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Machining
Chip Formation
Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes more time to shape
a given part than alternative shaping processes, such as
casting, powder metallurgy, or forming
Machining in Manufacturing
Sequence
Generally performed after other
manufacturing processes, such as
casting, forging, and bar drawing
Other processes create the general shape of the
starting work part
Machining provides the final shape, dimensions,
finish, and special geometric details that other
processes cannot create
(MRR)
Good accuracy and Surface
finish
Long tool life
Cost
Machine Related
Material
Geometry
Mounting
Workpiece Related
Others
Frictional
effects
Work hardening
Thermal softening
on tool face
Built up edge
Formation
Chatter, noise and
Vibrations
Deflection and
diameter variations
Tool life
Surface finish
Orthogonal Cutting
Facing of thin pipe on a lathe with the cutting edge radial to the pipe.
time.
Cutting edge is longer than the width of the blank and it extends on its
both sides.
Cutting velocity v is constant along the cutting edge and w.r.t. time
Machining Operations
Most important machining operations:
Turning
Drilling
Milling
Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a
rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges
Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across
work to cut a plane or straight surface
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
peripheral milling,
face milling.
Cutting Tools
Continuous chip
Continuous chip
Built-up-edge chip
Discontinuous chip
Temperature rise.
Tool wear
Machinability
Discontinuous Chip
Brittle work materials
Low cutting speeds
Large feed and depth of
cut
High tool - chip friction
Discontinuous
Typically associated with brittle metals like Cast Iron
As tool contacts work, some compression takes place
As the chip starts up the chip-tool interference zone,
increased stress occurs until the metal reaches a
saturation point and fractures off the workpiece.
Conditions which favor this type of chip
Brittle work material
Small rake angles on cutting tools
Coarse machining feeds
Low cutting speeds
Major disadvantagecould result in poor surface
finish
Continuous
Continuous ribbon of metal that flows up
the chip/tool zone.
Usually considered the ideal condition for
efficient cutting action.
Continuous
Built up Edge
Serrated Chip
Semicontinuous saw-tooth
appearance
Cyclical chip forms
with alternating high
shear strain then
low shear strain
Associated with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high
cutting speeds
Chip Breakers
Long continuous chip
are undesirable
Chip breaker is a piece
of metal clamped to the
rake surface of the tool
which bends the chip
and breaks it
Chips can also be broken
by changing the tool
geometry,thereby
controlling the chip flow
Chip Breakers
Fig:Various chips produced in turning: a)tightly curled chip b)chip hits workpiece and
breaks c)continuous chip moving away from workpiece;and d)chip hits tool shank and
breaks off
Machine Tools
A power-driven machine that performs a
machining operation, including grinding
Functions in machining:
Holds workpart
Positions tool relative to work
Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that have been
set
Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
R' must be equal in magnitude to R
R must be opposite in direction to R
R must be collinear with R
Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F
N
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction
as follows:
tan
Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
Fs
S
As
where As = area of the shear plane
t ow
As
sin
Shear stress = shear strength of work material
during cutting
or
HPc
HPg
E
or
HPc
HPu =
RMR
Figure 21.7 Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted
as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of the
plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used to
derive strain equation.
Engineering Mechanics
Material Testing
Engineering Plasticity
Fundamentals of lubrication, friction and wear
Basic concepts of chemistry and physics
Principles of metallurgy
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Cutting Temperature
Approximately 98% of the energy in machining
is converted into heat
This can cause temperatures to be very high at
the tool-chip
The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained
as elastic energy in the chip
Cutting Temperature
Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook
from dimensional analysis using experimental
data for various work materials
0.4U vt o
T
C K
0.333
Cutting Temperature
Experimental methods can be used to measure
temperatures in machining
Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip thermocouple
Inputs
Work material
Type of cut
Part geometry and size
lot size
Machinability data
Quality needed
Past experience of the decision maker
Constraints
Manufacturing practice
Machine condition
Finish part requirements
Workholding devices
Required process time
High hardness
Resistance to abrasion and wear
Strength to resist bulk deformation
Adequate thermal properties
Consistent tool life
Correct geometry
Tool Materials
Wide variety of materials and compositions
are available to choose from when selecting a
cutting tool
Tool Materials
They include:
Tool steels - low end of scale. Used to make some
drills, taps, reamers, etc. Low cost equals low tool life.
High speed steel(HSS) - can withstand cutting
temperatures up to 1100F. Have improved hardness
and wear resistance, used to manufacture drills,
reamers, single point tool bits, milling cutters, etc.
