1- ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

Page 1

1.1 Electric Charge

Of almost more than 100 fundamental particles of matter, three most important are electron,
3l
proton and neutron. Their masses are m
9.1 10
kg, m p -u mn
1.6 1027 kg
respectively.

Gravitational force of attraction between two electrons 1 em apart is 5.5

24
electrical force of repulsion due to electric charge on them is 2.3 10.

~N,

stronger.

hi

ereas

is much

Electric charge can be positive or negative. Traditionally, c h a r g e

is considered
positive and that of electron negative although reverse sign co enti
would have made
no difference.
Like charges repel each other and unlike charges
charges.

altr0ct~cope

rti'

is used to detect

weakl~ou

Electrons revolving around the nucleus are

which protons are bound inside the nucleus.
two bodies, electrons get transferred from one
Sl unit of charge is coulomb denoted
any cross-section of a conductor
electron or a proton is 1.6 10

19

e charge passing in 1 second through

mpere current. Magnitude of charge on an

Electric charge, like mass, is

The magnitudes of
charge 1 Q ne ). T ,.,;-11!11
is the charge of

~~

as compared to the force with

g exchange of electrons between
e other.

property which is difficult to define.

in nature are in integral multiple of a fundamental

as the quantization of charges. This fundamental charge
denoted by e.

possess charge having magnitude e. For example, a proton

electron J possess positive charge I +e ). Atorn as a whole is
there are equal number of protons and electrons in it. This fact has
accuracy of 1 in 10 20 .
able to satisfactorily explain the quantization of charges so far.
neutrons are believed to be made up of more fundamental particles called
Quarks are of two types; 'up quark' possessing +( 2/3 )e charge and 'down quark'
:sses:sing ( 1/3 )e charge. The independent existence of quarks is not detected so tar.

1.3 Conservation of Electric Charge

Irrespective of any process taking place, the algebraic sum of electric charges in an
electrically isolated system always remains constant. This statement is called the law of
conservation of charge.
In an electrically isolated system, a charge can neither enter nor leave it. Any charge-less
matter or radiation can enter or leave the system. r ray photon entering the system may

1 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

produc~>

th~>

an ~>lectron-positron pair which as a whole being

original charge of th~> syst~>m.

el~>ctrically n~>utral

Page 2
does not

alt~>r

1.4 Charging bv Induction

If two identical spher~>s, one carrying ~>lectric charge Q and the other no charge
In contact and separated, each will possess ~>qual charge Q /2 after separ
uncharged sphere gets charg~>d. Anoth~>r m~>thod of charging a substanc~>
under.

Fig. 1
fig. 1
fig. 2

fig. 3
fig. 4
fig. 5

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

r ~

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

shows a sphere with zero charge.

~~
shows a plastic rod rubbed with fur wh
ires negative charge brought close to
the sphere. This repels free electro~ h sphere to a part away from the rod
leaving part of the sphere closer to
ro
sltiv~>ly charged.
shows the ~>lectrons on the sphe
cted to the earth by earthing the sphere.
shows that the positive charg st
e ined by the sphere even on removal of the
earthing.
shows electrons redistribute
sphere so that the positive charge is spr~>ad all
over the surface of the~

This shows that a body~a

b c
charged substancela.This

1.5 Coulomb's

rged without bringing in physical contact with anoth~>r

is called Induction of electric charge.

~bian

force, f ) between two stationary point charges ( q1 and q2)

the product of the charges ( Q1Q2) and Inversely proportional to the
2
-.ac;e ( r ) between them: This statement is known as Coulomb's law.
"pnat~to

= _1_q1q2
=

N, q1 and q 2 are In C, r Is in m and k

9 x 109 Nm 2C ' 2 in vacuum Is the
12
2 1 2
constant. to
8.9 " 10
C N m
is the ~>lectrical permittivity In vacuum.

If the charg~>s are in medium oth~>r than vacuum, then th~> electrical p~>rmlttlvity of the
medium, , should be used in th~> above equation in place of to . Th~> ratio f So Is called
relative permittivity, e,, of that m~>dium. The Coulomb's law tor any medium Is writt~>n as

= _1_q1q2
41t8 ,2 '

where

= So r

1 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

Page 3

Coulomb's Law In Vector Form

Let q1 and qi be two electrical like charges ( both positive or

...

