Operations Research

Lecture Notes
By
Prof A K Saxena
Professor and Head
Dept of CSIT
G G Vishwavidyalaya,
Bilaspur-India

Operations Research

Some important tips before start of course material to

students
Mostly we followed Book by S D Sharma, as prescribed
for this syllabus
At places, we use some internet links not necessarily
mentioned there at.
We acknowledge all such resources.
As the course is mostly mathematical in nature, we will be
solving problems in class room. The problems will involve
a lot of mathematics, calculations although simple but will
be so time consuming to express on computers, we leave it
up to students to ask in details any particular topic or
problem in class or during contact hours.
So ready to take off !!!!

History of Operations Research

The term Operation Research has its origin during
the Second World War. The military management
of England called a team of scientists to study the
strategic and tactical problems which could raise
in air and land defence of the country. As the
resources were limited and those need to be fully
but properly utilized. The team did not involve
actually in military operations like fight or
attending war but the team kept off the war but
studying and suggesting various operations related
to war.

What is Operations Research?

Several definitions have been given
Operations research

(abbreviated as OR hereafter) is a scientific

method of providing executive departments with a

quantitative basis for decisions regarding the operations
under their control: Morse and Kimbal (1944)
OR is an analytical method of problem-solving and decision-making that is
useful in the management of organizations. In operations research, problems are
broken down into basic components and then solved in defined steps by
mathematical analysis.
Operational Research (OR) is the use of advanced analytical techniques to
improve decision making. It is sometimes known as Operations Research,
Management Science or Industrial Engineering. People with skills in OR hold
jobs in decision support, business analytics, marketing analysis and logistics
planning as well as jobs with OR in the title.
As such a number of definitions can be found in literature, you
can express the term OR with the spirit mentioned in the literature.

Meaning of Operations Research?

As stated early, the OR does not mean to get involved
in the operations but suggestion for better execution of
operations. Suggesting strategy how the operations
can be improved and get better results. The genesis of
OR is in finding better ways to solve a problem. Thus
it is analytical not purely hard core action oriented.
As we explore several options for the analysis of
operations, we search and re-search the effects of
operations. If one solution offers some result, try
second solution and see and compare with previous
and so on unless we satisfy ourselves.
Therefore research term sounds to indicate that there
would be enough thinking on the outcome of several
results. Hence Operation Research.

Meaning of Operations Research?

A simple example of OR
Given
different routs to reach from source A to
destination B. Also on these routes there can be
various ways to travel. For simplicity, we assume we
have travelling modes x,y,z each having different
travelling time and cost incurred on travel.
I have a limited money or budget and a limited time
also to reach destination B. Now all options can reach
me A to B but they will not be fit for me. I want a
solution which I can use so that I can afford journey
both in terms of cost and time.
OR can be used here.

Management Applications of Operations Research?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Finance budgeting and investment

Purchase, procure and exploration
Production management
Marketing
Personal management
Research and development

Scopes of OR (elaborate following by your own as

discussed in class)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Agriculture: optimum allocation of land, crops, irrigation etc

Finance: maximize income, profit, minimize cost etc
In industries: Allocation of resources, assignment of problems
to worthy employees etc
Personal management: To appoint best candidate, decide
minimum employees to complete job etc
Production management: Determine number of units to produce
to maximize profit, etc

Principles of Modeling in Operations Research?

How should we model problems of OR, for this purpose following
principles can be kept in mind (Some principles are given here)
1. Try to build up a simple model in stead of building complex
model
2. Use only the specialized model to solve a problem rather than
applying same model to fit in every problem
3. Model validation before implementation: Test a model before it
is actually implemented in real world
4. Model should be practical in approach and not a pure ideal one
which may face problem when put in real time problems
5. Use a model only for which it is best. It should not be pressed
to do what it can not do better with
6. OR models can support decision makers in their process but
can not replace or in many cases outperform decision makers.

Main Characteristics or features of Operations Research?

1.

2.

3.

4.
5.

