PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF HYDROCYCLONE PURIFICATION OF

CLAY USING COMPUTER SIMULATION

ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

CAD

Computer Aided Design

CAPED

Computer Aided Process Equipment Design

CFD

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Particle diameter, m

dpc, d50 Cut size (critical diameter at 50% efficiency), microns (d50)
IDE

Integrated Development Environment

LZVV

Locus of zero vertical velocity

PSD

Particle size distribution

RMRDC

Raw Materials Research and Development Council

sp. gr.

Specific gravity

VBA

Visual Basic

vol.

Volume

wt.

Weight

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Cyclones are devices that are used for sizing, classification and screening of mainly
particulate materials in mixture with fluids (gases or liquids) but they can also be
applied to fluids with different densities. Their principle of operation is based on
difference in density and/or particle size of the components. There are basically two
types of cyclones, these are gas cyclones (which may be generally referred to simply as
cyclones) and hydrocyclones.
As the name implies, gas cyclones are employed in the case where the fluid in the
mixture is a gas (most commonly air or nitrogen gas) while hydrocyclones are used
where the fluid is a liquid (usually water). Despite the fact that cyclones come in
different shapes and sizes, and that the properties of gases are different from the
properties of liquids, they all operate on the same basic principle.
Cyclones are employed in small, medium and large scale industries where they serve
important roles; for example, gas cyclones are preferred to other gas-solid separations
for a number of applications while hydrocyclones are among the most important devices
used in the minerals industry (Kuye et al., 2005). While cyclones are relatively easy to
fabricate, they need to be properly designed in order to be effective and/or efficient. In
recent times, computer aided design (CAD) has made the design of processes and
equipment easier and faster. While it is true that today there is a long list of powerful
and comprehensive process simulators that are available to accurately model any
process from a single unit to a complete process plant, these simulation packages are
usually expensive and not readily affordable in less developed countries such as
Nigeria. It was in an effort to alleviate this difficulty that in 2004, the Raw Materials
Research and Development Council (RMRDC) of Nigeria put together a number of
1

indigenous technical experts and charged them with the task of producing software
programmes for the design of process equipment. The team, code named as Computer
Aided Process Equipment Design (CAPED) team has successfully developed a software
for the design of a gas cyclone and also a hydrocyclone. The software was developed
using the Microsoft Visual Basic (VBA) language.

1.1 Problem Statement

Even though the software for the design of hydrocyclones has been developed by
CAPED team, it was developed using the Microsoft Visual Basic language. The purpose
of this project work is to migrate the developed software to Java language. This will
necessitate a process of re-engineering of the software as there is no easy way to
convert the software from the Visual Basic language to Java language. After the
software has been re-developed, it will be used to solve a hydrocyclone design problem
and calculate the performance characteristics which will be compared to experimental
data generated from an actual hydrocyclone in service. The hydrocyclone will be
applied to the process of purification of kaolin.

1.2 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this work is to migrate the already developed hydrocyclone design software
by CAPED from the original language of development (Microsoft Visual Basic) to Java
language.
The objectives of this work are outlined as follows:

To review the operating principles, performance characteristics, design

procedure and simulation of hydrocyclones.

To review the software development work carried out by the CAPED team and
also review the hydrocyclone design software developed.

To use NETBEANS IDE 8.0.2 (an open-source software development

environment) to develop a hydrocyclone design software in the Java language
that performs just as well or better than that developed by the CAPED team,

building on their research and experience during the development exercise.

To use the developed software to simulate the performance of an existing
hydrocyclone in the purification of kaolin by inputting its parameters into the

software.
To perform an experiment using the existing hydrocyclone in kaolin purification
so as to generate data that will be used to determine the performance of the

hydrocyclone that was simulated using the developed software.

To compare the performance data generated by the software and that obtained in
the experiment for the hydrocyclone purification of kaolin.

1.3 Justification
When the Raw Materials Research and Development Council (RMRDC) Abuja
inaugurated the CAPED team in 2004, their mandate was to develop software
programmes of the design of process equipment that will be available and useable by
indigenous process equipment designers, fabricators and other users at minimal cost.
While the team was successful in developing a software for the design of
hydrocyclones, it was developed using the Microsoft Visual Basic software which is a
commercial software. Java on the other hand is a free software that can be downloaded
from the internet. The justification for this work is that if the same software is
developed using the Java programming language, it would cost less.
Also, applications developed using Microsoft Visual Basic will only run on computers
that are installed with an operating system produced by Microsoft (i.e. Microsoft
Windows) while those developed using Java are capable of running across various

operating systems (e.g. Microsoft Windows, UNIX, Linux and Macintosh OS X) with
the help of an open-source, platform-specific Java virtual machine that can be installed.

