Chapman - PC Set Relations

Yale University Department of Music
Some Intervallic Aspects of Pitch-Class Set Relations

Author(s): Alan Chapman
Source: Journal of Music Theory, Vol. 25, No. 2 (Autumn, 1981), pp. 275-290
Published by: Duke University Press on behalf of the Yale University Department of Music
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SOME INTERVALLICASPECTS OF
PITCH-CLASS SET RELATIONS
Alan Chapman
Pitch-class sets are a necessary tool for the analysis of non-tonal

music. They provide an organized means of classifying harmonic
structures (or any other pitch combinations), but they also pose a
problem,one which canmost easilybe exposed througha tonal analogy.
In Example 1a, the tonal analystwould recognizethe structuralconnection between the first and third chords and describe the second
chord as a secondarypitch structurewhich is linearin origin.Thisjudgment is both facilitated and supportedby the lack of a tonal name (for
example, "triad"or "seventhchord") for the second chord. In Example
ib, the third chord, taken out of context, has a name ("minortriad"),
but in context this is not its meaning. It too is linear in origin and to
place the Roman numeral"iii" beneathit would be erroneous.
In the analysis of non-tonal music, pitch-classsets allow us to assign
a name to every conceivablepitch combination.Caseslike Examplel a,
therefore, do not arise.Everynon-tonalchord successionis comparable
to Example ib, but becausewe lack the structuralcriteriaof functional
harmony,we run the risk of consideringonly the name of a pitch-class
set at the expense of its contextual role.
How, then, can we evaluate the structuralsignificanceof different
pitch-classsets in a composition? Such evaluationsareinvariablybased
275
upon the recurrenceof certain pitch-class sets, an approachwhich is

dependent upon the assumptionthat a composer chooses certainpitch
combinations as musical materialsand presents them in varied forms
throughouta composition. Allen Forte writes:
The determinationof a significantset, as distinct from a nonset,
is not always easy. Some informalguidesare: (1) the set occurs consistently throughout-it is not merely "local;"(2) the complement
of the set occurs consistently throughout;(3) if the set is a member
of a Z-pair,the other member also occurs;(4) the set is an "atonal"
set, not a set that would occur in a tonal work.1
Forte's first two criteriaare based upon set recurrence.Criterion(2) is
problematicin that non-Zhexachordsare their own complements;thus
criteria(1) and (2) are simultaneouslysatisfiedby multipleoccurrences
of these sets.
In his analyses of significant sets, Forte emphasizessegmentation,
"the analytical procedureby which the significant musical units of a
composition are determined."2 A primary segment is "determinedby
conventionalmeans, such as a melodic configuration[or a simultaneous
vertical combination]."3By criterion(2) above, a significanttetrachord
would requirerecurrenceof its complement,an eight-noteset. Because
occurrences of such large sets as primary segments are relatively infrequent, analysis must rely to some extent on composite segments
which are "formed by segments or subsegmentsthat are contiguousor
linked in some way."4 Employment of composite segments often
obviates the necessity of dealingwith structuralrelations among individualverticalpitch combinations.
A pitch-class set name is usually thought of as a designationfor a
specific collection of pitches. The present paper shows that it is often
appropriateto think of the set name as a designation for a specific
collection of intervallicproperties.
The association of set names with pitch classesis reinforcedby the
use, in set identification, of prime forms, in which only a superficial
representationof the set's total interval content is readily apparent.
There is, of course, the intervalvector, but no efficient analyst would
identify a set by calculatingthe total intervalcontent of a collection of
pitches and looking up the interval vector. (This method would not
discriminatebetween Z-relatedsets in any case.)
If total interval content is relegated to a position of secondary
importance, then the intervallicpropertiesof pitch-classsets and their
intervallic relations with other sets become tertiary. The intervallic
similarityrelations, Ro, R1 and R2 (based upon comparisonof interval
vectors), are abstractreflections of intervallicrelations;they play only
276
(a)
(b)
Example 1. A Tonal Analogy
(a)
(b)
Example2. Two Tetrachords
4-Z15
(soprano-bass): 1
(alto-bass): 4
(tenor-bass): 6
4-Z15
6
8
11
Example3. The AB (above bass) intervalset is the set of intervals(in