Inter-disciplinary team approach: In OR, to model a problem,

people or experts from various disciplines are joined. E.g
Computer expert, Economists, mathematicians can join to
model a economics problem
Wholistic approach to the system: OR models have to think
the whole business not for the particular unit for which it is
engaged. It will see the effect of the model in entire business.
Using OR techniques, we can only improve the solutions of the
exiting problems but can not make them perfect due to many
other factors affecting solutions
Use of scientific research to apply the state of art techniques
to improve solutions
Total output is optimized by maximizing or minimizing output

In the present course we will consider only few well established

standard problems of OR like LPP, Transportation,
Assignment, Replacement, CPM/PERT. Further there can be
optimization models involving Genetic, Swarm intelligence, etc
beyond the scope of the course here

Expression of problems in
Operations Research?
A typical example of OR problem
Most of the problems in OR are of the following form
Given an objective function also called fitness
function which depends on certain variables or
parameters. The objective function has to be
optimized, i.e. maximized or minimized.
A set of constraints given which should be satisfied
while solving the problem
Some conditions on the nature of parameters so as to
ignore those parameters at all which do not fulfill
these conditions e.g. x2 =4 will give x=+2 and x=-2 but
we do not want to consider x=-2 so we have to declare
x>=0 at the start of the problem.

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Equations and Inequalities/Constraints
We are familiar with terms equations such as
2x+ 3y -3z = 12
is an equation as we have an equality sign relating left
hand side with right hand side
But in OR we will mostly deal with types of following
2x + 3y <= 14
Or
2x + 3y >= 14
These types of representations will be called as constraints
or inequalities in OR
LPP stands for linear Programming Problem which means
finding optimum solutions (minimum or maximum)
represented by a function of variables or parameters called
objective function, denoted by z
Subject to a set of linear equations or inequalities called
constraints.

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
In an LPP, the equations or inequalities are of the linear form
like a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn = b1
or
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn >= b1
or
In general

where aij, bi, and cj are given constants. aij are coefficients of
decision variables xs, bi are constraints values and cj are
coefficients associated to objective function z

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
A complete solution to an LPP comprises of following steps
1.Formulating problem to a proper mathematical form
2.Solving the problem graphically/algebraically
In our discussion onward, we will first learn how to
formulate given problem in the standard form, then learn
first its graphical solution then algebraic solution. In
algebraic solution, we will apply simplex method.

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
An example problem in formulated form

Objective
Function

Max z= 5x1 + 7x2

s.t.

x1
2x1 + 3x2
x1 + x2

<
<
<

6
19
8

x1 > 0 and x2 > 0

Regular
Constraints
Non-negativity
Constraints

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Exercise on formulating an LPP
A toy company manufactures two types of dolls, A and B.
Each doll of type B takes twice as long to produce as one of
type A, and the company would have time to make a
maximum of 2000 per day. The supply of plastic is sufficient
to produce 1500 dolls per day of A and B combined. Each B
type doll requires fancy dress of which there are only 600
per day available. If the company makes a profit of Rs 3
and Rs 5 on doll A and B respectively, then how many dolls
of A and B should be produced per day in order to maximize
the total profit. Formulate this problem.

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Formulation of LPP
In this problem (and these types of problems) start from last. We are to maximize the
profit. So the objective function z will be
Maximize z
Then two products are dolls of A and B types. So decision variables will be x1 and
x2. Now let x1 denotes the number of dolls of type A required for maximize profit z
and x2 be dolls for B type. Profit on each doll of A is Rs 3 and that for each doll B is
Rs 5 so
Max z= 3x1 + 5x2
As x2 takes twice time than x1 and total time allowed per day can produce 2000
dolls so x1 + 2x2 <=2000
Fancy dress material is available for B type 600 dolls so
X2<=600
Also plastics availability is enough to produce 1500 dolls for A and B both so
x1+x2<=1500
As x1, x2 are numbers of dolls to be produced per day so x1,x2 >=0
Writing all steps together
Max z= 3x1 + 5x2

(Objective Function)

s.t.
x1 + 2x2 <=2000
(Time constraint)
x1+ x2 <=1500
(Plastics availability constraint)
X2<=600
(Fancy dress material constraint)
and x1,x2 >=0 (non negativity problem)