1.4 Scope
The scope of this work is to perform a migration of the hydrocyclone design software
developed by the CAPED team to Java language using Netbeans IDE 8.0.2. This work
will draw from the work done by the CAPED team in the development of the
hydrocyclone design software in which they used Microsoft Visual Basic. The work will
involve a review of the design, operation and simulation of hydrocyclones; a review of
the software development methodology and procedure and finally the actual
development exercise. The developed software will then be used to simulate the
performance of an exiting hydrocyclone in the purification of kaolin and the result will
be compared with data obtained experimentally from an actual, existing hydrocyclone
in service.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
The first patent for the hydrocyclone was issued in 1891 to E. Bretney. The Bretney
cyclone was designed with a closed apex for intermittent discharge and was the
forerunner to present-day desanders that are used for separating sand from water in
pressurized water systems (New Technologies, 2010). Even though the basic design of
the hydrocyclone has not changed considerably from the originally patented design,
several patents have since been issued for modifications to the original design. Today,
the hydrocyclone is used in several applications across different industries. Richardson
et al. (2002) provide some of the applications of the hydrocyclone as used in industry
today:
a. Separation of particles (suspended in a liquid of lower density) by size or
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

density, or more generally, by terminal falling velocity;

The removal of suspended solids from a liquid;
Separation of immiscible liquids of different densities;
Dewatering of suspensions to give a more concentrated product;
Breaking down liquidliquid or gasliquid dispersions; and
The removal of dissolved gases from liquids.

The hydrocyclone, also known as hydroclone (McCabe et al., 1993) liquid cyclone or
hydraulic cyclone (Richardson et al., 2002), effects separation of components of the
feed through the use of centrifugal forces generated due to the swirl or rotation that the
feed is subjected to on entry into the hydrocyclone. Hydrocyclones are simple yet robust
devices with no moving parts, and over the years, they have become the standard
equipment for clarification and thickening of slurries; classification of solids; washing
of solids; removal of gases from liquids; and separation of immiscible liquids (Kuye et
al., 2005). Kuye et al. (2005) provide Svarovskys (1984) summary of the merits and
demerits of hydrocyclones. The merits offered by hydrocyclones include:
5

They are versatile

They are simple and cheap to buy, install and operate
They need only a little installation space
Great shear forces developed are beneficial in the dispersion of clustered
particles or in the handling of thixotropic liquids

Their demerits include:

They are not flexible

The resolution and power of separation is poor
They are usually subject to wear at high flow rates.

2.2 Description of a Hydrocyclone

There is a variety of geometrical designs of hydrocyclones that exist but the most
common is the form that is shown in figure 2.1, this is the fundamental configuration
around which modern hydrocyclones have evolved. Other configurations include an
entirely cylindrical shell; a conical shell with no cylindrical portion; and curved, as
opposed to straight sides to the tapered section (Richardson et al., 2002).

Figure 2.1: The hydrocyclone (Kuye et al., 2005)

As shown in figure 2.1, the typical hydrocyclone consists of a conically shaped vessel,
open at its apex, or underflow, joined to a cylindrical section, which has a tangential
feed inlet. The top of the cylindrical section is closed with a plate through which passes
an axially mounted overflow pipe. The pipe is extended into the body of the
hydrocyclone by a short, removable section known as the vortex finder, which prevents
short circuiting of feed directly into the overflow.
7

Figure 2.2 shows the nomenclature of the typical hydrocyclone as will be used in this
study. The diameter of the cylindrical section gives the cyclone diameter and is the
dimension which is referred to when specifying the size of the hydrocyclone. Within the
cylindrical section (or cylinder) are located the inlet orifice, overflow orifice and the
vortex finder. The underflow orifice is found within the conical section (or cone). The
cone is characterised in two ways: the cone length and the cone angle. Typical designs
find optimum performance with cone lengths 4-5 times the cylinder diameter (Kuye et
al., 2005). Generally, the longer the cone, the more efficient the hydrocyclone.

Figure 2.2: Hydrocyclone nomenclature

2.3 Basic Operation of a Hydrocyclone

The feed to the hydrocyclone is introduced under pressure through the tangential entry
which imparts a swirling motion to the feed, this generates a vortex in the hydrocyclone.
The vortex generated spirals down from the cylindrical section following the walls
8

towards the apex of the conical section, this vortex is referred to as the primary vortex
(see figure 2.1). As the primary vortex approaches the apex of the conical section, its
direction is reversed and it is directed upwards along the axis of the hydrocyclone
towards the cylindrical section and eventually through the vortex finder, this reversed
vortex which is smaller in radius and placed concentrically within the primary vortex is
referred to as the secondary vortex. Along the vertical axis of the hydrocyclone, a low
pressure zone around which the secondary vortex revolves leads to the development of
an air core created partly due to connection to the atmosphere through the apex opening
and partly due to dissolved air coming out of solution in the zone of low pressure.
A number of theories have been developed to describe the behaviour of particles in a
cyclone (Marot et al., n.d.), but the simplest theory is based on the concept of
equilibrium orbit (Richardson et al., 2002). According to this theory, as the particles in
the fluid move through the vortex generated within the hydrocyclone, they are subjected
to two major forces, centrifugal force (due to circular motion) and drag force (due to
fluid friction). The particles revolve around the axis of the hydrocyclone with a radius at
which the centrifugal force is exactly balanced by the fluid friction force on the
particles, this radius defines the equilibrium orbit. The result of this is that larger and/or
denser particles which experience relatively larger magnitudes of centrifugal force tend
to have a larger orbit than the smaller and/or less dense particles. If the equilibrium orbit
of a particle is larger than the diameter of the cyclone, it will be deposited on the walls
and will be subsequently drawn downwards to the bottom outlet under the effect of
gravitation and drag forces. As the particles decrease in size, their equilibrium orbit
reduces but the taper caused by the conical section provides the necessary reduction in
diameter of the hydrocyclone that facilitates greater deposition of particles on the walls.
Those particles whose equilibrium orbits are smaller than the narrowest part of the
9

hydrocyclone are carried along with the fluid and out of the hydrocyclone with the
overflow.

