer good value for money
5.7
6.8
High standard teaching with quality lecturers
6.0
6.8
High standard of lecture material
5.7
6.7
Appropriate and manageable class sizes
5.3
6.5
Student accommodation at a reasonable cost
4.8
6.5
Adequate information available to students via 5.8
6.5
internet
Adequate information available to students
5.4
6.3
compared to other universities
Average
5.5
6.6

Journal of Services Research, Volume 6, Special Issue (July, 2006)

Indonesia
6.3
6.1
6.5
6.6
6.4
6.1
6.1

Thailand
6.1
6.2
6.6
6.5
6.2
5.9
6.1

5.8

6.0

6.2

6.2

153 Arambewela, Hall

Table 4 shows the country comparison of the reliability construct and
its associated service quality variables. It is evident that students from
India showed the highest average score (6.6) for the variables accounting
for the dimension followed by Indonesian (6.2) and Thai (6.2) students.
The average score for students from China was lower (5.5) than all other
students.
Students from China, India and Thailand found quality of teaching
as the most important variable in the reliability construct while
Indonesian students found quality of lecture material to be the most
important. Both Chinese and Thai students found reasonable cost of
accommodation as the least important within this dimension, and
students from India and Indonesia found the availability of information
to be the least important. Kwan and Ng (1999) in their study on quality
indicators among students from Hong Kong and China, found that
Chinese students emphasised the quality of course material as an
important quality variable within the reliability construct, which is in
contrast to the findings of this study.
Table 5: Responsiveness Construct, and Variables:
Country Comparison
Variables
Efficient system to assist with student visas
Competitive fees compared to other
universities
Good access to lecturers
Valuable feedback from lecturers
Good access to computer labs
Process to deal with complaints about
inadequacy of services
Average

China India
5.5
6.6
5.2
6.4

Indonesia
6.2
5.9

Thailand
6.0
6.0

5.7
5.5
6.1
5.4

6.8
6.7
6.9
6.6

6.5
6.5
6.6
6.2

6.4
6.4
6.4
6.1

5.6

6.7

6.3

6.2

Table 5 shows the service quality variables within the responsiveness

construct and the comparative average scores indicating the importance
of the variables in forming student satisfaction. All four nationalities
regard responsiveness as an important factor in student satisfaction
with the Indian students being the most concerned and the Chinese the
least. However, when considering the particular variables that make
up this construct it is interesting to note that the Chinese and Indian
groups rate good access to computer labs as the highest priority while
the Indonesian and Thai students consider this as the least important.
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154 A Comparative Analysis

While the Indian and Thai students rate competitive fees compared to other
universities as the highest priority, the Indonesian and Chinese students
consider this as the least important.
In developing university responsiveness towards student needs Houston
and Rees (1999) developed the rationale that there must be mutual
understanding and obligation on the part of both university and students.
This is based on the premise that unlike undergraduate students,
postgraduates can be, at various times, either customers or co-producers
within the university system. Postgraduates become actively engaged in
contributing to knowledge through research and the learning process while
they continue to remain customers of university services. In this
environment, it would be necessary for universities to address student
requirements but also to clearly communicate student obligations and the
university expectations of the students contribution as well.
Table 6 provides a comparison of variables related to the SERVQUAL
construct of assurance in terms of their importance as perceived by students from four countries of origin.
Table 6: Assurance Construct, and Variables: Country Comparison
Variables
China India
High image and prestige as a university
5.8
6.7
within Australia
High image and prestige internationally as
5.6
6.7
a university
High image and prestige as a university in
5.4
6.7
the home country
6.7
Appropriate academic courses and content 5.5
recognised in home country
Appropriate academic courses with
5.6
6.7
completion times suited student needs
Academic courses and training relevant to
6.0
6.9
future job and career prospects
International student orientation programs
5.4
6.5
as part of student support
Average
5.6
6.7

Indonesia
6.2
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.4
6.5
6.0
6.3

Assurance was as important as other dimensions for students from India,

Indonesia and Thailand as evidenced by the high overall average scores
exceeding 6. The overall average score for students from China was
however slightly lower than other national groups.