semitones)relativeto the bass.
277
a minor role in most atonal analysis,usuallyappearingas supplemental

observationsupon analysesbased on pitch-classset recurrence.
Interval sets: a new system. Investigationof intervallic properties
and relations calls for consideration of pitch-classset intervalcontent
as it is expressed in musical contexts. This study utilizes tetrachords
and, where appropriate,trichords as model harmonic structures.It is
evident that the propertiesand relationsexhibited are adaptableto sets
of largercardinalities.
Because of the present focus on tetrachords,this study will employ
four-part voicings to demonstrate theoretical principles. (The four
voices will be identified as soprano, alto, tenor and bass.) Let us considerthe measurementof the intervalsrepresentedin the two tetrachords
of Example2. We can first reckon intervals(in semitones)relativeto the
bass.5These intervalsare displayedin Example3, in descendingvertical
orderbelow the staff. The intervalset thus obtainedwill be calledtheAB
(for above bass) intervalset and will be written in the form AB:X-Y-Z,
where X, Y and Z are the intervals in ascendingnumericalorder;the
intervalsets representedin Example3 are AB:1-4-6 and AB:6-8-11.
An AB set which consists of three different intervalsmay appearin
six distinct permutations. Example 4 shows the permutationsof AB:
1-4-6. Each AB set which consists of three differentintervalsis unique
to a specific tetrachord.It can be seen in Example 4 that permutation
of the AB intervalsdoes not change the pitch-classset (4-19). In this
example, with the bass held constant, these permutationsare brought
about by differentregistralplacementsof the uppervoices.
A given tetrachord may have up to twenty-four distinct forms
based on pitch content, but it may have a maximum of eight AB sets
associatedwith it. The eight AB intervalsets of the pitch-classset 4-19
are shown in Example 5. The numberof differentAB intervalsis equal
to (n-1), where n is the cardinalityof the pitch-classset. Therefore,a
trichordwill have two different intervals,a five-note set will have four,
and so forth. For the purposesof this study, AB sets of trichordsare
expressedas sets of three intervals,with the "extra"intervalreflecting
the octave duplication of one of the upper voices, as in Example 6.
This practice will allow us to explore certain intervallic relationships
between trichordsand tetrachords.
Let us now return to the two tetrachordswe examinedin Examples
2 and 3 and measure the intervals (in semitones) between adjacent
voices. These intervalsare displayed(Ex. 7) in descendingverticalorder
below the staff. This intervalset will be called the VP(for voice pairs)
intervalset and will be written in the form VP:X/Y/Z, where X, Y and
Z are the intervals in ascending numerical order; the interval sets
representedin Example7 are VP:6/9/10 and VP:9/10/11.6
278
4-Z15
I
4
6
1
1
[AB:] 4
6
6
1
4
i
A
4
1
6
1
6
4
6
4
1
Example4. An AB set which consists of three differentintervalsmay

appearin six distinct permutations.Each AB set which consists of three
differentintervalsis uniqueto a specific tetrachord.
4-19
1
[AB:] 4
8
1
5
9
3
4
3
4
4
4
4
7
7
8
5
8
8
11
8
8
11
9
Example5. A given tetrachordmay have up to 24 distinct formsbased
on pitch content, but it may have a maximum of 8 AB sets associated
with it.
3-9
2
[AB:] 7
2
Example6. AB sets of trichords may be expressed as sets of three
intervals. The extra interval reflects the octave duplication of one of
the uppervoices.
(b) j
(n) I
4-Z15
4-Z15
9
10
10
9
[VP:]
6
11
Example7. The VP (voice pairs) intervalset is the set of intervals(in
semitones)between adjacentvoices.
A VP interval set which consists of three different intervalsmay