Figure 2.3: A close-up of forces acting on a particle in the primary vortex of a

hydrocyclone
The hydrocyclone may be operated vertically or with their axes inclined at any angle,
even horizontally because the flow patterns are only slightly influenced by gravitational
forces. Although the removal of the underflow is facilitated when the axis of the
hydrocyclone is vertical (Richardson et al., 2002).

10

Plate I: Hydrocyclone used to clean coal (Cyclones/Hydrocyclones, n.d.)

Hydrocyclones can be made of metal (mostly steel), ceramic or plastic (such as
polyurethane, polypropylene, or other types). Metal or ceramic hydrocyclones are used
for situations requiring more strength, or durability in terms of heat or pressure. When
there is an occurrence of much abrasion (such as occurs with sand particles)
polyurethane performs better than metals or ceramics. Metal lined with polyurethane is
used in cases of combined abrasion and high pressure.

2.4 Basic Parameters for a Standard Cyclone

According to Kuye et al. (2005), a standard cyclone is defined as that cyclone which
has the proper geometrical relationship between the cyclone diameter, inlet area, vortex
finder, apex orifice, and sufficient length providing retention time to properly classify
particles. The basic parameters of interest for a standard hydrocyclone are:
a. The inside diameter, Dc of the cylindrical feed chamber. This is the major
parameter to which all other dimensions are usually related.

11

b. The area of the inlet nozzle at the point of entry into the feed chamber. This inlet
nozzle is normally a rectangular orifice with the larger dimension parallel to the
axis of the cyclone. The basic area of the inlet nozzle is approximately 0.05
times the square of the cyclone diameter.
c. The vortex finder, which has the primary function of controlling both the
separation and the flow leaving the cyclone. It should be sufficiently extended
below the feed entrance to prevent short-circuiting of the material directly into
the overflow. The size of the vortex finder equals 0.35 times the cyclone
diameter.
d. The Cylindrical Section: This is located between the feed chamber and the
conical section. It has the same diameter as the feed chamber and functions to
lengthen the cyclone and increase the retention time for the basic cyclone, the
length of the cylindrical portion is usually equal to 100% of Dc
e. Cone Section: The included angle of the cone section is normally between 20 o
and 10o and like the cylinder section, provides retention time. The termination of
the cone section is the apex orifice. The critical dimension is the inside diameter
at the discharge point. The size of the orifice is determined by the application
involved and must be large enough to permit the solids that have been classified
to underflow to exit the cyclone without plugging. The normal minimum orifice
size would be 10% of the cyclone diameter but can be as large as 35%.
Kuye et al. (2005) provide a summary of Bradleys (1965) and Rietemas (1961) works
on the most important hydrocyclone design guidelines. These include:

The feed inlet may be either rectangular or circular; the latter is simpler in
construction but the former, a rectangular inlet with its long side parallel to the

axis of the hydrocyclone, has been found to be most satisfactory.

The top of the feed entry should be flush with the roof of the cyclone in order to
eliminate a dead space which would cause short-circuiting of the feed.
12

The optimum diameter (or equivalent diameter by area) of the inlet is D c/4 or

Dc/7 for separation and Dc/7 for classification.

Long cyclones generally give higher capacities, with an optimum length of L/D c

= 5 for separation and L/ Dc = 2.5 for classification.

The included angle of the conical section is usually between 10 and 20 degrees.
The optimum inside diameter of the vortex finder is Dc/3 for separation and Dc/7

or Dc/5 for classification.

An increase in the length of the vortex finder improves the efficiency of removal

of the coarse particles but decreases the efficiency for the finer particles.
The sharpest classification is obtained for vortex finder length in the range 0.33 0.4Dc.

2.5 Hydrocyclone Purification of Kaolin

Kaolin is a soft, lightweight, often chalk-like sedimentary rock that has earthy odour
and is composed of 85-95% of the mineral kaolinite. Kaolin is chemically inert and
it is used in the formulation of many products in the cosmetic, pulp and paper, agro
allied, chalk, paints and pharmaceutical industries. The approximate chemical
formula of kaolin is Al4Si4O10(OH)8 and it has the median particle size range of
commercial products varying between 0.1-10microns (Gushit et al., 2010).
During the process of beneficiation of kaolin, it is necessary to remove particles of
relatively larger sizes such as fine sand and mica from the mined clay. The
hydrocyclone is used to achieve this separation. In a typical application, the
hydrocyclone separates all particle sizes greater than 53 m in the underflow from
kaolin clay slurry.