HSS cutting tools can be purchased with additional
coatings such as TiN which add additional protection
against wear.
Tool Materials
Cobalt - one step above HSS, cutting speeds are
generally 25% higher.
Carbides - Most widely used cutting tool today.
Cutting speeds are three to five times faster than
HSS. Basic composition is tungsten carbide with a
cobalt binder. Today a wide variety of chemical
compositions are available to meet different
applications. In addition to tool composition,
coatings are added to tool materials to incerase
resistance to wear.
Tool Materials
Ceramics - Contain pure aluminum oxide and can
cut at two to three times faster than carbides.
Ceramic tools have poor thermal and shock
resistance and are not recommended for
interrupted cuts. Caution should be taken when
selecting these tools for cutting aluminum,
titanium, or other materials that may react with
aluminum oxide.
Tool Materials
Cubic Boron Nitride(CBN) - This tool material maintains
its hardness and resistance to wear at elevated
temperatures and has a low chemical reactivity to the
chip/tool interface. Typically used to machine hard
aerospace materials. Cutting speeds and metal
removal rates are up to five times faster than carbide.
Industrial Diamonds - diamonds are used to produce
smooth surface finishes such as mirrored surfaces. Can
also be used in hard turning operations to eliminate
finish grinding processes. Diamond machining is
performed at high speeds and generally fine feeds. Is
used to machine a variety of metals.
Tool Geometry
The geometry of a cutting tool is determined
by (3) factors:
Properties of the tool material
Properties of the workpiece
Type of cut
Tool Geometry
The most important geometrys to consider on
a cutting tool are
Back Rake Angles
End Relief Angles
Side Relief Angles
Tool Geometry
Rake Angles
Back-Allows the tool to shear the work and
form the chip. It can be positive or negative
Positive = reduced cutting forces, limited
deflection of work, tool holder, and machine
Negative = typically used to machine harder
metals-heavy cuts
Rake Angles
Small to medium rake angles cause:
high compression
high tool forces
high friction
result = Thickhighly deformedhot chips
Rake Angles
Larger positive rake
angles
Reduce compression
and less chance of a
discontinuous chip
Reduce forces
Reduce friction
Result = A thinner, less
deformed, and cooler
chip.
Rake Angles
Problems.as we increase the angle:
Reduce strength of tool
Reduce the capacity of the tool to conduct heat
away from the cutting edge.
To increase the strength of the tool and allow it to
conduct heat better, in some tools, zero to
negative rake angles are used.
Fig (a) Schematic illustrations of types of wear observed on various types of cutting tools .(b)
Schematic illustrations of catastrophic tool failures.A study of the types and mechanism of
tool wear and failure is essential to the development of better tool materials
Tool Wear
Shank
Crater
Wear
Rake or Face
Auxiliary
Cutting
Edge
Flank
Flank Wear
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Principal Cutting
Edge
VS
M
K
VB = Average flank wear
VN = Flank notch wear
VM = Maximum flank wear
VS = Average auxiliary flank
wear
VS = Maximum auxiliary flank
wear
M
KT = Crater depth
KM = Distance from center of
crater
KB = Crater width
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Section
A-A
V
M
VB
Notch
N
Principal
Flank
Auxiliary
Flank
A
Crater
wear
Grooving
wear
Rake
Surface
The life of the tools, which ultimately fail by systematic gradual wear, is generally assessed at
least for R&D work, by the average value of the principal flank wear (VB), which aggravates
cutting forces and temperature and may induce vibration with progress of machining. The
pattern and extent of wear of the auxiliary flank (VS) affects surface finish and dimensional
accuracy of the machined parts.
However, tool rejection criteria for finishing operation were employed in this investigation.
The values established in accordance with ISO Standard 3685 for tool life testing. A cutting
tool was rejected and further machining stopped based on one or a combination of rejection
criteria:
i.
0.3 mm
ii.
0.4 mm
iii.
Nose Wear
0.3 mm
iv.
0.6 mm
v.
1.6 m
vi.
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Tool
Life
Defined as the cutting time required for complete failure of the tool,
22/122
Uniform
wear rate
Final
failure
Accelerating
wear rate
Failure
region
The first is the break-in Period, in which the sharp cutting edge wears
rapidly at the beginning of its use. This first region occurs within the first
few minutes of cutting.
The break-in period is followed by wear that occurs at a fairly uniform rate.