...
...
'ij ,

both negative ) having position vectors r1 and 'i respectively

In a Cartesian co-ordinate system. The force,
charge q1 due to q1, directed from

F IJ

-2

I r1

'J

- ...
I- -I

qi to q1, Is given by

...rl -

- -'

qlqj

I r1

qlqJ

lr1

'i I

acting on

- ...

(r1 r.)
J
.... 3

r11

,, 'i

where

Is the unit vector In the

- ...
..
-. -- ...
r1

'J

Similarly, the force, FJI, acting on

....
Fll

qlqj

r 12

lr

'I rl

lr1

....

q1 to qi, Is given by

....

where

'J

....

from

Is

Note that F il

r I
1

Coulomblan force are acting on a charge, the resultant

acting on it Is equal to the vector sum of the individual forces."

- -

q1, q2 and q3 having position vectors

....
Then, F21

..

- ..

F2S

-. ,

I '2
k

...

13

.... ,a

I '2 r 3

,1

q3

( '2 '1 ) and

q2qs

.... ....

q2q1

....

q1

respectively. Let F21 and F23 be the forces

charge q2 due to charges q1 and q3 respectively.

....

( '2 r 3 )

and from the principle of superposition, the resultant force acting on charge q2 is

1 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

Page 4

and In short,

kqz

--

qJ

--"'----- ( r2
J=1 I - -r Is
I * 2 r2
J

In general, the force acting on

;I

kqJ

ql

r ,_
"'-J
f'>'a

( -:J -:.

j1....
3
l * I Ir 1 r 1

1.7 Continuous

Dist~butlon

r 'f.J

of Charges

~"\,A:

The continuous distribution of charges can be

( 1 ) Line Distribution, ( 2 ) Surface Dlstrlbutl~~vvolume Distribution
Line Distribution
Let

-=
r'

tli

urved line

A ( r' )

the

vector

dF

kql( .. )ldl'l ( ;

I; ;: 13
.....

- = J). (

total force F

r' )ldl'l

kq

Let

o ( r' )
d a'

...

X
)

..... ( r .. ,

1; ;Is
q

= surface charge density at a

vector,

point having position

r' , on any surface,

= area vector of a small area around that point as

shown In the figure,

1 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

On calculating the force acting on any charge q having position vector,

Page 5

r due to the

charge in the small surface element, da' , and Integrating over the entire surface we get total
force

-=

r'l

Volume Distribution

= volume

Let p ( r' I

charge density at a point having

position vector,
dV'

r , In any volume,

= small volume element of the entire volume

::sl:::ul::::,~h~/o::eac::ng
volume element,

t:: :::~:ar:e :&

dV', and Integrating ovJ.:.

volume we get total force

U:

"'"'

=
vlrr'l3

1.8 Electric Field

a.

The region around a

Larges In which the effect of electric charge Is prevailing Is
called the electric fie~at particular system of electric charges.

forc~lnon4a

" The
charge

unit positive charge at a given point In an electric field of a point

stem of charges Is called the electric field ( or the Intensity of electric

field......

point.''

~"11

F',q;l

j1

ql
-

Ir

-+

r 13

1-;. -;11

re, q1, q2, ..... , qN are the sources of the electric field .
The unit of electric field Intensity In Sl system Is N C

( or V m

Noteworthy points for an electric field

1 1 The electric charge used to measure electric field Intensity Is called a test charge.

2 1 If we know electric field Intensity at all the points In the electric field, there Is no need to
know the source charges or their locations In the field.

1 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

3)

Page 6

The test charge should be as small as possible to ensure that its presence makes no
change in the original field.

4 ) The direction of force experienced by a positive charge at any point is the direction of
electric field at that point.

physic~!
r

I>) Faraday first Introduced the concept of an electric field which is a

1.8

(a)

Electric Field due to

Point Charge

Taking the position of charge Q as origin, the electric force due to It

a distance r from It will be
~

charge q at

F' ..

kQq~
r2 Hence, electric field
Intensity due to charge
Q will

E .. : ..

:~m

The figure shows the electric

field due to point charges in
two dimensions. Actual field

t Q <0

~
~
..

..

! "'.

Q >0

pendic:ularly, centre of the sphere located at the

the charge is positive and inwards if the charge

decreases away from the charge as indicated

by

and opposite charges, separated by a finite distance, is called an

charges are q and -q and 2a is the distance between them, electric
of the dipole is

dipole moment Is a vector quantity and Its direction Is from the negative electric
to the positive electric charge. Its unit is coulomb-meter ( Cm ).
The total charge on an electric dipole Is zero, but Its electric field Is not zero, since the
position of the two opposite charges is different.