2.6 Design of Hydrocyclones

While the hydrocyclone is relatively simple to fabricate, a theoretical approach in its
design and performance prediction has not been fully successful. This is because of the

13

rather complex flow profile that occurs within the hydrocyclone along with some
phenomena affecting separation that have not yet been fully understood. As a result, the
approach by most authors in determining the performance of hydrocyclones has been
semi-empirical.
In the following sections, the design parameters of hydrocyclones will be discussed.
2.6.1

Cyclone efficiency

Cyclone efficiency is most commonly represented using a performance or partition

curve, a sample of this is shown in figure 2.3. This curve relates the weight fraction or
percentage, of each particle size in the feed which reports to the apex or underflow, to
the particle size.

Figure 2.4: Particle recovery curve

14

The term cut point or separation size (denoted as d50 size) of the cyclone is used to
describe that point on the partition curve for which 50% of particles in the feed of that
size report to the underflow, i.e. the size of particles that have an equal chance of going
either with the overflow or underflow.
The sharpness of the cut depends on the slope of the central section of the partition
curve; the closer to vertical the slope is, the higher is the efficiency. The slope of the
curve can be expressed by taking the points at which 75% and 25% of the feed particles
report to the underflow. These are the d75 and d25 sizes, respectively.
The efficiency of separation, or the so-called imperfection I, is then given by

d 75 d 25
2d 50

(2.1)

Many mathematical models of hydro-cyclones include the term corrected d 50 taken

from the corrected classification curve. During classification in a hydrocyclone, some
of the liquid is entrained in the underflow product, this entrained liquid usually contains
fines that would normally report to the overflow. The amount of fines entrained in the
liquid is directly proportional to the feed water entrained in the underflow. Thus, the
actual size distribution of particles obtained in the underflow is not due strictly to
centrifugal separation. The corrected classification curve is used to correct for the
liquid entrainment observed to provide the distribution of particles separated based
strictly on centrifugal separation in the hydrocyclone. The corrected recovery curve is
created using equation 2.2.
y

y Rf
1 Rf

(2.2)

15

Where

= the corrected mass fraction of a particular size reporting to underflow,

y = is the actual mass fraction of a particular size reporting to the underflow, and
Rf = the fraction of the feed liquid which is recovered in the coarse product
stream.
2.6.1.1 Prediction of hydrocyclone efficiency at low concentration
While the hydrocyclone is relatively simple to fabricate, the same cannot be said about
its design. This is because of the rather complex flow profile that occurs within the
hydrocyclone along with some phenomena affecting separation that have not yet been
fully understood. As a result, the approach by most authors in determining efficiency
has been semi-empirical. Firstly, the cut size is determined from existing theories and
equations and secondly the grade efficiency is deduced from available empirical
formulae in the form of G'(d/d50).
Prediction of cut size
For the prediction of cut size, there are two approaches, one based on the equilibrium
orbit theory and the other based on the residence time theory. The equilibrium orbit
theory considers an orbit at which a given particle size is in equilibrium between the
centrifugal force (due to the tangential velocity) and drag force (due to the radial,
inward velocity). Different particle sizes have different equilibrium orbit radii and it is
assumed that all particles outside the locus of zero vertical velocity (LZVV) will be
separated and all particles inside the LZVV will be carried away in the overflow. The
locus of zero vertical velocity (LZVV) is the region between the secondary and primary
vortices. The cut size d50 is that size which has an orbit which coincides with the locus

16

of zero vertical velocity. Kuye et al. (2005) give the relation (shown by equation 2.3)
derived by Bradley (1965) based on this theory.

d 50
1

5.254 x10 2
Dc
Re i ( / )

0.5

Where Dc = cyclone diameter

i= Reynolds number at inlet of cyclone
=s
s = Density of solids
s = Density of liquid
The other approach, the 'residence time' theory, considers the time taken by a particle to
travel from the inlet to the cyclone wall. d50 is assumed to be the size of a particle
which, if injected precisely in the centre of the inlet, just succeeds in reaching the
cyclone wall at the apex. Kuye et al. (2005) give the Rietemas (1961) relation shown
by equation 2.4 based on this theory.

d 50
1

0.51
1.3748
Dc
Re
(

)
i

0.5

(2.4)

All parameters have the same definitions as given in equation 2.3

'
Prediction of corrected cut size d 50

Kuye et al. (2005) give Massaranis (1997) correlation for the prediction of corrected
'
(or reduced) cut size (d 50) :

17

d 50
Dc
K

Dc
Q( s )

0.5

F ( R f )G (V )
(2.5)

Where
F (R f )

1
1 1.73R f

(2.6)

G (V ) e 4.5V

(2.7)

and

Rf

D
B u
Dc

(2.8)

In the above equations (2.5 2.8),

Rf

The underflow- throughput- ratio

Volumetric flow rate

Liquid viscosity

The volumetric feed concentration

Du

Underflow diameter

and K, B and C are constants for a given cyclone design.