appearin six distinct permutations.Example8 shows the permutations
of VP:6/9/10. Unlike AB sets, a givenVP intervalset may be expressed
by specific voicingsof more than one pitch-classset.
Because we are constructing four-part voicings of trichords, it is
possible for trichords to express some of the same VP intervalsets as
tetrachords, as illustrated by Example 9. Hitherto, sets of different
cardinalitieshave been connected solely by the subset relation. The
relation shown in Example 9 is an importantextension. Pitch-classsets
which have VP intervalsets in common will be called VP-relatedsets.
Thus, in example 8, 4-12, 4-13 and 4-Z15 are VP-related sets; in
example9, 3-3, 3-11, and 4-17 are VP-related.
Linearconsiderations:VP-relatedsets. Example10a shows the entire
two-measure refrain, a four-chord progression from 4-Z15 to 4-18,
from the third movement of Stravinsky's Three Pieces for String
Quartet. Considerationof the interval sets involved reveals that the
structureof the phraseis an embellished VPintervalexchange,as illustrated in Example 10b. (The formal statements of the voice-leading
procedureswhich permute VP sets arebeyond the scope of this paper.)
Within3-5 and 4-14, the outer voices provide upper and lower neighbors to D and GM.In addition,the anticipationof 4-18's A and F as the
inner voices of 4-14 emphasizesthe new position of four semitonesas
the middle VP interval.
Another exchange involving the same VP intervalset occurs in the
same movement between successivetetrachords(Ex. 11). Here a symmetrical structurecan be observed;the VP exchange is framedby two
identically-voicedtranspositionsof 4-18. In Example 11 it can be seen
that a VP intervalset canbe transposedin the same sense as a pitch-class
set. Here VP:4/5/9 is transposed down one semitone as the interval
exchangeoccurs.
Another symmetricalstructure,occupyinga longer span,is shown in
Example 12. Framed by two rhythmically-stressedoccurrencesof the
same form of 3-5 are two appearancesof VP:2/3/6, one within 4-12
and one within 4-13. The viola's motion from F$ to A, which will
effect the exchange, is made immediately, on the downbeat of the
second measure.The exchangewould occur at this point were it not for
the displacementof D and DW(in violin I and 'cello) by their upper
neighbors,Eb and E. The viola's A is emphasizedby its lower neighbor
G?. Finally, on the last chord of the second measure,D and D$ return
in the outer voices and the exchangeis completed. It is noteworthy that
violin II retains C throughout the symmetrical structure, making a
prolongedcommon-toneconnection between 4-12 and 4-13.
In Example 13, 4-25 and 4-24, which have VP:2/4/4 in common,
280
4-13
4-13
4-Z15
4-Z15
4-12
4-12
6
10
6
10
9
9
9
10
10
6
6
9
[VP:]
10
6
6
9
9
10
Example8. A VP set which consists of three different intervalsmay
appearin six distinct permutations.Unlike AB sets, a givenVP set may
be expressedby specific voicingsof more than one pitch-classset.
3-11
6 Id
3-11
4-17
4-17
3-3
3-3
iII
4
9
8
8
9
4
8
9
4
4
9
[VP:] 8
9
4
4
8
8
9
Example9. Hitherto sets of differentcardinalitieshave been connected
solely by the subset relation. However, sets of different cardinalities
may be VP-related.
4-Z15
4-18
VIo.
Example 10. A VP Interval Exchange: Stravinsky, Three Pieces for

StringQuartet,III, mm. 8-9, 15-16, 22-23
281
4-18
5
[VP:] 6
9
4-18
5
4
9
4-Z15 4-18
3-5
5
9
0
6
5
4.
5
6
9
Example 11. A VP Interval Exchange: Stravinsky, Three Pieces for

