Starter Cultures for Table Olive

Fermentation

Introduction
Table olive fermentation is carried out by homo- and hetero-fermentative lactic acid bacteria and
yeasts found on olives. The micro flora and therefore the fermentation process depend on the
cultivar itself as well as on industrial and agricultural practices.
An approach to improve and control the fermentation process, for a more predictable process, is
the use of starter cultures.
A starter culture is a concentrated preparation of viable microorganisms which are added to a raw
material and whose metabolic activity has desired effects for fermentation as for example
improved aroma, texture and flavor (Borcakli et al., 1995).
The application of starter cultures can further be used to initiate the fermentation process as well
as to control undesired microbial activity, accelerate fermentation, removal of fermentable sugars
for prevention of secondary fermentation and prolonged shelf-life by inhibiting spoilage
microorganisms (Alperden and zay, 1993). Inhibit of spoilage bacteria works by competition for
nutrients, production of inhibitors (anti-microbial compounds such as organic acids, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, diacetyl, ethanol or bacteriocins) [1].
Further advantages of starter cultures are that they can have probiotic properties, degradation of
anti-nutritional factors, the improvement of protein digestibility, and bio-availability of
micronutrients, and the nutritional enrichment of food through the biosynthesis of vitamins,
essential amino acids, and other nitrogen compounds.
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Strains
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB)
Lactic acid bacteria are the main fermenting bacteria found in lye treated table olives. They
produce lactic acid from the sugars present in the olives which inhibits growth of acid sensitive
bacteria such as gram-negative and coliform bacteria. Currently they are the first choice for the
use of starter cultures.
The main starter cultures used in experimental studies application in table olive fermentation are
listed in table 1.
It was observed that the use of LAB starter cultures in Spanish-style green olive fermentation can
positively affect this technology by accelerating the fermentation and, thus, decreasing the time
available for spoilage microorganisms growth [2]. Moreover, the flavor of inoculated olives was
proved to be unambiguously enhanced. Trials to confirm these results at industrial scale are
presently underway.
Lactobacillus plantarum and L. pentosus
The most widely used strains are Lactobacillus plantarum (Etchells et al., 1966; Leal-Snchez et al.,
2003; Chorianopoulos et al., 2005; Lamzira et al., 2005; Marsilio et al., 2005; Sabatini et al., 2008),
L. pentosus (de Castro et al., 2002; Panagou et al., 2003, 2008; Servili et al., 2006) or both (Snchez
et al., 2001; Panagou and Tassou, 2006) [3]. They were shown to increase lactic acid formation and
improve microbial control and result in the production of high quality fermented olives.
Gas pocket causing bacteria like Leuconostoc and heterofermentative Lactobacillus bacteria could
be reduced by the use of 5*1010 - 2*1010 starter cultures of Lactobacillus plantarum [4].
Application of Lb. plantarum starter cultures also lead to a faster pH decrease in green table olive
processing, reducing spoilage risk during the first days of fermentation [5].
Borcakli et al. also showed in 1995 that fermentation time with L. plantarum strains could be
reduced to 5.5 months by pre-treating olives with water (pH 4.5) for three days and further
covering in 6% NaCl brine pH 4.5 at 15 C (aeration provided).
Sanchez et al. used L. pentosus CECT 5138 to initiate fermentation at alkaline pH (>9), showing a
rapid growth and acidification that reduced the Enterobacteriaceae population and thereby the
risk of spoilage [6].
Panagou et al. showed that use of L. plantarum and freeze-dried L. pentosus from the commercial
Vege-Start 10 (Chr. Hansens Biosystems, Horsholm, Denmark) accelerated fermentation process
and reduced the survival period of Gram-negative bacteria by 5 days compared with the
spontaneous process, thus minimizing the likelihood of spoilage for the anaerobe fermentation of
natural black olives (cv. Conservolea). Fermentation conditions were 6% (w/v) NaCl (maintained
constantly), 20C for 30 days. L. pentosus showed a better brine acidification than the L. plantarum
strain [7].
Hurtado et al. (2010) found that L. pentosus showed better fermentation performances than L.
plantarum for controlling Arbequina table olive fermentation at 20C for 52 days in a brine
containing 8% NaCl (w/v) [3].
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Genus
Lactobacillus

Leuconostoc
Pediococcus
Enterococcus

Tab. 1: Main starter cultures tested in table olive fermentation [8, 9]