The parameters K, B and C for Bradleys and Rietemas optimum design are shown in
table 2.1.
Table 2.1: K, B and C constants for Bradleys and Rietemas conventional design (Kuye
et al., 2005)
Design

Eu

Bradley

0.016

54.6

2.61

7000

Rietema

0.039

145

4.75

1200

18

2.6.2

Grade Efficiency Curves

In hydrocyclones, grade efficiency is defined as the fraction by mass of particles

entering the underflow (Anon., n.d.). Grade efficiency curves provide a complete
description of the efficiency of a hydrocyclone. The grade efficiency of the
hydrocyclone may be computed using any of the three expressions given by Kuye et al.
(2005):

e x 1
e x e 2

(2.9)

x=d /d 50

where

= a constant that depends on the material of particle to be separated.

y 1 1 2.142 x 3.463 x 2 2.508 x 3 Exp(2.142 x)

where

x=d /d 50

y 1 Exp x 0.115

where
2.6.3

(2.10)

(2.11)

x=d /d 50

Design and Scale-up of Hydrocyclones at Low Feed Concentration

When it comes to the design of hydrocyclones, the best approach is to begin by

selecting a standard or known design of cyclone defined by a set of relative
geometrical proportions so that a meaningful scale-up can be carried out to obtain
reasonably reliable designs. Some guidance on the selection and many known designs
are summarized in table 2.2. After the design is selected, the problem is then reduced to
the selection of diameter and the number of cyclones to be used in parallel to meet the
19

requirements in terms of total flow rate and separation efficiency (or cut size). The
operating pressure drop also has to be specified.
At low solids feed concentrations of less than 1% by volume, the pattern in the cyclone
is not affected by the presence of particles in the flow and particle-particle interaction is
negligible. Equations 2.12 to 2.17 obtained from Kuye et al. (2005) can be used in
scale-up calculations at low solids concentrations.

Stk50 .Eu Const

Eu K p Re

(2.12)

np

(2.13)

(Kp and np are empirical constants), where the Reynolds number is defined as

Re

vDc

(2.14)

The Euler number is defined as

Eu

p
v 2 / 2

(2.15)

Stk50 is the Stokes number defined as

d 502 pv
Stk50
18Dc

(2.16)

v is the characteristic velocity calculated from cross-section of the cyclone body, i.e.

4Q
Dc2

(2.17)

20

and the other variables are cyclone diameter Dc, liquid viscosity , and density ,
density difference between the solids and the liquid and suspension flow rate Q.
Table 2.2: Summary of some known Hydrocyclone Designs (Kuye et al., 2005)
Cyclone type and DiDc
size of hydrocyclone

DoDc

l/Dc

L/Dc Angle , Stk50Eu Kp

degrees

np

Stk4/3 50Eu

Rietema's
(optimum
separation),

0.34

0.4

design 0.28

0.0611

24.3
8

0.374
8

2.610-3

0.1111

446.
5

0.323

2.7610-3

0.1203

6381 0

3.2010-3

0.1508

4451 0

4.8810-3

0.2182

3441 0

8.7010-3

15

0.1079

2.61
8

2.6610-3

6.24 15

0.1642

2458 0

20

Dc = 0.075 m
Bradley's design,

0.133

0.20

0.33 6.85 9

Dc = 0.038m

(1/7.5)

(1/5)

(1/3)

Mozley cyclone,

0.154

0.214 0.57 7.43 6

Dc - 0.022m

(1/6.5) (3/14) (4/7)

Mozley cyclone,

0.160

0.25

0.57 7.71 6

Dc = 0.044m

(1/6.25
)

(1/4)

(4/7)

Mozley cyclone,

0.197

0.32

0.57 7.71 6

Dc = 0.044m

(1/5)

(1/3)

4/7)

Warman 3" Model 0.29

R, Dc = 0.076m
(1/3.5)

0.20

0.31 4.0

RW 2515 (AKW),

0.20

0.32

Dc = 0.125

(1/5)

(1/3)

(1/5)
0.8

0.8

7.1410-3

Note: Di = Feed inlet diameter, Do = Vortex diameter, Dc = cyclone diameter, l = vortex

finder length, L = cyclone length.
2.6.4

Design of hydrocyclones at high feed concentration

As the feed concentration of solids increases, particle-particle interaction become

significant and this affects the performance of hydrocyclone. Generally, separation
efficiency tends to drop with increase in feed concentration of solids.
One of the equations that can be used (but not directly applicable to industrial scale
cyclones) is given by equation 2.18:
21

13.7 Do Di

d 50

0.68

Q 0.53 s L

0.5

(2.37)

Where d50 is the cut-point (m), Do is the overflow diameter (cm), Di is the inlet
diameter (cm), Q is the total flow rate (m 3 h-1), S is the specific gravity of solids, and L
is the specific gravity of liquid.
Equation 2.19 is more applicable to large diameter cyclones:

d 50( c )

14.8D D D exp( 0.063V )

D h Q ( )
0.46 0.6 1.21
c
i
0
0.71 0.38 0.45
u
S

0.5

(2.19)

where d50(c) is corrected d50 (m): Dc, Di, Do, Du are inside diameters of hydrocyclone,
inlet, vortex finder and apex, respectively (cm); V is the volumetric percentage of solids
in feed; h is the distance from the bottom of the vortex finder to the top of the underflow
orifice (cm); Q is the flow rate of the feed slurry (m 3h-1); and S, L are the density of
solids, density of liquid, respectively(g/cm-3)
The equation for the volumetric flowrate of slurry to the cyclone is

0.021P

Dc0.21Di0.53 ( Du2 Do2 ) 0.49

exp( 0.031V )

0.56

(2.20)

where P is the pressure drop across the cyclone in kPa.