StringQuartet,III, mm. 17-18
yiVi
Vc
3-5
4-12
2
[VP:] 6
4-13
3-5
2
3
Example 12. A VP Interval Exchange: Stravinsky,Three Pieces for

StringQuartet,III, mm. 19-21
282
are connected by a "chromatic passing tone," DM,which generates

4-27. The sense of an end to this prolongationalunit comes with the
motion to 4-5: the upper voices all move, bass II leaps down an octave
and a distinctly differentintervalset is introduced.
Structuralconsiderations: VP representation.As shown in Example
4, any three-intervalAB set, regardlessof ordering,can be expressedin
the AB domain by one and only one pitch-classset. This pitch-classset
is called the AB source set of that intervalset. Example 14 shows that
4-19 is the AB source set of AB:4-8-9.
A given three-intervalVP set may be expressedin the VP domainby
one, two or threedifferentpitch-classsets (dependingon the intervalcontent of the VP set). Different verticalorderingsare, in most cases, expressedby differentpitch-classsets. Pitch-classsets which reproduce,as
VP sets, the intervalcontent of a givenAB set, will be called VPrepresentatives of the AB sourceset. In Example9,3-3,3-11 and4-17 areseen to
be VP representativesof 4-19 (Ex. 14).
The following musical excerpts demonstratethe usefulness of interval sets in determiningstructuralrelations. Note that VP sets appear
abovethe score and AB sets below.
Example 15 shows multiple instances of VP representationin a Bartok string quartet. The structureof the first measureis based not only
upon the repetition of 4-18 and 4-12, but also upon the function of
the second form of 4-12 as a VP representativeof the first form of
4-18. In the second measure, 4-Z29 and 4-16 introduce AB:1-6-10
and AB:5-6-10. 4-16 returnsat the beginningof the third measurewith
a different ordering of AB:5-6-10. Then 4-6 and 4-Z29, functioning
as VP representativesof 4-Z29 and 4-16, respectively,recreate(in the
VP domain) the succession of interval sets which occurred in the
previousmeasure.
Example 16, from Schoenberg'sGeorgeLieder, contains two pitchclass sets which are each VP-representedby two other pitch-classsets.
In the first measure,after a VP intervalexchangewhich connects 3-11
and 3-4, 4-20 appearswith the set AB:3-7-8. In the third and fourth
measures,4-18 and 4-Zl15 function as VP representativesof 4-20. In
the second and third measures,4-5 and 4-6 function as VP representatives of the form of 4-Z15 (AB:2-5-6) which follows. As in the Bartok
example, a recurrentpitch-classset (in this case 4-Z15) is also involved
in a system of intervallicrelations.
Example 17, from PierrotLunaire,may be viewed as a variationon
the succession of intervalsets which ends example 16. In Example16,
4-19, in the form AB:4-5-8, is immediatelyprecededand immediately
followed by two orderingsof VP:3/7/8, expressedby 4-18 and 4-Z15.
Example 17 contains the same AB form of 4-19, with the samevertical
283
4-25
4-27
TenorI
4-5
4-24
IiI"
4
[VP:] 2
4
2
4
4
4
6
1
Example 13. A VP IntervalExchange:Stravinsky,Zvezdoliki,m. 11
4-19
4
[AB:] 8
9
Example 14. The AB source set of AB: 4-8-9 is 4-19. In Example 9,
3-3, 3-11 and 4-17 are seen to be VPrepresentativesof 4-19.
284
6 10
1 6
10 5
11
[VP:] 3
4-18
AB:]
4-12
4-18
11
6
3
4-12
4-Z29
4-16
4-16
6 6
10 10
1 5
4-6
4-Z29
5
6
10
Example15. Bartok,Second StringQuartet,op. 17, (third movement)