Species
Cultivar
Author and year
plantarum
Randazzo et al., 2011
Hojiblanca
Ruiz-Barba et al., 2010
Bella di Cerignola
Perricone et al., 2010
Hurtado et al., 2010
Kumral et al., 2009
Moresca and Kalamata
Sabatini et al., 2008
Panagou et al., 2008
Saravanos et al., 2008
Romeo & Poiana et al., 2007
Marsilio et al., 2005
Conservolea
Chorianopoulos et al., 2005
Picholine
Lamzira et al., 2005
Caggia et al., 2004
Manzanillo
Leal-Sanchez et al., 2003
Sanchez et al., 2001
Manzanilla
Duran-Quintana et al., 1999
L. plantarum / L. pentosus
Conservolea
Panagou et al., 2008
L. plantarum / D. hansenii
Kalamon
Tsapatsaris and Kotzekidou, 2004
Pentosus
Aponte et al., 2012
Gordal
Bautista Gallego et al., 2011
Arbequina
Hurtado et al., 2010
Medina et al., 2009; 2008
Panagou et al., 2008
Peres et al., 2008
Romeo & Poiana et al., 2007
Itrana and Leccino
Servili et al., 2006
Caggia et al., 2004
Manzanilla
Sanchez et al., 2001
L. pentosus / S. cerevisiae
Green olives
Segovia Bravo et al., 2007
casei
Randazzo et al., 2011
Caggia et al., 2004
paracasei
Bella di Cerignola
De Bellis et al., 2010
Saravanos et al., 2008
paraplantarum
Romeo & Poiana et al., 2007
brevis

Kumral et al., 2009

Romeo & Poiana et al., 2007

coryniformis
cremoris
paramesenteroides
pentosaceus
faecium
casseliflavus

Aponte et al., 2012

Kumral et al., 2009
Kumral et al., 2009
Ruiz-Barba et al., 2010
Ruiz-Barba et al., 2010
De Castro et al., 2002

Manzanillo

In general L. plantarum strains can be used alone, or in combination with other strains like
Debaromyces hansenii or S. cerevisiae.
Segovia Bravo et al. observed an improvement in the growth of L. pentosus when it was inoculated
together with S. cerevisiae in ozonated alkaline solutions reused as fermentation brines [6].
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The use of Enterococcus casseliflavus cc45 and L. pentosus 5138A applied with one day delay also
produced quicker acidification [6]. And the use of L. plantarum 1159 inoculation was useful,
together with other conditions, to prevent bloater damage in the presence of high counts of P.
anomala S18 [6].
Nevertheless, in most cases inoculation is carried out with wild strains of LAB isolated from
previous fermentations [2].

Bacteriocin producing strains

Bacteriocins are proteins produced by bacteria with a wide spectrum of inhibition against
pathogens and spoilage microorganisms.
The use of bacteriocin producing strains as starter cultures was suggested to inhibit spoilage
organisms (Ruiz-Barba and Jimenez-Diaz, 1994; Leal-Snchez et al., 2003; Delgado et al., 2005;
Arroyo-Lpez et al, 2005) [3].
The use of L. plantarum LPCO10 which produces two bacteriocins was reported to be active
against a number of natural competitors of L. plantarum and also against bacteria causing olive
spoilage. Using this strain as starter culture rapidly decreased the pH during the first phases of
fermentation reducing olive spoilage, and produced higher free total acidity (Ruiz-Barba and
Jimenez-Diaz, 1994; Leal-Snchez et al., 2003) [10].
Enterococcus faecium BFE 900 (Franz et al., 1996) and Lactobacillus plantarum LPCO10 (JimnezDaz et al., 1993) are two more interesting bacteriocin-producing strains with possible application
in table olive fermentation [11]. The authors found that, in order to obtain the best final product,
L. plantarum LPCO10 should be suspended at 107 CFU/ml in a 4% NaCl brine (adjusted with acetic
acid) enriched with olive juice broth (OJB) which resembles the natural environment of the
strain. The inoculation shall be carried out 1 to 4 days after brining [5].

Enterococci
The co-inoculation of different Enterococcis with L. plantarum or L. pentosus was also suggested to
improve olive fermentation.
Lavermicocca et al. (1998) and Deiana et al. (1992) suggested the use of E. faecium associated with
L. plantarum or S. cerevisiae [12]. The inoculation of Spanish-style fermented Manzanilla olives
with Enterococcus casseliflavus together with L. pentosus showed a decrease of fermentation time
and reduced growth of spoilage microorganisms [13].
But as enterococci can cause infections in humans, its use in table olive fermentation has not been
recommended by the European Food Safety Authority [14].