For preliminary design purposes, equation 2.21 has been developed. It relates d 50 to the
operating variables for "typical" cyclones, of varying inside diameter. A "typical"
cyclone has an inlet area of about 7% of the cross-sectional area of the feed chamber, a
vortex finder of diameter 35-40% of the cyclone diameter, and an apex diameter
normally not less than 25% of the vortex-finder diameter.
22

d 50( c )

0.77 D

1.875
c

exp( 0.301 0.0945V 0.00356V 2 0.0000684V 3 )

Q 0.6 ( S 1) 0.5

(2.21)

The maximum volume of slurry that the cyclone can handle is given by:
Q 9.4 10 3 P Dc2

(2.22)

The effect of high solids concentration in the feed is given by equation 2.23

StK 50 (r ) k1 (1 R f ) exp( k 2V )

(2.23)

where StK50( r) includes the previously described reduced cut size. Kuye et al. (2005)
report that the correlation has been proven to hold well above 8 vol. %, and the values
of the constants k1 and k2 were found to be (9.05 10 -5) and 6.461, respectively, for
limestone and an AKW (Amber Kaolinwerke Gmbh, Hirschau, Germany) hydrocyclone
of 125mm in diameter.
Equations 2.24 to 2.26 hold for concentrations up to 10 vol. %:
StK50 (r ) Eu 0.047[in ( 1

Eu 71(Re) 0.116 (

R f 1218(

Du

Dc

Di

Dc

Rf

)]0.74 exp( 8.96V )

(2.24)

) 1.3 exp( 2.12V )

(2.25)

) 4.75 ( Eu ) 0.30
(2.26)

where V is the volumetric percentage of solids in feed; Di, Dc , and Du are the inlet, body
and underflow diameters of the hydrocyclone, respectively.

23

For concentrations higher than 10-vol. %, many slurries exhibit non-Newtonian

behaviour and the Reynolds and Stokes numbers can be rewritten to consider such
behaviour as shown in equations 2.27 to 2.29.
StK *50 (r ) Eu 0.006[in ( 1

Rf

)] 2.37 exp( 6.84V )

(2.27)

Eu 1686(Re) 0.035 exp( 3.39V )

R f 32.8(

Du

Dc

(2.28)

)1.53 (Re *) 0.34 exp( 3.70V )

(2.29)

where StK*50( r) and Re* are the generalized Stokes and Reynolds numbers, meaning
that they include the parameters of characterization of non-Newtonian suspensions, that
is, the fluid consistency index, K and the flow behaviour index, n, instead of the
medium viscosity. The term generalized is used to imply that, for Newtonian
suspensions, the Stokes and Reynolds numbers above would reduce to the common
forms found in the literature.
2.6.5

Empirical design

The design of a hydrocyclone to determine the number of units needed is based on the
system flow rate. Where a single unit is not available or feasible, several small-capacity
cyclones may be setup to run in parallel to meet the required flow rate.
Usually a cyclone is chosen based on recovery of a particle at a specific size and
performance definitions. The point usually used for this is the d 50 point, and is the basis
of sizing factors. From the d50 point, the recovery of all particle sizes can be determined,
and a recovery curve can be constructed.

24

The determination of the d50 point and subsequent recovery curve is based first on a base
diameter (d50b), which is the cyclone diameter at a set of standard conditions. The d 50b is
the particle with a 50% chance of capture based only on cyclone diameter. The actual
d50 corrects the d50b for cyclone geometry and fluid properties.
2.6.5.1 Base condition for standard hydrocyclone performance
In determining the proper size and the number of cyclones required for a given
application, it is necessary to establish a base-line condition as follows:

Feed Liquid water at 20oC

Feed Solids spherical particles of sp. gr. = 2.65

Feed Concentration less than 1% solids by volume

Pressure drop 69kPa (10 psi)

Cyclone geometry standard cyclone

2.6.5.2 Design equations

The relationship of the cyclone diameter to the d50b can be determined by equation 2.30:

d 50b 5.27 D 0.66

(2.30)

where D is the cyclone diameter in inches.

In SI units, Equation 2.30 becomes

d 50 b 2.84 D 0.66 , D is in cm.