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155 Arambewela, Hall

In terms of the most important variables, students from India and
Indonesia found courses relevant to future job and career prospects to be
the most important while the completion times were considered the most
important by Chinese and Thai students. This provides an insight into
students personal motivation and orientation towards their studies.
Study outcomes appeared to be the main concern of students and in
order to prepare students for more competitive careers once they graduate,
it would be important for universities to foster liaisons with business
community (La Blanc and Nha, 1997) and offer opportunities for local
industry experience either through project work or cooperative employment
programs.
Although all variables had high scores, on a comparative basis,
students from India and Indonesia found student orientation programs
to be less important and Chinese students did not consider high image
and prestige of the university in the home country as a key quality
variable. Interestingly, students from Thailand did not consider the
recognition of courses in the home country as very important.
Past research has found that the impact of these variables on
satisfaction differ from one another though the combined effect could
be very significant (Houston and Rees, 1999; LeBlanc and Nha, 1997;
Tomovick et al, 1997).
Table 7 shows the list of variables included in the SERVQUAL
construct of empathy and the comparative average scores reflecting
their importance in contributing to student satisfaction.
Table 7: Empathy Construct, and Variables: Country Comparison
Variables
China
Good presence of students from own country
4.6
Friendly environment with access to many
5.4
opportunities for interaction with other student
groups
Academic courses and content appropriate to
6.0
student needs and aspirations
Flexible timetables
5.4
Overseas agents and consultants who provide
4.9
appropriate information and guidance
Adequate information and guidance through
5.1
Australian embassies and other official agents
Counselling services as part of student support
5.2
Other social activities as part of student support
5.2
Close working relationship between students
5.4
and international student advisers to ensure
appropriate solution to student problems
Average
5.2

India
4.4
6.3

Indonesia Thailand
4.9
4.4
5.9
5.9

6.8

6.6

6.3

6.4
6.2

5.9
5.9

5.9
5.6

6.3

6.1

5.7

6.5
6.4
6.6

6.1
5.7
6.1

5.9
5.9
5.9

5.9

5.7

6.2

Journal of Services Research, Volume 6, Special Issue (July, 2006)

156 A Comparative Analysis

As in other constructs, all four nationalities regarded empathy as an
important factor in student satisfaction. Students from India were the most
concerned while students from China appeared to indicate a comparatively
lesser importance to the construct as contributing to satisfaction. The most
important finding was that all students agreed on the need for academic
courses and course content appropriate to student needs and aspirations.
The close working relationship between students and international
student advisers was considered as the most important variable
contributing to satisfaction by all student groups. Students from India
registered the highest average score followed by students from
Indonesia, Thailand and China. The relevance of the empathy construct
in service quality can be justified on the basis that international students
operate in a totally new environment and culture and as such they
would expect knowledgeable and qualified faculty members to deliver
the services. It would be necessary for universities to ensure that
courteous and caring faculty staff and mentors are available for
consultations as and when they require assistance to cope with a
potentially troublesome transition into a new environment and culture
(LeBlanc and Nha, 1997).
Table 8 shows the tangibles construct with its respective variables
and average scores related to the four student cohorts.
Table 8: Tangibles Construct, and Variables: Country Comparison
Variables
Modern and adequate library facilities
Good operating hours for library access
Modern and adequate computer facilities
Student accommodation of a good standard
Campus well located with easy access
Average

China
6.3
5.8
6.1
4.9
5.7
5.8

India Indonesia Thailand

6.7
6.6
6.4
6.7
6.5
6.3
6.8
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.1
5.8
6.7
6.5
6.4
6.7
6.5
6.3