Yeasts
Yeast are more abundant in directly brined green and Natural black olives because in olives that
are not lye treated, lactic acid bacteria are partially inhibited due to the presence of phenolic
compounds [15].
Yeasts can be used as biocontrol agents in table olive fermentation due to their yeast species
inhibiting factors. Pichia membranifaciens for example produces a toxin which is active against
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Candida boidinii in at a salt concentration of 0.1 to 1 M. Wicheramomyces anomalus is also able to

release substances showing inhibitory activity against a wide range of microorganisms (Passoth et
al., 2011) [3]. Therefore, they may reduce the requirements for salt and preservatives necessary to
ensure packaging stability and produce healthier products.
Catalase positive yeast strains are also favorable because they contribute to preserving olives
against unsaturated fatty acid oxidation and peroxide formation (Hernndezetal., 2007).
Fortunately, this is a wide spread property in table olive related yeasts, and species such as
W.anomalus, Pichia galeiformis, and Kluyveromyceslactis have proven to have this activity
(Hernndezetal., 2007; Bautista-Gallego etal., 2011) [16]
Moreover yeast can produce ethanol, glycerol, higher alcohols, esters, vitamins (thiamine (vitamin
B1), nicotinic acid, pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and pantothenic acid (Abbas, 2006)), amino acids,
purins and other volatile compounds with an important role in flavor generation, texture
maintenance during fermentation/storage (Garrido et al., 1995; Garrido Fernndez et al., 1997)
and can improve LAB growth[17].
Therefore a combination of LAB and yeast could be an interesting approach as a starter culture for
table olive fermentation. They are also being considered as probiotic agents because many species
are able to resist the passage through the gastrointestinal tract and show favorable effects on the
host [16].
L. pentosus activity during green olives fermentation was improved in the presence of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Segovia Bravo et al., 2007) [17]. Incubation of olives 48 hours before L.
plantarum, also increased the growth rate of L. plantarum (Tsapatsaris and Kotzekidou, 2004).
Hurtado et al. showed in 2010 that the co-inoculation of L. pentosus and Candida diddensiae for
Arbequina table olives fermentation improved LAB development, influenced yeast diversity,
reduced Enterobacteriaceae survival, improved the sensorial quality of olives and inhibited
spoilage yeast and food-borne pathogens [3].
Co inoculation of L. pentosus and Candida diddensiae caused a better microbial development
profile than single inoculations (Hurtado et al., 2011) [14].
Arroyo-Lpez et al. (2012b) reported the possible application and technical properties of W.
anomalus, S. cerevisiae, and P. membranifaciens as starter culture (Bautista-Gallego et al., 2011;
Arroyo-Lpez et al., 2012b). Especially W. anomalus is well-adapted to the environmental
conditions such as low pH and high NaCl concentrations in addition to its other interesting
technological properties (Bautista-Gallego et al., 2011) [14].
Wickerhamomyces anomalus Y18 and Pichia guilliermondii Y16 were found to be promising
strains, alone or in combination for the use as yeast starter culture in table olive fermentation, the
former with technological applications and the later as potential probiotic agent. [18].
But yeasts are also known to be CO2 producer which can damage olives. Further they can produce
enzymes that cause the polysaccharides of the olive fruit cell wall to degrade or lead to the
formation of pellicles in olive brines. Some strains are also known to cause fruit softening due to
the production of polygalacturonases [17]. As oxidative yeast can lead to an increased pH and
therefore favor growth of spoilage bacteria they should be kept at a low number.
The main positive and negative characteristics of yeast for table olive fermentation are
summarized in table 2
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Tab. 2: Main characteristics of the positive and negative roles of yeasts isolated from table olive
fermentation and packing [17]
Fermentation
Positive role
Production of desirable
volatile
compounds and
metabolites
Antioxidant activity

Improvement of the
lactic acid
bacteria growth
Killer activity

Yeast species
Not related clearly with
yeast
species

Negative role
Gas pocked
spoilage/excessive
production of CO2

Yeast species
S. cerevisiae (c)
P. anomala (c)

P. anomala (e)

Polysaccharolytic
activity

D. hansenii (f)
R. minuta (f)

D. hansenii (j)
S. cerevisiae (i)

Polygalactunorase
activity

D. hansenii (g)
K. marxianus (g)
P. membranifaciens (h)
C. tropicalis (d)

Product with a
milder taste a less
self-preservation

R. glutinis (k)
R. minuta (k)
R. rubra (k)
Not related
clearly with
yeast species

Packing
Negative role
Production of CO2

Increase of the cell

number (clouding of
the brines)
Resistance to high
preservative
concentrations
Production of offflavours and off odours