(2.31)

Equation 2.31 shows that as the cyclone diameter increases, the base d 50b also increases.
This relationship is shown in Fig 2.5
25

Figure 2.5: Cyclone diameter vs. d50 (for typical cyclone) (Kuye et al., 2005)
2.6.5.3 Correction factors
The correction factors are used to correct the standard base diameter d 50b, which is based
on feed liquid water at base conditions. This base d50b is adjusted by the use of
correction factors for the process variables.

d 50 d 50 b C1C 2 C3 ...etc

(2.32)

where
C1

Correction factor for feed solids concentration

C2

Correction factor for solids specific gravity

C3

Correction factor for pressure drop across cyclone

C1, C2, and C3 are the three major correction factors that affect the performance and
sizing of hydrocyclones.
The constants are defined by equations 2.33 to 2.35 below.
53 V
C1

53

1.43

(2.33)
26

where V is the percent solid by volume of the cyclone feed.

1.65

C 2
GS GL

1.43

(2.34)

where
GS

Solids specific gravity

GL

Liquid specific gravity

C3 1.91P 0.28

(2.35)

where P is the pressure drop in psi (pounds per square inch).

2.7 Computer Aided Design of Hydrocyclones

Because of the numerous advantages that the hydrocyclone presents, it is becoming
more and more attractive to used in new application areas. With this in mind, it becomes
evident that the use of computers to reliably design and predict the effect of geometry
changes and system parameters on cyclones can provide great value to the designer and
user of cyclones. There are currently two types of computer design packages that
achieve in part this requirement:
The first type are those established on empirical rules for specific materials handling,
for example the geometry independent computer design program. Although they may be
adequate for many conventional cyclone applications, this type of package do not cater
for unusual cyclone geometries or processes. Essentially they are used to predict an
initial design, which then undergo operational trials to confirm effectiveness.
The second type uses a computational fluid dynamics package. Computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) has been used to model gas and liquid cyclones with varying
complexity (Slack et al., 2003). Even though the cyclone is simple in design, it presents
27

a challenging flow problem that is only partially understood. The use of CFD in this
respect has been the realm of the research analyst more than the plant or design
engineer.
2.7.1

Computer aided process equipment design (CAPED) design software

The hydrocyclone design software developed by the CAPED team put together by
RMRDC implements empirical and semi-empirical rules to design and evaluate the
performance of hydrocyclones. The semi-empirical and empirical relations, some of
which have been presented in this literature, were obtained mainly from past works in
the field of hydrocyclone design.
Given the cyclone geometry and the operating conditions (operating temperature,
operating pressure, feed density, and viscosities), there are 4 design parameters that can
be specified for a design using the software, namely:
1. Feed Rate, Q, in m3/h
2. Cyclone Diameter, Dc, in cm
3. Set Cut Size, d50, in microns
4. Pressure Drop, P in kPa

Depending on the problem and available information, the program provides for 6
possible combinations of these design parameters (see Table 2.3).
Table 2.3: Possible design parameters combinations (Kuye et al., 2005)
S/

Values

to

derive

Design Parameters
N
1

from parameters
Feed Rate (Q) and Pressure Drop (P)

Dc and d50
28

S/

Values

to

derive

Design Parameters
N

from parameters

Feed Rate (Q) and Cyclone Diameter (Dc)

P and d50

Pressure Drop (P) and Cyclone Diameter (Dc)

d50 and Q

Cut Size (d50) and Feed Rate (Q)

Dc,

and

Ncyclones
5

Cut Size (d50)and Pressure Drop (P)

Dc and Q

Cut Size (d50)and Pressure Drop (P) and Feed Rate (Q)

Dc, Q and Ncyclones

Ncyclones = number of cyclones required for duty

2.7.1.1 Computational Algorithm
1. Select Unit Operation: i.e. Select Cyclone>Hydrocyclone
2. Select Hydrocyclone Geometry
3. Select d50 model
4. Input solids density
5. Input liquid density
6. Input Feed pulp density OR Weight % Solids in Feed OR Volumetric % Solids in
Feed
7. Input liquid viscosity
8. Input feed pulp viscosity
9. Input Maximum Particle Size, if available
10. Input Minimum Particle Size, if available
11. Select Particle Distribution Type

29

a. Enter the mean and standard deviation, if Normal Distribution assumed

b. Enter maximum particle diameter, if even distribution is assumed
c. Enter particle distribution data, if measured data is available
12. Select Efficiency Model
13. Select the combination of the design parameters available from
a. Feed Rate, Q
b. Cyclone Diameter, Dc
c. Set Cut Size, d50
d. Pressure Drop, P
Table 2.4: Design parameters consideration
Design Parameters Combinations
Feed Rate (Q) and Pressure Drop (P)
Feed Rate (Q) and Cyclone Diameter (Dc)
Pressure Drop (P) and Cyclone Diameter (Dc)
Cut Size (d50) and Feed Rate (Q)
Cut Size (d50)and Pressure Drop (P)
Cut Size (d50)and Pressure Drop (P) and Feed Rate (Q)

14. Enter the design parameters based on selection made in 14. This computes the
cyclone dimensions and the other design parameters not in the combination
a.