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Formulation of LPP
There are similar type of other formulation problems in
LPP. The easy way to do is
1.First read the LPP to find the term Profit/Cost/Time or
similar term to maximize/minimize/optimize
2.Usually the profit/time etc. associated with each of the
product will determine the decision variables viz. x1,x2,
3.Read each sentence carefully, a constraint ( in rare case
an equality) with some numeric value is given.
4.Convert all such sentences to constraints/inequalities.
5.Write the objective function first like Max(Min) z=.
6.Then write subject to (s.t.) and all inequalities in
following lines below s.t.
7.Do not forget to write non negativity conditions x1>=0,
x2>=0, etc

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Formulation of LPP
There are similar type of other formulation problems in
LPP. The easy way to do is
1.First read the LPP to find the term Profit/Cost/Time or
similar term to maximize/minimize/optimize
2.Usually the profit/time etc. associated with each of the
product will determine the decision variables viz. x1,x2,
3.Read each sentence carefully, a constraint ( in rare case
an equality) with some numeric value is given.
4.Convert all such sentences to constraints/inequalities.
5.Write the objective function first like Max(Min) z=.
6.Then write subject to (s.t.) and all inequalities in
following lines below s.t.
7.Do not forget to write non negativity conditions x1>=0,
x2>=0, etc

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Solution of LPP
We will see how LPP can be solved after these are
formulated. There can be two type of solutions to discuss
1.Graphical solution
2. Algebraic mainly simplex method
First we shall discuss graphical method to solve LPP.
We adopt an easy approach here by taking a rough sketch
of graphs manually but in principle correct.

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Graphical Solution of LPP
The concept of graph and linear equations.
In a graph, we have two axes, axis of x and axis of y.
+
+
+
y
-

(-,+) IInd

(+,+) Ist
O

(-,-) IIIrd

(+,-) IVth

..---------- - x ++++++++++
The axes can be divided in four quadrants. Any point (x,y)
lies in one of the quadrants. The origin O is the point
having (0,0) coordinates. Any point in four quadrants will
be (x,y), (-x,y),(-x,-y) and (x,-y) in first, second, third and
fourth quadrant respectively.

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Graphical Solution of LPP
The Suppose an LPP is given in the formulated form.
Max(min) z = c1 x1 +c2 x2 +cnxn
s.t.
a11 x1 +a12 x2 +..a1n xn (<=>)b1
a21 x1 +a22 x2 +..a2n xn (<=>)b2

am1 x1 +am2 x2 +..amn xn (<=>)bm

with xis >=0
1.Consider all constraints as equations
2.Plot all lines (equations) on the graph
3.Indicate point of intersection of every two lines intersecting
each other or the point of intersection of a line with axis as the
case may be. If you are not using the graph accurately the solve
the two lines algebraically to know point of intersection.
4.Shade the region of every line which is towards the axis (<=) or
away from axis (>=).

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Graphical Solution of LPP
5. As we have xis >=0, all valid regions will lie in the first region going
towards origin (<=) or towards infinity (>=)
6. After all lines (constraints ) are plotted and shaded, the common
region, shaded and surrounded by all lines will give the feasible region.
7. Now plot objective function line z at the origin and move it parallel
away from first quadrant in the +infinity direction.
8.Keep the line z sliding in the feasible region. A point will be reached
which is the extreme point in the feasible region. In most of the cases of
maximum, this is the farthest point from origin and for cases of
minimum, this point is the closest to origin. This point is called the point
of optimum solution of z.
9.Find out the value of z at this point. The point is the solution point with
the value of z as calculated there.
10.For a quick solution, take all intersection points and shade the
common region called feasible region. Find out the coordinates of every
corner point in the feasible region. Calculate z at each of these points,
and finalize the point with maximum(minimum) value of z as the solution
point with value of z as calculated there at.