1.9 ( a l Electric Field of a Dipole

To find the electric fleld of a dipole, let origin of the co-ordinate system be at its mid-point.
Let the +q charge be on positive Z-axls and -q charge be on negative Z-axis and the
separation between them be 2a.

1- ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

The position vector of +q charge is r1 ( 0, 0, a ) and that of q charge Is

electric field due to this dlpore at any point having position vector r

...
E( r

= k

[(+q)(;".

having position vector, r

.a

-q

kq(4za I

<2J

But 2aq

..
p

2 2

= p,

E (z)

9 position vector, r

For

q(O,y,a

= ( 0, y, 0 ),

).! ]

(y2+a2)2

kq(2a)
3
(y2+ 212

k
..
___!_ p
y3

y (0, y, 0)

-+

= ( z2

The

Is given by

= ( 0, 0, z ),

----=------=-2
2
(z a )
(z + a)

= k

B ).

........ 13
I r r2

k[q (O,O,z a) q (O,O,z + a)]

I(z a) 13
I( z + a )1 3

E (z)

...

r2 ( 0, 0,

~I + ------"'-(q)(;". ~~]

........ 13
1 r r1

for a point z on z:axls

Page 7

(if y>>a)

(0, 0, - a)

1 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

Page 8

1.10 The Behaviour of an Electric Dipole In a Uniform Electric Field

An electric dipole

...

=q (2 a
6

E making an angle

with

y
) Is kept in a uniform electric field
it.

...

The origin of the co-ordinate

system, 0, Is at the centre of the dipole and

the positive Y -axis.

E is directed along

The resultant of qE and qE forces acting on +q and q charges

respectively being zero, the dipole is In translational equilibrium.
But as the two forces have different lines of action, the dipole
will experience a torque.
The torques acting on charge +q due to force qE and on~;.
-q due to force -qE respectively with respect to origin are

'(.I

-;
1

= -:

"i

and

= (:) x(q "i)

The total torque acting on the dipole is

-; = ;,
't

+;l

=(: q-;)
x E

-+

.C. V
9

E~q: -;

(in
pE sin 6 and Its direction is perpendicularly coming out

The magnitude of this

of the plane of tlgurt&...,.
The dipole
Itself
(about
angle
of the

ti..._O

torque till the angle 9 reduces to zero and the dipole aligns
the electric field. This is the equilibrium position of the dipole
ciliates in absence of damping ) and if It has to be rotated by some
work will have to be done equal to the change In potential energy

electric field, the intensity of the

different at different points, different
act on the two charges of the dipole. Hence
dipole experiences a linear displacement In
addition to rotation.

Let the electric field intensity be E at .q charge

and let it increase linearly In the X-direction. Let
the x-coordinate of -q charge be x. Then from the
figure, x-coordinate of +q charge is x + 2a cos 9.
Also the electric intensity near +q charge will be
dE
E + 2a cos 9. The electrical force acting on
dx

/_;o,r-q~
a
t dE (2a cos8)
8
dx
2

/
q

f
0

1- ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

--+

these charges will be -q E and

Page 9

--+

dE
+q(E + -2acos9 ).
dx
--+

....

dE
The net force on the dipole being q - 2a cos 9 , the dipole will have
dx
positive x direction in addition to rotation In the clockwise direction. The
when the dipole aligns in the direction of the field ( assuming damping is
translation will continue In the positive Xdirection.

in the
stop
the

clo~mall

When a dry comb charged by rubbing with dry hair Is brought

pieces of
paper, electric dipole is Induced in them in the direction of non'J'!'!'~tric field. This
exerts a net force on the pieces of paper which get attracted to t h Q

1.12 Electric Field Lines

Michael Faraday Introduced the concept of electric

An electric field line is a curve drawn in the electric
the curve at any point Is In the direction of electric

called them lines of force.

the tangent to

1.12
( 1)

(2

The tangent drawn at

electric intensity at that

field line indicates the direction of

then two tangents can be

is not possible.

PI

In the region of the electric field gives the

N +an arbitrary number 1 number of field lines

the surface of a sphere of radius R due to a
as shown in the figure. This is not the flux.
lines per unit area is proportional to
Intensity.