Click Compute Design

b. Compute %Solids by wt. in feed
c. Compute %Solids by vol. in feed
d. Compute Underflow to throughput ratio (water)
e. Compute Dilution Ratio of feed
30

f. Compute Water flow rate in feed

g. Compute Solids flow rate in feed
h. Generate Reduced Efficiency Curve
i. Compute Overall Efficiency
j. Compute Reduced Overall Efficiency
k. Compute Imperfection
l. Compute Underflow Density
m. Compute Overflow Density
n. Compute Overall Mass Balance
o. Compute Overall Water Balance
p. Compute Overall Solids Balance
q. Check Mass Balance
r. Display Reduced efficiency curve when prompted.
15. Display Outputs.
16. Print results to a file for future reference
2.7.1.2 Screenshots of the program
Some screenshots of the program from Kuye et al. (2005) are given in figs. 2.6 to 2.10.

31

Figure 2.6: Main interface

Figure 2.7: Hydrocyclone module interface

32

Figure 2.8: Hydrocyclone design

Figure 2.9: Particle Distribution

33

Figure 2.10: Particle Distribution plot

Figure 2.11: Typical Design Output

34

Figure 2.12: Efficiency plot interface

35

CHAPTER 3: EQUIPMENT, MATERIALS AND

PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
3.1 Equipment and Materials
The materials that will required to carry out this project work include:

Computer
Netbeans IDE 8.0.2 software
Java Development Kit 8 software
CAPED Design Software
Kaolin clay
Hydrocyclone rig
Particle size distribution (PSD) analyser

3.2 Proposed Methodology

The process flow diagram of the major tasks to be accomplished in this project work is
shown in figure 3.1.

36

Re-develop software using

Netbeans IDE

Use software to predict

performance of an existing
hydrocyclone

Run an experiment using

the existing hydrocyclone
to determine its actual
performance

Compare the predicted

and existing performances
obtained
Figure 3.13: Process flow diagram of the project work
The re-development process is better envisioned as a migration. The methodology that
will be implemented in the migration process will be incremental. The modular
architecture or Netbeans IDE will allow for the old program to be broken into modules
and for each module, implementation of the following steps will allow for the
realisation of the overall migration objective:
1. Setting scope: In this step, all the features or functions of the old software that
must, could and need not be included in the new version are identified.
2. Gathering requirements: In this step, the functional (what the system should do)
and technical (how the system should do it) requirements are determined.
3. Analysis: The purpose of this step in the migration is to provide rigorous
understanding of the requirements and problems that will be encountered during
the migration.
37

4. Design: This step solves the problems identified in the analysis phase.
5. Construction: The purpose of this step is to implement the new application on
the target platform; that is the actual process of building the software.
6. Testing: This step will verifies the new application on the target platform.
7. Deployment: The purpose of this step is to put the new application into a
runtime environment for testing or use.
8. Maintenance: The purpose of this step is to get back to the business of enhancing
and evolving the system and demonstrating that the new platform boosts
productivity.

38

REFERENCES
Anonymous

(n.d.)

Centrifugal

separation.

Retrieved

from:

http://www.particles.org.uk/particle_technology_book/chapter_8.pdf
Bloodworth, A. J., Highley D. E., (1993) Industrial Minerals Laboratory Manual:
Kaolin

(BGS

Technical

Report

WG/93/1)

Retrieved

from:

https://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/international/dfid-kar/WG93001_col.pdf
Cyclones/Hydrocyclones (n.d.) ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
EQUIPMENT.

Retrieved:

July

6,

2015

from:

http://encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/Pages/SeparationsMechanical/Cyclone
sHydroCyclones/CyclonesHydroCyclones.html
Great Migrations LLC (2007) Comparing Migration Methodologies. Retrieved from:
http://www.greatmigrations.com/pubs/Comparing%20Migration
%20Methodologies.pdf
Gushit, J. S., Olotu, P. N., Maikudi, S. and Gyang J. D. (2010). OVERVIEW OF THE
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Hydrocyclone (2014). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved: March 12, 2015
from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocyclone
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Ismail, I. I., Ayoola, M. O., Hamilton, C., Okereke, A. I., Ejuya, I. O and
Mansur, U. M (2005) Computer Aided Process Equipment Design (CAPED)
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(Final Technical Report on the Design of HydroCyclone). Abuja: Raw Materials

Research and Development Council
Marot, F., Ringeling, R. H. P. and Thomas, A. G. (n.d.). Application of the hydrocyclone
in soil washing. Available at: http://www.ta.tudelft.nl
McCabe, Warren L., Smith, Julian C. and Harriott, Peter (1993). Unit Operations of
Chemical Engineering, 5th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill
New Technologies (2010). HISTORY OF HYDROCYCLONES DEVELOPMENT.
Retrieved:

July

1,

2015

from:

http://newtech.dp.ua/articles/eng/hydrocyclone_history_eng.html
Richardson, J. F., Harker, J. H. and Backhurst, J. R. (2002). CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING, VOLUME 2, FIFTH EDITION. Particle Technology and
Separation Processes. London: Butterworth Heinemann
Slack, M. D., Del Porte, S. and Engelman, M. S. (2003) Design Automated
Computational Fluid Dynamics Modelling Tools for Hydrocyclone Design.
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40