5
[VP:] 7
7
5
2
6
6
5
4-6
3
8
4-215
4-18
8
3
4-19
4-215
7
5
4
[AB:] 3
2
8
8
6
5
Example 16. Schoenberg,George
4-27 Lieder,
4-19 op. 15/4
5-8) 4-Z
(mm.4-9
4-2158
[VP:] 7
7 55
38
Example17. Schoenberg,Pi
GeorgeLieder, op. 21/17 (mm. 8-9)
8
[AB:]
8
55
6
Example17. Schoenberg,tP'errotLunaire,op. 21/]17 (mm. 8-9)
ordering of intervals.Here 4-19 is also precededand followed by two

orderings of VP:3/7/8. The second ordering, as in Example 16, is
expressedby 4-Z15. The first ordering,however, is expressedby 4-27
rather than 4-18. It is the intervalsets, not the pitch-classsets, which
confirmthe structuralsimilarity.
Interval sets in a larger context. Example 18 is a primarilytetrachordal excerpt from the second of Carl Ruggles'sEvocations (1943).
The tetrachords are identified by ordinal number (for example, "4"
means "4-4") between the staves. The table which accompaniesthe
excerpt shows that eighteen tetrachordsappear at least once. Twelve
of these tetrachordsmight be consideredstructurallysignificantsolely
on the basis of recurrence,but these tetrachordsare also involved in a
numberof intervallicrelations.Intervallicrelationsalso providea means
of integrating the single occurrences of six other tetrachordsinto a
structuralanalysisof the excerpt.
Example 19 is a summaryof recurrentintervalsets in the excerpt.
Examples 19a-d deal with interval sets which first appearin measure
7; Examples 19e-g show other significantintervalsets. Pitch-classsets
whose names are outlined are those which occur only once. In example
19a, 4-4 and 4-Z15 are seen to be VP representatives(VP:1/8/10) of
4-11 (AB:1-8-10). Example 19b shows that two of these voicings of
4-11 are VP-relatedto 4-2 (VP:1/9/10); the AB source set, 4-3, also
appears.Example 19c groups 4-10 and 4-12 with their VP representatives. 4-10 occurs only once in the excerpt, while 4-12 appearsfour
times, but they are of comparableintervallic status. In example 19d,
4-5 is a VP representative(VP:1/7/10) of four subsequentoccurrences
of 4-13 (AB:1-7-10). These voicings of 4-13 in turn express the set
VP:1/9/9. Becausethis VP set containstwo, not three, differentintervals,
its AB source set is a trichord;this trichord,3-3, is includedin example
19d. In example 19e, 4-9, which appearsonly once, is associatedwith
its VP representative,4-5.
The tetrachordsof example 19f are presentedin the orderin which
they occur in the composition, demonstratingan interestingsuccession
of relationships:
1. 4-12 expressesits recurrentAB set (AB:1-3-9) and introduces
VP:1/2/6.
2. 4-12 is a VP representativeof 4-5 (AB:1-2-6), which introduces VP:1/5/8.
3. 4-5 is a VP representativeof 4-20 (AB:1-5-8), which introduces VP:1/7/9.
4. 4-20 is a VP representativeof 4-Z15 (AB:1-7-9), which in
these two appearancesexpresses VP:1/8/10, itself a recurrentVP
set (see Example 19a).
286
a tempo
7ITea
F.reqeni
2 1 4 5 5
4 2
3 1 10 12
oco r .
Poio
9poco
13
Z29
.4 -ab.4
13
17
4-
13
14
7 12
4-8
13
4-19
1
-4-916417
4-200
4-10
201
odeato
. ....
19
11
4-Z29
18. Ruggles,
II
Example
Evocations,
287
10
[VP:I 1
10
(a)
10
-,"
4-4(7)
4-Z15(14,15)
VI4-4(16)
_
4-11(8)
4-11(11)
10
[AB:I 10
10
(b)
4-11(18)
10
10
[VP:1 1
10
4-2(7)
4-11(18)
4-11(8)
4-3(8)
[AB:110
1
[VP:]
(C)
1
10
10
1
4-2(7)
4-1(16)
[AB:1 10
1
[VP:] 101
4-5(7)
10
1
4-2(16)
4-12(8)
[AB:] 10
1
Example19. Recurrent Interval Sets in Evocations, II (measurenumbers in parentheses)