This is called the steady state wear region.
In this figure, this region is pictured as a linear function of time, although
there are deviations from the straight line in actual machining. Finally, wear
reaches a level at which the wear rate begins to accelerate.
This marks the beginning of the failure region, in which cutting
temperatures are higher and the general efficiency of the machining
process is reduced. If allowed to continue, the tool finally fails by
temperature failure.
Frederick W. Taylor did pioneering work in the field of metal cutting. He
conducted numerous experiments and in 1907 gave the following
relationship between tool life and cutting speed.
Vc T C
n
Where,
V Cutting velocity , T Tool life
c
n Tool life index. It depends on tool and workcombination and environment.
C Constant
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Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials as shown in the following Figure. The negative inverse of
the slope of these curves is the exponent n in the Taylor tool-life equations and C is the cutting speed at T = 1
min.
Vc T C
n
22/125
A wide variety of tool materials have been developed to fulfill the severe
demand of present-day production. No one of' these materials is superior
in all respects, but rather each has certain characteristics which limits its
field of application. Depending upon the type of service, the proper tool
material should, therefore, be selected. The best material to use for a
certain job is the one that will produce the machined part at the lowest
cost. A good type of tool material should possess certain desired
properties such as
Hot hardness is quite high, so the HSS cutting tools retain the cutting ability upto 600OC
Wear resistance is high
The hardenability is good
Uses: Drills, reamers, broaches, milling cutters, taps, lathe cutting tool, gear hobs etc. are made of
HSS.
Carbides
A hard material made of compacted binary compounds of carbon and heavy metals, used to make
tools that cut metal.
made using powder metallurgy
usually as an insert
Ceramics
22/127
All carbides, when finished, are extremely brittle and weak in their resistance to it impact
and shock loading. Due to this, vibrations are very harmful for carbide tools. The machine
tools should be rigid, faster and more powerful. Light feeds, low speeds and chatter are
harmful. Due to the high cost of carbide tool materials and other factors, cemented carbides
are used in the form of inserts or tips which are brazed or clamped to a steel shank as shown
in the following Figure.
22/128
Cutting Fluid
22/129
22/130
Cutting fluids are used in metal machining for a variety of reasons such as improving
tool life, reducing workpiece thermal deformation, improving surface finish and flushing
away chips from the cutting zone. Practically all cutting fluids presently in use fall into
one of four categories:
Straight oils
Soluble oils
Semi-synthetic fluids
Synthetic fluids
Straight oils are non-emulsifiable and are used in machining operations in an undiluted
form. They are composed of a base mineral or petroleum oil and often contain polar
lubricants such as fats, vegetable oils and esters as well as extreme pressure additives
such as Chlorine, Sulphur and Phosphorus. Straight oils provide the best lubrication and
the poorest cooling characteristics among cutting fluids.
22/131
Soluble oil fluids form an emulsion when mixed with water. The concentrate
consists of a base mineral oil and emulsifiers to help produce a stable emulsion.
They are used in a diluted form (usual concentration = 3 to 10%) and provide good
lubrication and heat transfer performance. They are widely used in industry and
are the least expensive among all cutting fluids.
Semi-synthetic fluids are essentially combination of synthetic and soluble oil fluids
and have characteristics common to both types. The cost and heat transfer
performance of semi-synthetic fluids lie between those of soluble oil fluids and
synthetic fluid.
Synthetic fluids contain no petroleum or mineral oil base and instead are
formulated from alkaline inorganic and organic compounds along with additives
for corrosion inhibition. They are generally used in a diluted form (usual
concentration = 3 to 10%). Synthetic fluids often provide the best cooling
performance among all cutting fluids.
22/132
Machining Economics
22/133
Therefore total time per unit product for the operation cycle
Tc = Th +Tm +Tt /np
Where np =integer number of parts we can produce within the tool life.
Our objective is to minimize Tc, which is the function of the cutting speed.
We have maximum production for this value of V. The corresponding tool life is
Tmax =[(1/n ) 1]. Tt
Cost of part handling time(cost of the time that operator spends loading and unloading the part)=Co
.Th
Cost of machining time= Co . Tm
Cost of tool change time= Co . Tt /np
Tooling cost= Ct /np,
where,
22/135
C T C DLV
o t
t
C DL
C C T o
c
o h VS
1
o
S Cn
o
C T C
C C T C T o t t
c
o h
o m n
n
p
p
22/136