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Plotting of lines
Suppose a line (or inequality) is given as follows
x1 + 4 x2 (< = >) 4
Then first for plotting purpose write it as
x1 /4 + x2 /1 (< = >) 1 (i.e. x/a + y/b =1 form)
Now plotting becomes easier
21| |
1 2

|
3

|
4

(0,0)

The slanted line represents x1 + 4 x2 (< = >) 4 or x1 /4 + x2 /1 (< = >) 1 .

The line cuts intercepts 4 from axis x1 and +1 from axis x2. This is why we
brought the line in the form x1 /4 + x2 /1 (< = >) 1

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Plotting of lines
If we have lines (or inequality) of the form
x1 - 4 x2 (< = >) 4
Then first for plotting purpose write it as
x1 /4 + x2 /-1 (< = >) 1 (i.e. x/a + y/b =1 form)
Now plotting becomes as follows
21| |
1 2
-1- (0,0)

|
3

|
4

-2The slanted line represents x1 - 4 x2 (< = >) 4 or x1 /4 + x2 /-1 (< = >) 1 .

The line cuts intercepts 4 from axis x1 and -1 from axis x2. This is why we
brought the line in the form x1 /4 + x2 /-1 (< = >) 1

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Plotting of lines
Similarly we can plot lines of other two types lying in second (-,+)
and third (-,-) quadrants.
The graphical solution to several LPP problems
have been
practiced in class room. Ply try solved and unsolved problems.

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
General form of LPP
The LPP can be in general one of the following forms
Max(min) z = c1 x1 +c2 x2 +cnxn
s.t. the m constraints
a11 x1 +a12 x2 +..a1n xn (<=>)b1
a21 x1 +a22 x2 +..a2n xn (<=>)b2

am1 x1 +am2 x2 +..amn xn (<=>)bm

with xis >=0
Slack and Surplus Variables
Slack variable: If a constraint has <= sign x1 + x2 <=20 then to
make it equality, we need to add some non negative term s to the
left hand side of the constraint. Thus we have x1 + x2 + s =20
then s is called a slack variable.
Surplus variable: If a constraint has >= sign x1 + x2 >=20 then
to make it equality, we need to subtract some non negative term
s from the constraint. Thus we have x1 + x2 - s =20 then s is
called a surplus variable.

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Standard form of LPP
The general form of LPP is given previously. The standard form
has following characteristics
Objective function should have only Maximum and NOT Min. So
even if we have Min z = c1 x1 +c2 x2 +cnxn, we will convert to Max
form by Max z = -Min(z) or we can have Max z = -c1 x1 -c2 x2 -cnxn, and can write z =-z so Min z = Max z
Convert all constraints to equalities using slack or surplus
variables so that we have
a11 x1 +a12 x2 +..a1n xn + xn+1
a21 x1 +a22 x2 +..a2n xn + 0xn+1 + xn+2

am1 x1 +am2 x2 +..amn xn + 0xn+1 + 0xn+2

= b1
=b2 -(2)
+ xm+n

=bm

with all xis >=0

-(3)
The objective function will become now
Max z = c1 x1 +c2 x2 +cnxn +0xn+1+0xn+2 +0xn+m
-(1)
If any x is unrestricted in sign, convert it to x x where x and
x are >=0

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Matrix form of LPP
The general and standard forms of LPP are given previously. The
standard form can be converted to the Matrix form as follows
Max z = CXT (transpose of X)
subject to AX = b, b >=0 and x >=0
Where x = (x1,x2,xn, xn+1,xn+m)
c =(c1,c2,..cn,0,0)
b= (b1,b2,,bm)
And Matrix A =
a11 a12 ..a1n 1 0 0
a21 a22 ..a2n 0 1 0

1
0

..

am1 am2 ..amn 0 0 0

Students are advised to attempt all problems related to the

concepts so far and ask the doubts if any.