288
[VP:]
(d)
7
1
10
9
9
1
4-5(7)
4-13(10)
[AB:]
9
9
1
9
9
1
4-13(14,15)
7
10
1
4-13(17)
3-3(14)
7
10
1
9
9
1
7
10
1
6
[VP:]7
(e)
4-5(11)
4-5(11)
4-9(10)
k-[AB:]
6
2
8
5
4-12(9)
4-5(10)
[VP:]
(f)
(g)
7
6
1
9
7
4-Z 15(14,15)
9
[AB:J 3
1
2
6
1
5
8
1
4
[VP:] 9
7
8
8
7
4-2(15)
1
[AB:]
10
8
98
1
7
9
1
Example 19 (continued)
289
Example 19g illustrates that three sets which occur once each (4-17,
4-19 and 4-8) are intervallicallyrelated. 4-17 and 4-19 are VP representatives of 4-8. (In addition, 4-17 is VP-representedby 4-2.) Each
pitch-classset appearsonly once; the intervalset appearsthree times.
It is not to be inferredthat intervalset considerationsare intended to

constitute a complete analysis.It is my hope that this paperhas demonstratedthe potential for their incorporationinto a largermethodology.
NOTES
1. The complement of a pitch-class set X is the set which contains all the
elements not in X. The sets of a Z-pair have the same total interval content,
but are not reducible to the same prime form. For atonal sets see Allen Forte,
"Sets and Nonsets in Schoenberg's Atonal Music," Perspectives of New Music,
11:1 (1972), p. 45.
2. Allen Forte, The Structure of Atonal Music (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press,
1973), p. 210.
3. Forte,Atonal Music,p. 210.

4. Forte,Atonal Music,p. 209.
5. We shall not reduce intervals greater than a tritone and less than an octave to
interval classes. Rather, interval sizes will range from 0 to 11 semitones inclusive, with larger intervals reduced mod 12.
6. Forte, in the "Basic Interval Patterns," Journal of Music Theory 17 (1973),
refers to these interval sets as "basic interval patterns" (bips) and reduces
the intervals therein to interval classes. Thus the bips for Examples 7a and 7b
would be 236 and 123, respectively. Once again we shall avoid abstract
measurement and maintain absolute interval sizes.
290

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Yale University Department of Music

Some Intervallic Aspects of Pitch-Class Set Relations

Pitch-class sets are a necessary tool for the analysis of non-tonal

upon the recurrenceof certain pitch-class sets, an approachwhich is

Example 1. A Tonal Analogy

Example2. Two Tetrachords

Example3. The AB (above bass) intervalset is the set of intervals(in

a minor role in most atonal analysis,usuallyappearingas supplemental

Example4. An AB set which consists of three differentintervalsmay

A VP interval set which consists of three different intervalsmay

Example 10. A VP Interval Exchange: Stravinsky, Three Pieces for

Example 11. A VP Interval Exchange: Stravinsky, Three Pieces for

Example 12. A VP Interval Exchange: Stravinsky,Three Pieces for

are connected by a "chromatic passing tone," DM,which generates

Example 13. A VP IntervalExchange:Stravinsky,Zvezdoliki,m. 11

Example15. Bartok,Second StringQuartet,op. 17, (third movement)

ordering of intervals.Here 4-19 is also precededand followed by two

Example19. Recurrent Interval Sets in Evocations, II (measurenumbers in parentheses)

It is not to be inferredthat intervalset considerationsare intended to

3. Forte,Atonal Music,p. 210.

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