Yeast species
P. anomala (l)
S. cerevisiae (a) (l)

I. occidentalis (a)
S. cerevisiae (a)
I. occidentalis (b)

Not related clearly

with
yeast species
Biodegradation of
Softening of fruits
P. anomala (l)
polyphenols
S. cerevisiae (l)
References in Table 2: (a) Arroyo Lpez et al. (2006); (b) Arroyo Lpez et al. (2008); (c) Durn Quintana et al. (1979); (d)
Ettayebi et al. (2003); (e) Gazi et al. (2001); (f) Hernndez et al. (2007); (g) Hernndez et al. (2008); (h) Santos et al.
(2000); (i) Segovia Bravo et al. (2007); (j) Tsapatsaris and Kotzekidou (2004); (k) Vaughn et al. (1969); (l) Vaughn et al.
(1972).

Undoubtedly, the full potential of the commercial value of yeasts in table olive fermentations has
not yet been fully determined and further research according to yeast ecology, physiology,
biochemistry and molecular biology has to be conducted.

Application
First thing that need to be done is the selection of an appropriate culture. Various examples for
suitable strains are available in the literature. After selection, validation on a lab-scale basis and
validation at the factory-scale are recommended (Bevilacqua et al., 2012). These steps are critical
for the safety and quality of the final product [14].
Starter cultures are usually applied at a concentration range between 106 to 107 cfu/ml of brine
after bitter substances have been eliminated [3]. For L. paracasei an inoculation number of 109
cfu/ml was reported [3].
Especially the combination of lye treatment and starter culture application was found to increase
table olive quality. Activity increase could be obtained by chancing brine with brine adjusted to pH
4.5 every 10 to 15 days.
Temperature
For L. plantarum and L. pentosus the most appropriate temperature to obtain a good fermentation
range from 20 to 25C [3].
Fermentation at low temperatures
Duran-Quintana et al. (1999) demonstrated that by using a selected strain of L. plantarum as
starter it was possible to carry out a normal Spanish-style green olive fermentation at 12C by
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using 3% NaCl and a pH of 5.0. Similar results were obtained by Snchez et al. (2001), by using a
selected strain of L. pentosus inoculated in lye-treated green olives at alkaline pH [3].
Acceleration of fermentation
Servili et al. (2006) used L. pentosus 1MO starting cultures (inoculated at an initial cell
concentration of about 108 cfu/mL) for the fermentation of black olives (Itrana and Leccino cv.) at
28C, pH 6.0, 6% NaCl, with addition of 0.3% glucose and 0.05% yeast extract. With this approach a
debittering could be obtained in 8 days [3, 5]. Olives resulted in obtaining ready-to-eat, high
quality table olives, with decreased oleuropein and increased hydroxytyrosol concentration [19].
Moreover, the addition of L. pentosus 1MO showed a strong control of the spontaneous bacterial
strains, due to thefast pH reduction below pH 4.5. This aspect improves the safety of fermented
olives, while avoiding the possible growth of spoilage and/or pathogenic strains.
Due to the successful fermentation by L. pentosus 1MO (8 days are needed from harvesting to
eating is now already being applied at the industrial level.
Commercial starter
Vegestart60 (Chr. Hansen A/S, Horsholm, Denmark)
http://www.hopeland-cn.com/products_list.asp?nid=16
Example 1
An example for a starter culture application can be found in table 3 [8].
Tab. 3: Starter culture ingredients
Ingredient
Yeast extract powder
Dextrose monohydrate
Di potassium hydrogen phosphate
monohydrate anhydrous
Di ammonium phosphate (DAP)
Trisodium citrate dihydrate
Sodium acetate anhydrous
Magnesium sulphate
Manganese sulphate
Salt, coarse, heat sterilised
Water, potable, sterile
Lactic acid bacteria freeze-dried culture
(L. plantarum/L. pentosus) produced by
Hopeland Bio-Tech Co Ltd.

Chemical formula
N/A
C6H6O6
K2HPO4

Supplier
Amyl Media
Consolidated Chemical or Redox
Consolidated Chemical or Redox

g/L
4
20
2

(NH4)2HPO4
C6H5Na3O7*2H2O
CH3OONa
MgSO4*7H2O
MnSO4*H2O
NaCl

Consolidated Chemical or Redox

Consolidated Chemical or Redox
Consolidated Chemical or Redox
Consolidated Chemical or Redox
Consolidated Chemical or Redox
Cheetham Salt or Olssons Salt

2
2
5
0.2
0.04
40
to 1 L

Available in aluminium
triple foil bags thermo
closed

Hopeland or The Olive Centre

Example 2
Ruiz-Barbaa and Jimnez-Daz established a protocol for a successful industrial-scale Spanish-style
green olive fermentation with a novel Lactobacillus pentosus-paired starter culture.
The used strains were L. pentosus LP RJL2 (a PLS producer) and L. pentosus LP RJL3 (fast and
predominant growth in fermentation brines, which produces high amounts of exopolysaccharides
(EPSs)). At industrial level, production of EPS improves the viscosity of the brines during the
Spanish-style green olive fermentation producing high quality olives with a typical flavor and
aroma (Fernndez Dez, 1983; Garrido Fernndez et al., 1995).