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Important Definitions of LPP
See the standard form of LPP and equations 1,2,3
Solution of LPP: Any set of variables x = (x1,x2,xn, xn+1,xn+m) is called
solution of LPP if it satisfies (2) only.
Feasible Solution of LPP: Any set of variables x = (x1,x2,xn, xn+1,xn+m)
is called feasible solution of LPP if it satisfies (2) as well as (3).
Basic solutions and Basic Variable: A solution to (2) is a basic solution
if it is obtained by setting n out of m+n variables equal to 0 and then
solving for remaining m variables with the determinant of coefficients of
these m variables is non zero.
Usually we call those variables as basic variables which are used to get
identity matrix in solving LPP using simplex method.
Basic Feasible solutions: A basic solution to (2) is a basic feasible
solution if it also satisfies (3).
Optimum Basic Feasible solutions: A basic feasible solution which also
satisfies (1) is called a Basic Feasible solutions.
Unbounded Solution: If the value of objective function z can be increased
or decreased infinitely then such a solution is called an unbounded solution.
After these definitions, we are ready to start solution of LPP using simplex method.

Students must try some numeric problems based on the lectures

completed so far.

Operations Research
Introduction to LPP
Solution of LPP problems
The LPP can have following cases
i.When we have purely slack based problems (<=)
ii.When we have artificial variable based problems (= or >=)
For (i) type problems, simple simplex method can be used. A number
of exercises have been completed in class rooms.
For (ii) type problems, simplex method with two phase or big M
method can be used. A number of exercises have been completed in
class rooms.
Students must recall definitions of slack, surplus, artificial variables,
basic variables etc and they should try more numeric problems
based on these problems.
Degeneracy in LPP
While solving LPP using simplex method, some times we get min
Ratio (XB /Xk ) same for more than one basic variable, then this
problem is called degeneracy. Take few such examples and solve.

Operations Research
Duality in LPP
It has been discovered that every LPP has been
associated with another LPP. One of these LPP is
called Prime while the other LPP will be called Dual.
Sometimes, the solution to a dual is easier than the
primal so it is better to convert at that time primal
into its dual.
Primal LPP
Suppose following LPP is given
Max Zx =3x1+ 5x2 subject to
x1 <=4; x2 <=6; 3 x1 + 2 x2 <=18; and x1, x2 >=0
Its corresponding dual will be as follows
Dual LPP
Min Zw = 4w1 + 6 w2 + 18 w3 subject to
w1 +3 w3 >=3; w2 + 2w3 >=5; and w1,w2,w3 >=0
Matrix Form of Primal and Dual
Suppose the matrix for LPP is

Operations Research
Duality in LPP
Matrix Form of Primal and Dual
Suppose the matrix for LPP is
Min Zx = Cx (Primal objective function), C Rn
Subject to AX<=b, b Rn
Where A is an mXn real matrix
Dual of above LPP will be
Minimize zw =bT w, b Rn
Subject to
Atw>=cT, C Rn
Where w=(w1,w2,..wm) and AT, bT,cT are the transpose of A, B and C

Operations Research
Duality in LPP
General rules to convert primal into dual
i.Convert objective function to max form (min z = -min z )
ii.Bring all inequalities to <= ( >= can be written as -<=)
iii.Equality signs can be written as >= and <= so a=4 means a>=4 and
a<=4; ie. a<=-4 and a <=4
iv.Write unrestricted variables c as c c where c, c >=0
v.Transpose the rows and columns of constraint coefficients
vi.Transpose the
objective function coefficients (cs) and right hand
constants (bs)
vii.Change the inequalities from <= to >=
viii.Minimize the objective function from maximize
Duality is fairly simple, Try few numeric exercises

Operations Research
Transportation Problems
We often face the situation when we have to transport material from
various places to various other places and want to minimize the
time or cost of transporting these material (e.g. TV, computers etc)
Transportation Problem(TP) is to transport various quantities of a
single item stored at various origins to different locations or
destinations such that the cost of transportation is minimum.
Mathematical Formulation
Suppose there are m origins, ith origin storing ai units of a certain
product, there are n destinations and destination j requiring bj units
of same item, the cost of transporting each of m origins to each of n
destinations is known and given. Let C be the cost of shipping or
transporting ith source to jth destination
It is assumed that ai = bj (i=1,m; j=1,2,..m) such TP are called
balanced TP. If ai bj then those TP are unbalanced TP. In case of
unbalanced TP we add one row or column with zero valued Cij in that
row or column with the value of ai or bi = of that row as column equal
to the difference of (
ai - bj )