All students considered tangibles as an extremely important dimension

related to the quality of service delivery by universities as demonstrated by
the high overall average scores. This finding was supported by previous
research by Smith, Morey, and Teece (2002); Le Blanc and Nha, (1997);
and Wakefield and Blodgett (1996).
Students from China and Indonesia considered modern and adequate
library facilities as the most important variable while students from
India and Thailand considered modern computer facilities as the most
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157 Arambewela, Hall

important. There was consensus among the four student groups in regard
to student accommodation and this factor was rated as the least important
variable in the determination of service quality.
CONCLUSION
This study investigated the relationship between the SERVQUAL constructs
of reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy and tangibles and the
country of origin and satisfaction among four groups of postgraduate
business students from Asia studying in Australia. Scales were developed
to examine this relationship, and were shown to be reliable. Based on
ANOVA and MANOVA techniques, the study found significant differences
between country of origin and the SERVQUAL constructs in relation to
student satisfaction.
The findings indicated that all SERVQUAL constructs had an impact
on student satisfaction, though there were variances in the impact of
each construct. It was clear however that the tangibles construct was
the most significant in forming satisfaction among all groups of students
as confirmed by previous studies on student satisfaction (Smith, Morey,
and Teece (2002); Le Blanc and Nha, (1997); and Wakefield and
Blodgett (1996).
The study revealed that the importance placed on individual service
quality variables within each construct also differed between the four
groups of students, providing an insight into the post-choice behaviour
of students. The findings therefore will be useful for educational
institutions in prioritizing action to achieve positive outcomes in the
satisfaction levels of students and their choice of study destinations.
A major challenge faced by universities, the world over, is the
increasing diversity of overseas students originating from a variety of
countries. The pressure on universities to successfully negotiate the
cultural diversity and improvement in service quality will continue to
increase with the global expansion of the international student market.
The attractiveness of the international education market in the form of
both pecuniary and non pecuniary benefits will continue to create a
highly competitive environment requiring higher education institutions
to pursue well planned strategies to maintain a globally competitive
position.

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158 A Comparative Analysis

It is important for universities to recognize that Asia is a differentiated
market place where students from different countries and different cultural
backgrounds have somewhat different needs and wants to satisfy. The
development of a segmented approach in targeting services to students
from different countries focusing on the most important service quality
variables should therefore be part of the organizational strategy to improve
student satisfaction. The success of such an approach will depend on the
organisational appreciation of the cultural diversity and the commitment to
quality in service delivery. Meeting students expectations in the delivery
of service facilities, conducting training sessions and seminars on cross
cultural awareness involving all employees of the university, introducing
effective teaching methods addressing different learning styles of students
with regular course evaluations to support continuous improvement in
teaching are among the strategic initiatives that can be considered by
universities in addressing student diversity and overall quality improvement
(Brightman et al, 1993).
This study also highlighted an important issue of high student
expectations which was shared by all groups of students included in
the study. Students develop expectations through information
acquisition and universities should exercise extra caution in developing
artificially inflated expectations of university services through their
promotional material and overseas agency networks. Student
expectations should be carefully examined and analysed in order to
manage expectations through the delivery of objective information (Brown
and Swartz, 1989). Universities will also benefit by conducting internal
marketing research to ensure both management and faculty expectations of
service delivery are in line with student expectations.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Despite the contribution of the study to new knowledge by the application
of SERVQUAL constructs to the international education domain, the major
limitation of the study is its scope which was restricted to five universities
in the state of Victoria, Australia. The generalisation of the results becomes
an issue in this context. It may be argued, however, that the five institutions
selected for the study are among the largest universities in Australia and
these universities have attracted the most number of international students
from the respective source countries. It can also be argued that the issues
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159 Arambewela, Hall

identified in the study seem to have a common appeal and therefore would
be applicable to international students in any study destination.
Future research should be directed to investigate service quality
expectations not only from students perspective but also from a service
provider perspective (Houston and Rees, 1999). This would allow a
comparison of the expectations and the resultant gap that needs to be filled.
It would also be necessary to expand the study involving students from
other countries and study destinations to further validate the results of this
study.
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Rodney Arambewela, is Lecturer in Marketing, Bowater School of

Management and Marketing, Deakin University, Australia.
John Hall, is Associate Director, Centre for Business Research, Deakin
University, Australia.

Journal of Services Research, Volume 6, Special Issue (July, 2006)