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Preparation for inoculation: L. pentosus LP RJL2 and LP RJL3 were subcultured overnight at 30C in
50 ml MRS broth containing 500 g/ml streptomycin (MRS-Str) or 10 g/ml rifampin (MRS-Rif),
respectively. The next day, 2 l of fresh MRS were inoculated with the respective strain and then
incubated at 30C for 16-18 h. These cultures at the early stationary phase of growth (ca. 5*109
cfu/ml) were used as inocula. Both strains were inoculated at a time in each fermentor at final
concentrations of 106 cfu/ml and 105 cfu/ml of LP RJL2 and LP RJL3, respectively, resulting in a
faster pH decrease and lactic acid increase and higher final concentration [20].

Probiotic strains for starter cultures

One of the latest research topics in the field of table olive starter cultures is the use of fermented
table olives as probiotic carrier.
Probiotic vegetables have the potential to attract more consumers who demand functional
products, since vegetables provide to those who are intolerant to milk and its derivatives, or
require low-cholesterol diets, access to new probiotic formulations
At the end of fermentation, table olives are a natural product still hosting on their surface a viable
microbiota (Lavermicocca et al., 1998). The evidence that the surface of olive fruits is colonized by
LAB paved the way for the use of table olives as a biological carrier for beneficial strains such as
probiotics (Lavermicocca et al., 2003, 2005) [21].
For that purpose, microorganisms used should be able to act as a starter as well as a probiotic
strain to control fermentation processes and achieve the final probiotic product with probiotic
characteristics.
Strains
The most commonly used LAB species, in probiotic preparations are Lactobacillus ssp.,
Bifidobacterium ssp., and Streptococcus ssp. (Shah, 2007) [14].
L. paracasei IMPC 2.1 is another good example of a probiotic strain suitable for industrial
fermentation of de-bittered table olives [21]. It was used as a starter for olive fermentation and
was reported to reduce the survival period of potential spoilage microorganisms [22]. It was found
to successfully colonized both the olive surface (De Bellis et al., 2010) and human gut
(Lavermicocca et al., 2005) [14]. Furthermore it stimulated the growth of LAB and of lactobacilli
and bifidobacteria [21].
L. pentosus, L. plantarum, and L. paracasei are also potential probiotic bacteria (Nguyen et al.,
2007; De Bellis et al., 2010; Argyri et al., 2013).
Also yeast can have probiotic function. But until now Saccharomyces boulardii is the only yeast
preparation with proven probiotic efficiency in double-blind clinical studies (Sazawaletal.,2006)
[16]. But Strains like K. lactis, S. cerevisiae, and Issatchenkia orientalis exhibit great ability to
reduce cholesterol serum levels (Kourelisetal.,2010) and could therefore be also interesting for
fortification.

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A different approach is the fortification of previous fermented olives in storage brine with
autochthonous putative probiotic bacteria like Lactobacillus pentosus TOMC-LAB2 [23].
The strain has shown to survive under packing conditions for long period of times as well as to
colonize the olive surface which is the food finally ingested by consumers. This opens the
possibility for the development of a new and simply probiotic fortified olive product.

Conclusion
The use of starter cultures finds wide application for the production of alcoholic beverages and
dairy products. They could as well be applied for the fermentation of table olives for process
improvement.
More and more research is being conducted as the interest in developing starter cultures for table
olives fermentation increases, because starter culture application provides a promising attempt to
reduce production costs (energy), fermentation times, risk of spoilage (increased shelf-life), to the
improvement of process control, sensory quality, and safety attributes.
According to the literature some L. pentosus, L. paracasei, and L. plantarum strains have already
been successfully applied as starter cultures indicating the strong potential for their usage for olive
fermentation during industrial olive production (Servili et al., 2006).
Nevertheless the application of starter cultures in the field of table olives is quite far from reaching
the diffusion as it has in other sectors of food industry, although commercial preparations are
already available on the market.

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