Operations Research
Transportation Problems
Mathematical Formulation
So ai = bj the problem is now to determine non negative values of
xij satisfying the availability constraints
n

for i=1,2,..,m

= ai

ij

j =1

And the requirement constraint

m

ij

= bj

for j=1,2,..,n

i =1

And minimize the total cost of transportation

m

z=
i =1

x c

ij ij

j =1

(Objective function)

Operations Research
Transportation Problems
Tabular Representation of TP (Given)

Warehouse/
Factories

W1

W2

..

Wn

Factory
Capacities

F1

C11

C12

..

c1n

a1

F2

C21

C22

C2n

a2

..

..

..

Fm

Cm1

Cm2

..

Cmn

am

Requirements

b1

b2

..

bn

a = b

Tabular Representation of TP (To find out)

Warehouse/
Factories

W1

W2

..

Wn

Factory
Capacities

F1

x11

x12

..

x1n

a1

F2

x21

x22

x2n

a2

..

..

..

Fm

xm1

xm2

..

xmn

am

Operations Research
Transportation Problems
To find out the solution of TP
i.Find out initial basic feasible solution (ibfs)
ii.Find out the optimal solution

Following methods are used to find out ibfs

a.North west corner method
b.Row minima method
c.Column minima method
d.Lowest cost entry method or matrix minima method
e.Vogels approximation method
All above ibfs methods are easy and have been discussed thoroughly
with examples in class rooms.
The optimal solution is obtained after ibfs is obtained by any of the
five methods. The optimal solution will give the best value. The
examples have been done in class room.
Students are advised to contact in case of any doubt/problem about
these exercises.

Operations Research
Transportation Problems
Degeneracy in Transportation Problems
The basic feasible solution to an m-origin and n-destination TP can
have maximum m+n-1 positive basic variables. If the number of
basic variables is exactly m+n-1 then BFS is a non-degenerate. If
however basic variables are less than m+n-1 then
BFS are
degenerate.

Operations Research
Transportation Problems
Unbalanced TP: As stated earlier that when ai bj then such TP are
said to be unbalanced TP
e.g. given a TP, here total requirement (30) total capacity (34) so
this problem is unbalanced

Mills

M1 M2

M3

M4

M5

Capacity

F1

F2

12

F3

14

Requirement

30 34

Because there is a lack of 4 requirement so add 4 to requirement by

an extra column as follows. Now the TP becomes balanced. Solve it
as usual. Mills
M1 M2 M3 M4
M5 Mf Capacity

F1

F2

12

F3

14

Requirement

34 =34

Operations Research
Assignment Problems
Basic
We know that all fingers of our either hand are not equal. Same is
the case with efficiency of each individual. One person is better in
one job than another whereas other person is better than first in
some other job. If we can assign suitable job to each individual then
total efficiency will increase.
Suppose there are n jobs to be performed by n persons and each of
the persons can do each of the job but with different efficiency. Let
Cij be the cost of performing jth job by ith person, the problem is to
assign each job to each person such that no job is performed by
more than one person or no person is assigned more than one job,
and the total cost of performing all jobs is minimum.

Operations Research
Assignment Problems
Tabular form of assignment problem
Jobs

Persons P1

..

..

C11 C12

..

C1j

..

C1n

P2

C21 C22

..

C2j

..

C2n

Ci1

Ci2

Cij

Cin

Cn1 Cn2

Cnj

Cnn

Operations Research
Assignment Problems
Mathematical
Formulation
Assignment Problem
n

of

Minimize the total cost z = cij xij i=1,2,..n,j=1,2,..n

i =1

j =1

Subject to restrictions of the form

xij =

1 if ith person is assigned jth job

0 if not

=1

ij

j =1

ij

=1

(one job is done by ith person, i-1,2,..,n)

(one person should be assigned jth job, j=1,2,n)

i =1

Remember that size of the assignment table is n by n which is

balanced. For unbalanced problems, we will adopt similar action as
in TP, we will discuss later here.