"
where, I} is the proportionality constant value of which can be determined from the
Initially assigned arbitrary number, N.
In the case of an electric dipole, the number of field lines originating from .. q charge
enter Into q charge as both the charges are of the same magnitude. Sut If one charge
Is q and the other is q, where q > q, then the number of electric field lines leaving
the charge +q will be

1 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

N "'

~q

so

Page 10

and the number of electric field

Jines entering -q' charge will be

N' "'

~q

&0

Thus out of N number of lines N' number of

lines enter the charge .q' and the remaining
lines become radial at large distances and
move to Infinity as shown In the figure.
The
electric field
lines
are
used
tor
geometrical representation of electric field
and are Imaginary. The electric field Is a reality.

( 4 I

The field lines of a uniform electric field

equidistant.

( 5)

The field lines of a stationary

tli.

area~rallel

and

orm close loops.

The adjoining figure shows electric field

dipole.

1.13 Electric Flux

field as shown in the figure. An infinitely small

If

can

LSOciated with jth element

be

--

Ej A a

with the entire surface Is

J E'rih

surface

"The total electric flux associated with any closed

electric charge enclosed by the surface to So.''

cp

....
= f -E da

surface Is equal to the ratio of the total

= -Iq
&0

( Note: to Is to be used If the medium In closed surface is vacuum or atmospheric air, else
the permittivity,

s,

of the medium has to be used.)

1 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

Page 11

The electric field E in the above equation Is the resultant electric field due to all charges
whether inside or outside the enclosed surface, but the summation of charges on the RHS of
the above equation is the algebraic sum of the charges enclosed by the surface.

1.15 Application of Gauss's Theorem

Electric Field due to
Let ).

ed Wire or Line Ch

= uniform

charge density along the length of

the conductor.

From symmetry, the magnitude of electric field at all

points like P over the curved surface of the cylinder
of radius r and length L, whose axis coincides with
the conductor, will be the same. The direction of the
field at all points on this surface and also at all
points on two ends of the cylinder Is radially
outwards if ). > 0.
Using Gauss's Law,

--

JE[]Ia=

of the cylinder will be zero as the field

E
ii
Let

Electric

Sheet of Char e

a
at a perpendicular distance r on either sides of the charged plane. By
Intensity at P and P' will have equal magnitude and opposite direction. If
plane is positivelnegatlve, the direction of the electric intensity will be
the plane. Consider a closed cylinder with equal lengths on either side of the
P to P', As the electric intensity Is perpendicular to the plane, the flux linked
curved surface of the cylinder Is zero. As the points P and P' are equidistant from
plane, the magnitude of electric intensity are the same.

and
EpA + EpA "' 2EA
Ep = Ep "' E
is the total flux coming out of the cross-sectional
area, A, of the cylinder. The closed cylindrical
surface encloses the charge q
GA.

--

Ep

Using Gauss's Law,

E []Ia = ~

'

2EA

and

+
+
+
.;.++ +
++

Ep

1 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

E

Page 12

28 0

The above equation shows that electric Intensity at any point Is independent of its distance
from the plane.
If two uniformly charged infinite plates,
having surface charge density Ch and th,
are kept parallel to each other, then the
magnitudes
and
directions
of
electric
intensity at points between and on either
sides of planes will be as shown in the
figure.

=.

If G t
o 2 o, then the electric intensity
between the plates will be G I eo and on
either sides of the two plates will be zero.

~
2Eo
02
2Eo

t-

t-

01. 02
2Eo

IIi

Shell

Let

of radius R.
~

/
(

r < R Is

Since the charge enclosed In a

zero, the electric intensity Is zero

--

'

oints outside the

-.

q
1
h:B0 ,2
i

Let

e total charge on the spherical shell. Thus for points outside the spherical shell,
charge of the spherical shell can be treated as concentrated at Its centre.

= uniform volume charge density on a

sphere of radius R.

( a I For points Inside the sphere:

Applying Gauss's Theorem to a sphere of radius r

p
4 lt,2 E( r ) = - - 3 8
41tr

E( r I

pr

380

:S

R,

E( R) ~

1 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

The direction of the field Is radially outwards if

> 0 and inwards if

Page 13
< 0.

I b I For points outside the sphere:

Applying Gauss's Theorem to a sphere of radius r, concentric with charged sphere of radius

R(r >R),
2
4 2tr E( r ) "

E(r)"

4'1:R

3
So
3
R p

3r28

~
"'

~,

where Q Is the charge on the sphere.

c;O

"O
"

4X8

-1
r2

(r>R)

'C.J

Thus, for points outside the sphere, the entire charge ~: sphere can be treated as
concentrated at its centre.

fl>CJ

;t.fli