Operations Research
Assignment Problems
Solution of Assignment problems
Given a table of size n X n (balanced)
(i)Simple method of single zero assignments first row wise then
column wise or vice versa
a.Find the row having only single zero. Other zeros in that row are
either assigned or crossed. Mark this zero as assigned, cut all other
zeros in the column of that row assignment.
b.Complete all rows in manner as given a
c.When all row assignments have been made, repeat the process for
column assignment. Here cross all zeros of the row where column
assignment has been made
d.Complete all columns in manner as given a
e.Check if each row and each column has one and only assignment
f.Note the position of each assignment and sum the original costs at
these locations. This will give the minimum cost.
g.If any row or column still has one or more zeros left unassigned or
uncrossed then above method will not be applicable. Then apply
minimum lines drawing method as explained in classroom with
many examples.

Operations Research
Assignment Problems
Solution of Assignment problems
Given a table of size n X m (unbalanced)
First check if rows m < columns n, then add additional rows with all
zero values to make m=n
If columns n < rows n, then add additional column with all zero
values to make m=n
The problem now becomes balanced
Apply the same procedure explained before to solve this balanced
problem
Try to solve as many exercises as possible of both types
Contact in case of any doubt, problem.

Operations Research
Assignment Problems
Travelling Salesman Problem
A salesman has to visit n cities to sell/promote the sale of product
of his company. The cities are connected in the form of a network.
Now the salesman has to plan his visit in such a manner that he
visits all n cities only once. He does not have to re-visit a city or if
necessary then minimum times he re-visits a city. The total distance
or the time occurred in visiting all n cities should be minimum.

Operations Research
Replacement Problems
Basics
We know that almost every object needs replacement after a certain period.
We go on repairing our vehicle again and again but after a time, repair
becomes more expensive than to buy a new vehicle. Due to following factors
replacement becomes necessary
a.The old item has become worse, works badly or requires expensive
maintenance for its operation or running.
b.Old item has failed due to accident or otherwise and can not work.
c.A better or more efficient item has come in the market.
The question is to take a decision whether to continue with the old item or
buy a new one (i.e. replace old item). More important question or the main
question of replacement problem is to decide when to replace old item?
Two types of replacement problems will be mainly dealt here
i.When the cost value, scrap value, operational costs etc are given and to find
out the time when to replace existing item. There is no increase or decrease in
the value of money. The cost of a machine is Rs 40000/ today will remain
same even after 10 years on today.
ii.When the cost value, scrap value, operational costs etc are given and to find
out the time when to replace existing item. There is an increase or decrease in
the value of money. The cost of a machine is Rs 40000/ today will becomes
20% after every passing years as seen on today.
Both types of problems have been explained with examples in class. Students
are advised to contact in case of any doubt or problem.

Operations Research
Project Management CPM/PERT
Basics
Please elaborate the following
A project is defined as a combination of activities which must be executed in
such a manner or order before the whole project or task can be completed.
Steps in Project CPM/PERT techniques
1.Planning: Divide the main project into small projects which will further be
divided into small activities.
2.Scheduling: Prepare a time table to show start and finish of every activity.
3.Allocation of resources: To allocate a physical resource like equipment,
money, space to project.
4.Controlling : The overall activities must be controlled so that the project
may complete in time. Also find out critical path.
We have discussed in class room various networks, find out Earliest time,
Latest time, critical path, float, slack time. Do other exercises and contact in
case of doubt/problem.

Operations Research
Project Management CPM/PERT
Network understanding
In the following network diagram
A,B,.. Are activities. The numbers A(30), etc. are the time to complete the
activity A etc. Nodes are circled as 1,2,..11 to show events. Dummy activities
are the activities to join two other events but with zero time, i.e. dummy
activities have no physical meaning just dotted lines to connect two other
events like 7-8 are connected by dotted line dummy.
We have already discussed in class to find earliest time, latest time to start an
activity, floats and slacks. So do more exercises.